Literary Sources

What are literary sources? What are the main literary sources for the study of Indian history?

Introduction
• The literature in the books which gives us important information about the past is called literary source.
• Indian literature is party sacred and partly secular.
• The Vedas, Upanishads, Smritis, Ramayana, Mahabharata and the Sangam literature throw light on the
political, social, economic and religious conditions of early India.

Sources

Religious Text - Vedas, Dharmashashtras, Puranas, Tripitaka, Agams (Jains), Quran.

Secular Texts - Autobiography, Plays, Dramas, Poems.

We can further divide the ancient literary sources in Brahmin Granth and non-Brahmin Granth.

Vedas, Brahmins, Aranyakas, Upanishads, Vedangs, Sutras, Mahakavya (Epics), Puranas, and Smriti texts are included
in the Brahmin text.

Whereas Jain literature and Buddhist literature are included in non-Brahmin texts.

Brahmin text

Vedas
1. Rigveda
2.
• It is one of the oldest text of ancient India. It’s compilation began around 1500 BCE and
evolved over centuries.
• It’s a Shruti means heard. It was not written but carry forwarded by memorising the
collection of mantras and hymns.
• The collection Vedic mantras and hymns are known as Samhita.
• It’s called “Apurusheya” which meaning not of human or author less. (It’s considered
the voice of gods given to Rishis).
• It has a collection of prayers offered to Agni, Indra Mitra, Varuna and other gods by
various families of poet or sedges.
• the Rigveda is many things in common with the Avesta, which is the oldest text in Irani
language that use the same terms for several gods and even for social classes.
• Two priest played a major role in rig vedic times, were Vashisht and Vishwamitra.
Vashisht was a conservative and Vishwamitra was a liberal. Vishwamitra composed of
Gayatri Mantra to widen the Aryan world. However, this was made the monopoly of
higher three varnas and priest did not permit woman and shudras to recite it.

2. Samaveda
• It gives information of tunes in which the Rigveda mantra can be pronounced.

3. Yajurveda
• It is a compilation of ritual offering formulas that were set by a priest while an
individual performed a ritual action such as those before Yajna fire.
 4. Atharveda
• it is also called Veda of magical formulas. Although this name is not approved by
scholars.
• it is a collection of 20 books containing hymns chants spells and prayers and involves
issues such as healing of illness, prolonging life, black magic and ritual for removing
misfortune and anxieties.
• Unlike the 3 Vedas, Atharva Veda is not as concerned with sacred rituals, but addresses
the daily problems of vedic people.

Every Veda has four parts

1. Samhita - mantras
2. Aranyakas - text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic sacrifices.
3. Brahmana - commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices.
4. Upanishads - texts discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge.

All the Vedas come under Shruti part which means heard and memorised and passed on over
the generations.

SMRITI
• It literally means that which is remembered Smriti are Hindu text usually attributed to
an author traditionally written down in contrast to Shruti.
• the authority of Smriti accepted by orthodox school is derived from that of Shruti on
which it is based.
• Smriti includes Vedangas, Itihasa (Mahabharata and Ramayana), Purana, Kavya,
Bhashya, sutras, Nibandhas etc.

1. Vedangas

Apart from this, there are six vedangs –

1. Shiksha (education)
2. Jyotish (astrology)
3. Kalpa
4. Vyakaran (grammar)
5. Nirukta
6. Chhand (verses)

2. Puranas

In general opinion of western scholars, Purana is belong to the latest production of Sanskrit
literature and came into existence during the last thousand years. However, this view is not
accepted today.

Purana is deal with five topics -

1. Sarga - Creation
2. Prati-Sarga - Recreation
3. Vamsha - The Puranas begin with those kings who relate their lineage to the Sun and
the Moon. It tracks lineage.
 4. Vanshacharitra - Charitra of different Vamsha. It had names of many contemporaries
dynasties of later Vedic period.
5. Manvantra - Avatars of gods.

The geography of ancient India can also be studied by taking the Puranas as the basis.

The number of Puranas is eighteen but not all are of equal importance. As far as the sources of
history are concerned:
• Vishnu Purana
• Vaayu Purana
• Matsya Purana
• Brahma Purana
• Bhavishya Purana is important only.

The names of the eighteen Puranas are as follows:

Brahma Purana Padma Purana
Vayu Purana Matsya Purana
Narada Purana Markandeya
Purana
Linga Purana Varaha Purana
Garuda Purana Brahmanda Purana
Bhavishya Purana Vamana Purana
Vishnu Purana Bhagavad Purana
Brahmavaivarta Skanda Purana
Purana
Agni Purana Kurma Purana

3. Dharmasastra

• dharma, shastras like the Smriti of Manu, Yagyavalkya, Vishnu, Bruhaspati, Narada etc
Also gives us a lot of information about the Hindu society.
• They lay down the rules according to which Hindus were required to conduct their life
punishments were provided for the breach of these rules.
• Many historians believe that this were composed around 200 BC and 200 AD. The other
Smriti must have been written after that period.

It’s lay down goal, duties, values and aims of human life-

ASHRAMS
• Most famous one is 4 Ashrams of human life that Brahmcharya, Grihasth, Vanaprasth,
Sanyas.

GOALS
 1. Dharma = These texts discuss dharma from various religious, social, duties, morals and
personal ethics perspective. Each of six major schools of Hinduism has its own
literature on dharma. Examples include Dharma-sutras (particularly by Gautama,
Apastamba, Baudhayana and Vāsiṣṭha) and Dharma-sastras (particularly Manusmṛti,
Yājñavalkya Smṛti, Nāradasmṛti and Viṣṇusmṛti). At the personal dharma level, this
includes many chapters of Yogasutras.
2. Artha = economic life, politics, laws. For example, the Arthashastra of Chanakya.
3. Kama = relates to arts, emotion love, erotic’s creation, ship and other sciences in pursuit
of pleasure. The best example or Kamasutra of Vātsyāyana.
4. Moksha = it relates to the process of liberation and freedom of soul. the best example
are Upanishads and sutras of yoga.

Non Brahmin Text

It includes Buddhist literature and Jain literature. Literary Sources of Ancient Indian History
belonging to Non-Brahmin literature are as follows:

Buddhist text
Canonical
The Tripitakais the most important in the Buddhist text. After Mahaparinirvana of Buddha,
his teachings have been compiled and divided into three parts, this is called Tripitaka.
1. Vinayapitaka (It explains the rules of the Union and the teachings of ethics) (rules
followed by monks and their sangh)
2. Sutpitaka (It contains religious doctrine or religious teachings)(for common people).
Jataka tales.
3. Abhidhammapitaka (philosophical principles are stated in it) (complex teaching for
monks and nuns for deep understanding)
The greatest feature of the Tripitakas is that they give a complete description of the
organization of Buddhist Sanghas.

Non canonical
1. Dipvamsa - Mostly compiled in srilanka gives Vamsha of dynasty.
2. Mahavansh.
3. Milinda Pancho- means question of Milind. This is the book of question between Greek
King Menander and Nagsen monk and conversion Menander.
4. Buddhcharita - Ashvaghosha wrote this book he was courtier in Kanishka court.
5. Divyavandana - talks about teaching and Patrons of Buddhist .

Jain text
Jain literature is primary divided between the canons of Digambara and Svetambara yeah
orders. This two sects do not always agree on which state should be considered authoritative.

Jain literature is called Agam or Siddhanta. The approach of Jain literature is also as religious
as Buddhist literature.

In Jain texts-
 • Parishistparvan
• Bhadrabahucharit
• Aavashyaksutra
• Acharangasutra
• Bhagvatisutra

Parishistparvan and Bhadrabahucharit provide details of early and later events in the life of
Chandragupta Maurya.

Acharangasutra gives details of the ethics and rules of Jain monks. An interesting account of
Mahavir’s life and his works are found in the Bhagavatisutra.

Many historical events are reported from these Jain texts. The early history of Jainism is
known from Kalpasutra, which was written by Bhadrabahu. Puranas also have an important
place in Jain literature, also known as Charit.

The Jain Puranas are believed to date from the sixth century to the 16th-17th centuries.

Foreign accounts
• Many travellers came to India as pilgrims, trader, settlers, soldiers and ambassadors.
And wrote their experiences, perspectives and image of India of that time.
• Foreign sources are particularly becomes important as it enables historian to know
what impression it made upon the minds of the observer regarding India and its native
culture, history Society and politics.
• In the case of India, the native sources of history, fails, partly or all together at some
point, the writings of the foreigner contributes a great value of information read helps
us to corroborate with other sources of history.

Sources
1. Herodotus
• Ancient Greek writer from 5th century BC commonly known as “The Father of History”.
• Before him history was written as events and facts with giving no explanations and
accepted as will of gods.
• Herodotus revolutionlizeh history by taking a new approach in which he observed the
events from both the sides to get more deeper and rational understanding of such
events.
• He started writing about Persian War on Greece of 5th Bc. Battle of Thermopylae
among the most famous where 300 spartan fought against million army of Xerxes the
Persian rulers though 300 lost by their heroic attempt inspired the whole Greece to
fought against Persian and win the war later.
• In his writings, he gives information about Indo Persian relations In this, he mentions
Northern India was a part of empire of Darius.

2. Ctesias
• He was a physician and historian from Greece in fifth century, BC.
• He wrote a book called in “ Indica” .
• The book is based on the stories brought by Persian traders of Silk Road who travelled
China and India.
• This book contains the first known reference to the unicorn existed in India, and
introduces european’s to the talking parrot and falconry yeah, which is not yet
practised in Europe.
• This book says India is heavily populated more than the rest of the world combined,
Indian dogs with the size of lions, tiny breed of monkeys, palm and date trees three
times the size of those in Babylon.
• Indian elephants or first described generations before Alexander the great face them
while conquering the part of India.

3. Megasthenese
• He was in the courtier in the court of Greek Ruler Seleucus Nicator.
• Seleucus Nicator Vasu successor of Alexander the great.
• Seleucid - Mauryan war, (305-303 BCE), Chandragupta Maurya won this war and signed
a treaty with Nicator.
• Seleucus Nicator married his daughter with Chandragupta Maurya and in return
Chandragupt, gave him 500 elephants.
• Megasthenes was sent to India as a diplomat. During his time in India he wrote a book
Indika.
• In indika he wrote about the good governance of Chandragupta Maurya.
• He describes Pataliputra as the greatest city in the world, which was 15 km wide and 3
km in length surrounded by a Canal, which was 45 m, deep 900 feet long with wooden
wall having 64 gates and more than 500 towers.
• He categorises Indian society into seven categories, Brahmins, ministers, businessman,
herdsman, soldiers, farmer,artisans and spy’s.
• He describes that Mauryan have their own navy ready to fight in oceans.
• Indika had lost over the time, but many ancient writers like Arrian, Strabo, Pliny quote
Indika while describing India.
• Indika is considered one of the most important and principal source of information
about India to the subsequent writers and historians, because for the first time it gave
legitimate description of India to the rest of the world.
• For this, Megasthenes is also called as father of Indian history.

4. Ptolemy
• Claudius Ptolemy was a greek of 2nd century CE Egyptian, mathematician, astronomer,
astrologer, geographer and writer,Alexandria in the Roman province of Egypt during
second century. His most famous for geocentric model means earth centred universe.
• Ptolemy for the first time described that universe can be explained by mathematical
terms. Ptolemy tables were so effective at projecting position in the night sky that they
were used to prepare astronomical astrological charts over 1500 years.
• He wrote book Geographia in which he records longitudes and latitudes in degrees for
around 1000 locations and makes a world map.
• He claims the real shape of India is the sharp angle made by Peninsula two coastline
meeting in a single coastline running virtually straight from the mouth of the Indus to
the mouth of the Ganga.

Chinese travellers

1. Fa Hien
• He was a Chinese Buddhist monk of 4th AD.
• At the age of 60 he started his journey on foot to acquire the Buddhist text Vinayapatika
which focuses on the rules of living for the monks.
• He travelled monasteries to monasteries in search of Buddhist text.
• After four years, he reaches Mathura He describes Mathura as the land of peacocks and
rich pleasant people as Teetotalers and vegetarians.
• Then after year, he reaches Pataliputra he describes the city as Majestic that it can only
be created by gods.
• He describes Ashoka Palace for its massive pillared hall having 80 pillars.
• He finds Vinay Pitika in Pataliputra, which was written in Sanskrit, he stays in Vihar for
three years learning, Sanskrit and translating Vinaypatika in Chinese.
• He also mentions Banaras Shravasti Kushinagar, Odiyana and taxila as a major
educational and Buddhist Centre.
• His memoir mentions the Hinayana emerging Mahayana tradition, as well as the
splintering dissenting Hinayana tradition in the fifth century Indian Buddhism.
• He mentions Kanishka who would construct magnificent stupas.
• He describes Gupta ruler as a liberal and people enjoyed economic success, and that the
tax load on them was not excessive. Punishment for crimes was mostly fines and
corporal punishment and death sentence was avoided.
• Hospitals were created with intention of providing free medication to the
impoverished.
• According to his records, people showed tolerance in religious affairs. Buddhism was
prevalent in Punjab, Bengal, Mathura and Hindu faith was prevalent in Madhya Bharat.

2. Hiuen Tsang
• his family had a long tradition of academy talent, and he was the youngest of four
children.
• He travelled to India in 629 CE to investigate religious sources. He crossed central Asia
on foot and arrived in India where he studied at the famous Nalanda monastery.
• His famous book “Si-Yu-Ki” which means travel to the west.
• He records various Buddhist Temple and relics Ye notably Nava vihara In Afghanistan
where he discovered 3000 non-Mahayana monks including prajnakara. He found over
100 monasteries and 6000 monks the majority of them were Mahayana Monks.
• He discovers 100 monasteries and 5000 monks in Kashmir.
• He spent five years studying in Nalanda University. He studied logic, grammar, Sanskrit
etc.
• He reaches magnificent capital of northern India Kannauj which was ruled by Harsha
Vardhan who requested Hiuen Tsang to attend a large Buddhist assembly. Where he
sees that the gathering was attended by neighbouring Kings, Buddhist monks
Brahmanas and Jains.
• Hiuen Tsang was also summoned by King Harsha to attend Kumbh Mela in Prayag,
where he witnessed king, giving extravagant gifts to the poor.

3. It-Sing
• In his fourteenth year (648 AD) he was admitted to the Buddhist Order.
• He was inspired by Fahien and Huan Tsang and wanted to travel India. I-tsing left for India
from Canton by sea in 671, arriving in India in 673.
• After visiting the sacred Buddhist sites in Magadha, he resided at the great Nalanda monastery
for ten years (676-685), devoting himself to the study of the Vinya.
• He left India in 685 for the city of Shri Bhoja (or Sri Boja, known as Shri Vijaya, ie Palembang in
Sumatra), which at that time was very much under the cultural influence of India. Here he
devoted himself to the translation of Buddhist Sanskrit texts.
• The Account of Buddhism sent from the South Seasand Buddhist Monk's Pilgrimage of the Tang
Dynasty are two of Yijing's best travel diaries, describing his adventurous journey to Srivijaya
and India, reporting on the society of India, the lifestyles of various local peoples, and more.
• In the great majority of areas in India, Yijing writes that there were followers of both "vehicles"
(Skt. Yana), with some Buddhists practicing according to the "Hinayana" and others practicing
according to the Mahayana.[4] However, he describes Northern India and most of the islands of
the South Seas (i.e. Sumatra, Java, etc.) as principally "Hīnayāna." In contrast, the Buddhists in
China and Malayu are described as principally following the Mahāyāna.

Arab Travellers

Alberuni
• He visited India in the time of Mahmud of Ghazni AD 1017, and wrote a book called “ Tehqiq-I-
Hind. He himself studied Sanskrit language and derived his information from Sanskrit text.
• Some scholars have mentioned him as ‘first Anthropologist’ for Alberuni’s keen observation on
Indian society and the cultural ethos of the time.
• Alberuni is considered the founder of Indology. He was an impartial writer on the customs and
creeds of different nations and most of his work is in Arabic. He was a polymath and a man of
encyclopedic learning. In addition to Arabic, Alberuni was conversant with Turkish, Persian,
Sanskrit, Hebrew, and Syriac (Armenian). He was a expert in theology, grammar, mathematics,
astronomy, medicine, philosophy and most other sciences.
• He was a Shi’ite Muslim, but with agnostic tendencies. His poetical works seek to combine
Greek wisdom and Islamic thought. Though he wrote Vedas, Puranas, Patanjali and scientific
text of Nagarjuna, Aryabhata and other Indian mythology. Alberuni unreservedly praised In-
dian philosophy. He was particularly impressed by the Upanishads and the Bhagavad-Gita.
• He writes Hindus suffer from some defects such as they desire to live in isolation from other
countries. They considered the foreigners as untouchable and boycotted them. That why
Ghazni was successful against subjugation of India.
• Indian society was cast-ridden. Several evil practices like child marriage, prohibition of widow
marriage, ‘Sati’ and ‘Jauhar’ existed in the Hindu society.
• Political condition :-The entire country was divided into small states which occasionally used
to quarrel among themselves. These states were jealous of each other and constantly engaged
in fights against one another. Malwa, Sindh, Kannauj and Kashmir were prominent states
among them. The feeling of nationalism among the Indians was almost absent.
• Religious conditions – The Hindus of the rural regions worshipped many gods and
[Link] worship was prevalent. Brahmans had the sole privilege of reading the Hindu
[Link] the Brahmans had the right to attain salvation.
• Legal rules and condition of Laws and Judicial system-
• It was necessary to write applications that mention points against the accused in order to get
justice. Justice depended upon the witnesses and before conducting witnesses, it was necessary
to take oaths. Also, there were arrangements for oral justice.
• Criminal law was very mild in India. The limbs of serious offenders were amputated. The
Brahmanas were exempted from death punishment. If a Brahman murdered someone, he was
required to repent through fasts, prayers and charity.
• Taxation system –
o King was not the owner of the land. He took land tax from the peasants at 1/6th of the
produce. The Brahmans were exempted from the burden of paying taxes.

Alberuni believed that people of Indian sub-continent were excellent philosophers, good
mathematicians and astronomers but criticised the hypocrisy of Brahmins Scholars that despite
of explaining the scientific values of ancient text they preferred misleading the masses and keep
them steeped in ignorance and superstitious.