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Experimental and numerical investigation of Al properties fabricated by CGP

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Materials Science and Engineering A 552 (2012) 97–103

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Materials Science and Engineering A

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/msea

Experimental and numerical investigation of Al properties

fabricated by CGP process
A. Sajadi, M. Ebrahimi, F. Djavanroodi ∗
School of Mechanical Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Constrained groove pressing (CGP) process is one of the favorable severe plastic deformation methods to
Received 24 January 2012 fabricate ultra-fine grain sheet materials. In this paper, commercial pure aluminum sheet was subjected to
Received in revised form 31 March 2012 CGP process using conventional and covered sheet casing (CSC) methods. Three dies with different groove
Accepted 30 April 2012
lengths and angles (t = 1 mm and  = 45◦ ; t = 1.8 mm and  = 45◦ ; t = 1 mm and  = 53◦ ) were designed
Available online 15 May 2012
and manufactured. Mechanical properties including strength, elongation to failure and hardness are
obtained and discussed. The influences of these two methods and die groove angle on specimen strain
Keywords:
behavior and required force value are analyzed by the finite element method in plain strain condition.
CGP
CSC
The results show that the CSC method leads to better hardness distribution, uniform strain dispersal and
FEM finer surface quality as compared to conventional method. Moreover, the new method is a good candidate
Mechanical properties for substituting the conventional CGP process.
Strain distribution © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction and lower grooved dies as shown in Fig. 1a. In the first cycle, the
sheet sample is pressed by grooved die (Fig. 1b). Then in the sec-
In the last decade, the importance of severe plastic deformation ond cycle, the grooved work-piece is straightened with the flat die,
(SPD) techniques is extensively recognized for all researchers in the see Fig. 1c. The theoretical relationships for estimating shear and
materials science field [1]. Various industries are now interested effective strains after two cycles are shown in Eqs. (1) and (2),
to use ultra-fine grained (UFG) or nano-structured (NS) materi- respectively [15]. After second cycle, the specimen is rotated by
als because of their high physical, mechanical and superplastic 180◦ around the axis perpendicular to the sheet plane; see Fig. 1d.
properties [2–4]. In general, SPD methods can be divided into This allows the non-deformed regions to be deformed by further
two categories: first group such as equal channel angular pressing pressing due to the asymmetry of the groove die (Fig. 1(e)) and
(ECAP) [5], accumulative back extrusion (ABE) [6], tubular chan- finally the flat die (Fig. 1(f)) results in a relatively uniform distribu-
nel angular pressing (TCAP) [7] and high pressure torsion (HPT) tion of plastic strain throughout the specimen.
[8] has been used for bulk-form materials. Second group includ-
t
ing accumulative roll bonding (ARB) [9], repetitive corrugation and xy = =1 (1)
t
straightening (RCS) [10], groove rolling (GR) [11], and constrained

groove pressing (CGP) [12] has been applied for sheet-form metals 2
4(xy /2) 1
and alloys. In all techniques, an intensive shear strain is imposed εeff = = √ = 0.557 (2)
3 3
to the specimen and deformed work-piece is obtained without any
change in the initial specimen dimensions. This characteristic is the So far, several experimental and numerical works have been
distinctive property of the SPD processes [2,13,14]. carried out on the CGP process. The experimental and simu-
CGP process firstly developed by Shin et al. [12] has the poten- lated evaluation of CGP and CGR (constrained grooved rolling)
tial for fabrication of sheet-form metals and alloys. The schematic techniques for the pure Al had been explored by Lee and Park
representation of CGP process and the sequences of pressing have [16]. They have reported that a non-uniform strain distribution is
been displayed in Fig. 1. Each pass is consisting of four cycles, two observed in the thickness direction and the effective strain mag-
for asymmetrically grooved die and the other two for the flat die. nitude at the center portion of sheet is greater than that at the
At first, a sheet specimen is placed in the gap between the upper surface. In two separate researches, microstructure and mechani-
cal properties of CGPed pure copper and pure aluminum had been
surveyed by Krishnaiah et al. [17,18] at two ambient and cryo-
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +98 21 77240203; fax: +98 21 77240203. genic temperatures. No significant effect was observed for these
E-mail address: [email protected] (F. Djavanroodi). two temperatures. Also the results show that the grain size is

0921-5093/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2012.04.121
 Author's personal copy

98 A. Sajadi et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 552 (2012) 97–103

Fig. 1. The schematic representation of CGP process.

reduced from 78 ␮m to a cell block structure approximately 0.5 ␮m 2D stress and 2D strain conditions. In the bio-field research, the
for pure Cu and from 38 ␮m to 1 ␮m for pure Al. Peng et al. [19] investigation of Thirugnanam et al. [26] had displayed that good
showed that a wider groove reduces the stress at the most severely wettability and higher surface energy are obtained with CGPed
loaded portion of the sheet and allows more cycles of pressings to specimens as compared to un-CGPed ones.
attain better grain refinement and improved mechanical behavior. In this research, commercial purity aluminum is subjected to
The strain distribution in the CGPed sample had been investigated CGP process up to failure in three different die conditions as shown
by Yoon et al. [20] using the commercial Elasto-Plastic FEM code in Table 1. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and XRD patterns
ABAQUS/Standard. The main finding is that the strain localization using classical Williamson–Hall technique are applied to mea-
is more intensified with the number of passes, although average sure grain size magnitudes to ensure that the material after CGP
effective strain level increases. Introduction of cross-orientation process have the UFG structure. Mechanical properties including
CGP process on the 38 Zn alloy showed the permission of more pass strength, elongation to failure and hardness are obtained for all
numbers and thus higher magnitude of effective strain, finer grain above three conditions. Finally finite element analysis, after veri-
size and higher mechanical properties without any crack formation fication by experimental work, is utilized to investigate the strain
in the sample are obtained as compared to single-orientation CGP behavior and required force value for all above conditions.
process [21]. Hosseini and Kazeminez [22] had showed that CGP
process decreases work-hardening rate and increases strain rate
sensitivity of samples. The effect of intermediate and post anneal- 2. Experimental procedure
ing on the mechanical and microstructure of CGPed Cu sheet had
been studied by Rafizadeh et al. [23]. The result indicated that the Commercial purity aluminum with the chemical composition
influence of first pass on the strength of material is much more than of (in wt.%) 0.262% Fe, 0.0696% Si, 0.0214% Ti, 0.0201% Cu, 0.0134%
the subsequent passes. CGP of low carbon steel were investigated Zn, 0.0076% Ni, 0.0072% V, 0.006% Mg and Al as the balance were
by Khodabakhshi et al. [24]. They showed that the inhomogeneity prepared in 50 mm × 50 mm. Before pressing, all sheet-formed
factor value is decreased with increasing the pass number indicat- samples were annealed at 370 ◦ C for 1 h and then cooled slowly
ing increase of strain homogeneity. Niranjan and Chakkingal [15] at furnace. The initial average grain size, obtained by SEM, is about
had studied the deep drawability of pure aluminum before and after 15 ␮m as shown in Fig. 2.
CGP process. The initial sheets for pressing are produced by 0◦ , 45◦
and 90◦ related to rolling direction. The LDR (limit drawability ratio)
enhances to a maximum value for the CGPed work-piece at 45◦ to Table 1
rolling direction orientation as compared to 0◦ and 90◦ orienta- The dies and specimen conditions used in this research.
tions. Shirdel et al. [25] investigated the semi-constrained groove Die condition Die parameters Sheet dimensions
pressing (SCGP) on pure Al. Increasing the number of passes leads
 (◦ ) t (mm) Cross-section (mm2 ) Thickness (mm)
to accumulation of strain in the material and raises the level of
flow stress and sheet hardness. Also, comparison of force diagrams Die 1 45 1 50 × 50 1
obtained from 2D plane stress, 2D plane strain, 3D and experimen- Die 2 45 1.8 50 × 50 0.4Cu + 1Al + 0.4Cu
Die 3 53 1 50 × 50 1
tal work indicated that the real state of SCGP is a combination of
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A. Sajadi et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 552 (2012) 97–103 99

Fig. 4. The true stress–true strain curve of pure Al sheet.

Fig. 2. The microstructure of Al sheet before CGP process.

For this research, three CGP dies were designed and manu-
factured. The die parameters and sheet dimensions are listed in
Table 1. Fig. 3 represents the three CGP dies and corresponding
deformed samples after one cycle. A container used to prevent
the material flow in the direction parallel to groove (not shown
in Fig. 3). For die 2 condition, 1 mm thick aluminum sheet is shel-
tered by the 0.4 mm thick copper sheet (CSC method) was used to
prevent micro-cracking in the surface of Al sheet. After one pass,
the sample was rotated 90◦ about its normal axis (cross-orientation Fig. 5. The die 1 required force curves to press Al sheet in plane strain, plane stress
and 3D simulations.
[21]) and subsequent pass was performed up to failure. All press-
ing were carried out with a hydraulic press with a ram speed of
0.1 mm s−1 . Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2 ) was used as a lubricant 0.1 mm s−1 same as the experimental procedure and friction coef-
to decrease frictional effects between specimens and dies [26]. ficient was assumed to be 0.1 [16]. Fig. 4 displays true stress-true
After pressing, the mechanical properties including tensile test strain curve of annealed aluminum, obtained by tensile test, which
and Vickers hardness according to ASTM E8M and ASTM E92 and is imported to the software. Adaptive meshing, mass scaling and
grain size using XRD pattern are obtained for all three constructed automatic re-meshing were applied and justified for all of the sim-
die work-pieces after each pass. The hardness tests were performed ulations to prevent failure of the mesh during large deformation
on the centerline of the CGPed sheet by the increment of about and to reduce computation time. Mesh sensitivity was performed
5 mm. and the optimum element size was found. The numbers of mesh
for aluminum sheet and cover copper sheet were 3200 and 1600,
2.1. Finite element analysis and verification respectively.
Verification of FEM was based on required force value to
The commercial finite element code, ABAQUS/Explicit software, press aluminum sheet for the die 1 condition. Plane stress, plane
is applied in order to investigate strain behavior, homogeneity of strain and 3D situations are simulated and the extracted required
strain distribution and required force magnitude in the CGPed spec- force curves are presented in Fig. 5. Comparison of simulated
imens. Both flat and grooved dies were assumed to be discrete and experimental results indicates that the plane strain and 3D
rigid (no deformation). The constant upper die speed was equal to situations are in good agreement with experimental work and due

Fig. 3. The CGP dies and corresponding deformed sheets used in this study.
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100 A. Sajadi et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 552 (2012) 97–103

Fig. 6. Die 1 first cycle corner teeth filling for plane stress, plane strain and 3D conditions.

to computation running time consideration, plane strain situation pass 3. The same trends had been reported in previous studies [22].
is chosen to simulate FEM work. Finally, the teeth corner filling Also, the magnitude of elongation is decreased with increasing pass
at the first cycle of CGPed Al for the die 1 situation are considered number and this tendency is started with high incline in the first
for plane stress, plane strain and 3D conditions, as shown in Fig. 6. pass. The magnitudes of YS and UTS at final pass in die 1 situa-
It can be observed that for plane stress situation, the corner teeth tion are 98 MPa and 110 MPa, respectively. Die 2 configuration is a
of die 1 configuration is not fully filled with material; but, both new method (CSC) based on sandwiching the Al work-piece with
plane strain and 3D situations have the same behavior in filling copper sheets; so that surface micro-cracking can be prevented
die corners which is seen in the experimental CGPed sample. or postponed as the number of passes increases. With this new
The experimental load magnitudes of 157 kN, 188 kN and 175 kN method, no decreasing in the YS and UTS values at the fourth pass
are achieved for dies 1, 2 and 3 configurations at first cycle, is observed. High magnitudes of YS and UTS (119 MPa and 141 MPa)
respectively, which are used to verify the numerical works. The are achieved with die 2 configuration. In die 3, the grooved angle is
results show that the percentage difference between FEM and 53◦ and the failure of sheet occurred after three passes. Lower mag-
experimental achievement is lower than 10% for all three die nitudes of YS and UTS are obtained with this die condition (80 MPa
conditions which is acceptable for engineering works. and 87 MPa). In the other words, increasing grooved angle leads to
After validation, the three experimental die situations (die 1, increase stresses in the specimen at the corner of the teeth and thus,
die 2 and die 3) were simulated up to 1 pass (4 cycles) and the enhance the cracking tendency. Hence, higher grooved angle does
magnitude of effective strain, homogeneity of effective strain and not permit more cycles of pressing and enhancement of mechan-
required force curves to press sheet are obtained and discussed. ical properties. In general micro-cracking and flow softening are
two mechanisms which can influence the strength reduction of
3. Results and discussion deformed sample before failure [22]. The UTS and YS values after
third pass for the aluminum specimen which was covered with
3.1. Microstructure evaluation copper sheet (CSC method – die 2) shows increase unlike other
dies 1 and 3 at this pass number. Also, for the new method a bet-
The annealed aluminum sheet exhibits equiaxed grain size ter surface quality than the ones in the conventional CGP process
structure. To confirm the reduction of grain size, final pass of have been observed. Surface condition is an important parameter
CGPed Al for all three die conditions were examined by Philips X- in micro-cracking mechanism, using copper sheet which has a sac-
ray diffraction (XRD) and the results were analyzed using classical rificing role for the Al sample can promote the surface condition
Williamson–Hall method. The details of this method can be studied and cause to delay strength dropping due to micro cracking. Thus,
elsewhere [24]. The average grain size of as-received and CGPed the strength dropping does not occur in 3rd pass as observed in dies
aluminum sheets at final pass for dies 1, 2 and 3 conditions are 1 and 3.
15 ␮m, 870 nm, 865 nm and 890 nm, respectively. Table 2 compares the percentage changes in yield and ultimate
tensile strengths for Al sheets produced in each pass number with
respect to initial condition for three die geometries. In all die con-
3.2. Mechanical properties
ditions, increases of about 100% for YS and 50% for UTS have been
observed in the first pass. The increasing of strengths continues
After pressing the aluminum sheet samples up to failure, ten-
sile and hardness tests have been performed to obtain mechanical
properties of sheets for each pass in the three die conditions. It is Table 2
noted that the Al sheets in dies 1 and 2 with grooved angle of 45◦ The percentage changes in yield and ultimate tensile strengths for Al sheets pro-
were pressed up to 4 passes and in the die 3, where the grooved duced in each pass number with respect to initial condition for three die geometries.
angle is 53◦ , the specimen was pressed up to 3 passes. Fig. 7 dis- YS UTS
plays the magnitudes of yield strength, ultimate tensile strength
and elongation to failure versus the pass numbers in all die situa- Die 1 Die 2 Die 3 Die 1 Die 2 Die 3

tions. For die 1 condition, it can be observed that increasing number 1st pass 105 125 112 44 58 49
of passes results in high magnitudes of yield and ultimate tensile 2nd pass 154 150 151 60 81 53
3rd pass 177 198 99 67 88 16
strengths up to 3 passes. YS and UTS are increased with high slope
4th pass 148 198 – 46 87 –
in the first pass. For pass 4, strength is decreased as compared to
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A. Sajadi et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 552 (2012) 97–103 101

Fig. 7. Tensile properties of CGPed aluminum sheets in different die conditions.

magnitudes do not change with the presence of micro-cracking,

so flow softening causes to this hardness dropping [22]. The high-
est magnitude of average hardness is 50 HV which is related to
the CSC–CGPed work-piece in the 2nd pass. The new method pro-
duces material with relative high mechanical properties and better
surface quality as compared to conventional CGP process.
To investigate hardness distribution in the longitudinal direc-
tion of the sheet, hardness tests is carried out in the centerline
of sheet by the increment of about 5 mm (the total number of 8
measurements). Fig. 9 represents and qualitatively compares the
uniformity of hardness tests for the three die conditions at each
pass numbers. Inhomogeneity factor (I.F.) is used to explore the
hardness uniformity of CGPed material in a quantitative form. The
I.F. value is expressed by the relationship as follows [23]:

n 2
Fig. 8. Hardness magnitudes of CGPed aluminum sheets in all die conditions versus
i=1
(Hi − H̄) /(n − 1)
pass number. I.F. = (3)
H̄

with lower percentage magnitude in subsequent passes and then where Hi , H̄ and n are the magnitude of hardness for ith location,
decreases. average value of hardness measurements and the number of hard-
Considering that the strength and hardness are proportional, ness tests for each sheet, respectively. In general, less value for
the same trend is anticipated and the results of hardness measure- I.F. leads to better homogeneity of hardness distribution. Fig. 10
ment confirm that. Fig. 8 shows the average magnitude of CGPed Al displays the I.F. values of hardness measurements at each pass
sheet hardness for each pass in the three die conditions. Hardness numbers for the three die configurations.

Fig. 9. The hardness distribution for all dies conditions at each pass number.

Fig. 10. The inhomogeneity factor (I.F.) for all three die conditions versus pass numbers.
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102 A. Sajadi et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 552 (2012) 97–103

Fig. 12. The magnitudes of average effective strain and standard deviation for three
die conditions after one pass CGP.

3.3. Strain behavior and required force

As mentioned above, the simulations are carried out for three

die 1, die 2 and die 3 conditions in plane strain situation up to 1 pass
including 4 cycles. The aluminum sheet effective strain contours in
first, second, third and fourth cycles are represented in Fig. 11 for
all die configurations. To investigate the strain behavior of CGPed
sheets, the magnitude of average effective strain and homogeneity
of effective strain using standard deviation (S.D.) are obtained and
displayed in Fig. 12. The lower magnitude for S.D. leads to a greater
degree of strain distribution in the deformed sample.
As can be seen in Fig. 12, the magnitude of average effective
strain for die 3 and die 1 conditions are the highest and the low-
est, respectively. Comparison of die 2 configuration with dies 1 and
3 shows that the average effective strain magnitude increases 4%
and decreases 16% and also, the S.D. values decreases 31% and 37%,
respectively. It means that, die 2 configuration produces Al sheet
with a good value of average effective strain and the best strain uni-
formity. So from the strain behavior point of view, the new CSC–CGP
process can be a good candidate for replacing the conventional CGP
process.
Also, the required force curves to press aluminum sheet for one
pass CGP in these three die conditions are shown in Fig. 13. As can be
observed, the required force value for CSC–CGP process is slightly
lower than the other ones. Generally, in the required force point of
view, there is not any substantial difference among the above three
die conditions.

Fig. 11. The effective strain contours for three die conditions after 1 pass CGP: (a)
die 1 condition, (b) die 2 condition and (c) die 3 condition.

As can be seen in Fig. 10, increasing pass numbers results in

lower magnitude for I.F. Hence, a better homogeneity of mechan-
ical properties is obtained with increasing number of passes. On
the other hand, various die parameters lead to different I.F. and
using CSC method promotes the I.F. value; i.e. better uniformity in
Fig. 13. The 1st cycle required force curves of Al sheet in CGP process for all die
mechanical properties. conditions.
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A. Sajadi et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 552 (2012) 97–103 103

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