DEPARTMENT OF VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH & PREVENTIVE MEDICINE

POSTGRADUATE COURSE VPH713: Introductory Environmental Health

PUBLIC HEALTH DEFINITION OF ENVIRONMENT
Definition 1: The Longman's dictionary defines 'environment' as: The physical and social
conditions in which people live especially as they influence their feelings and development. It
also includes the natural conditions such as air, water, land and energy in which organisms live.
Definition 2: “Environment,” in this context, means things in the natural environment like air,
water and soil, and also all the physical, chemical, biological and social features of our
surroundings.
Definition 3: environment is the sum total of all conditions and influences that affect the
development of all living things including man. It includes the positive and negative effects of
human intervention and creation of assets or capital.
From an ecological viewpoint, environment is simply an
Definition 4: environment is simply an ecosystem. An ecosystem is the basic functional unit in
the ecology and the term refers to any natural or artificial environment where living things (i.e.,
biotic components) are interacting with non-living things (abiotic components). Thus, man as a
unit within an ecosystem interacts with, and is dependent on other living things as well as the
physical, chemical and socio-cultural factors in the ecosystem. Suffice to note that an ecological
definition of the environment is necessary for a clearer and better understanding of the
relationship of environment to human health
Types of Environment
Natural Environment
The natural environment, commonly referred to simply as the environment, is a term that
comprises all living and non-living things that occur naturally on earth or some part of it. This
term includes a few key components:
1. Complete landscape units that function as natural systems without massive human
intervention, including all plants, animals, rocks, etc. and natural phenomena tha occur
within their boundaries
2. Universal natural resources and phenomena that lack clear-cut boundaries, such as air,
water and climate.
3. Natural features which occur within areas heavily influenced by man (such as wild birds in
urban gardens), (Wikipedia, 2006).
Man-made Environment
The natural environment is contrasted with the built environment, which comprises the areas
and components that are heavily influenced by man.The man-made, or “built,” environment
includes physical structures where people live and work such as homes, offices, schools,
farms and factories, as well as community systems such as roads and transportation systems,
land use practices and waste management. Consequences of human alteration to the natural
environment, such as air pollution, are also parts of the man-made environment.
Social Environment
The social environment encompasses lifestyle factors like diet and exercise, socioeconomic
status, and other societal influences that may affect health. (Medline, 2006).
Major Components of Environment
Major components include:
1.Air
2. Water
3. Land
4. Energy
5. Living Organism
Inter-relationship of Environmental Components
All major components of the environment viz., Air, Water, Land,Energy and Living beings
including man are inter-related andinter-connected in one way or the other.
· Living beings are dependent upon their physical environment- theland, water, air and energy
for their existence. At the same timethey also affect the physical components just as the
changedphysical conditions again have a direct impact on living beings.
· One of the fundamental aspects in ecology that helps us,understand the inter-relationship
between plants and animals,animals and animals, animals and human beings is their requirement
of food. Green plants are the primary producers of food. They make simple carbohydrates during
the process of photosynthesis with the help of carbon dioxide and water by the utilization of
energy received from the sun. When herbivore animals eat plants, they get energy through this
food. Herbivores are eaten by carnivores for their food and energy requirement and life activities.
These inter-linkages account for what we call foodchains. An interconnected network of
different food chains that occur among the inhabitants of a particular natural habitat makes a
food-web. The food-web is a delicate network of interrelationships between the species involved,
representing a balanced and self-contained living system. Destruction of any one link in this
food-web has an adverse impact on the other or the entire system itself.
· Inter relationships in nature take many forms, plants and vegetation provide home for animals,
insects and birds pollinate flowers, animals help the dispersal of seed of plants, and parasites
infest plants or animals.
· There is also the nature’s clean-up crew- the crow, the eagle, the hyena and others who act as
scavengers. The bacteria aid in decomposing the dead which play an important role in returning
the organic and inorganic components of dead animals and plants back to nature, to be used and
reused by subsequent living organisms.
· Plants take nature's raw material of earth, water, air and sunlight and organize them into living
substance. But without the help of animals, plants would long ago have organized themselves out
of existence, for they would have locked up in the earth the world's available supply of carbon
and then died of starvation.
Fortunately, the animals came along in time to eat the plants and thus release the carbon and
thus, keep the cycle, functioning. The carbon not released in this way is still available to us today
in the form of coal.
Why should we Care for our Environment?
In ancient times, most human settlements used to be along river banks. People lived in rural
areas, the economy was agrarian and the basic needs of humans could be met directly from
natural resources. Most of the human activities were in harmony with nature and did not affect
natural environment adversely. With the passage of time, the human knowledge increased and
man started making efforts for leading a more comfortable life. The area of human activity
expanded and trade and commerce also occupied a prominent place in human endeavors. This
resulted in the formation of towns. Further on, the coming of thinkers and philosophers in
different parts of the world changed human thinking from superstitious beliefs to a scientific and
rational outlook.
Enhancement in scientific knowledge resulted in technological advancements and hence
industrial growth. Vast opportunities at industrial places have accelerated the migration of people
from rural areas to big cities. The advancements in the medical field have lowered infant
mortality rate and increased life expectancy. World human population thus increased at a rapid
rate. Growing urbanization, rapid industrialization, intensive cultivation, population explosion
and the human desire to live a more comfortable life have degraded the 'biosphere'. The story of
the ever increasing needs of materials and energy has transformed man from a 'dweller' of the
environment in his early stage to it’s'moulder'. In doing so., man has not only brought in
unprecedented environmental crisis but has also heightened the possibility of his own extinction
from the scene. Thus, the strong need to care for our environment is much stronger now than
ever to avoid unprecedented havoc around the globe and ensure continued existence of man and
other living and non-living organisms.
Global Environmental Problems
The progress of man from the primitive stage to the technological stage,has brought him face to
face with the global environmental problems of:
· Ecological decay
· Resource depletion
· Environmental pollution
Some of the major environmental concerns facing the world today include:
(i) Greenhouse effect and global warming
(ii) Ozone depletion
(ii) Urbanization and its associated problems
(iv) Degradation of land
(v) Air and water pollution
(vi) Loss of biological diversity
(vii) Large scale deforestation
(viii) Depletion of natural resources
(ix) Disposal of waste Most of these environmental problems are the consequences of thechanges
brought about by man's intervention with the environment for the satisfaction of his basic needs
as well as his pursuit of more ambitious goals.
DEFINITION OF HEALTH.
A state of complete physicasl, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of
disease or infirmity. The enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health is one of the
fundamental rights of every human being without distinction of race, religion, and political
belief, economic and social isolation. The health of all people is fundamental to the attainment of
peace and security and is dependent upon the fullest cooperation of individual states. The
achievement of any State in the protection of health is of value to all.
Unequal development in different countries in promotion of health, control of disease, especially
communicable disease, is a common danger.
Healthy development of the child is of basic importance; the ability to live harmoniously in a
changing total environment is essential to such development. The extension to all people of the
benefits of medical, psychological and related knowledge is essential to the fullest attainment of
health. Informed opinion and active cooperation on the part of the public are of the utmost
importance in the improvement of the health of the people.
Governments have a responsibility for the health of their people which can be fulfilled only by
the provision of adequate health and social measure.
DEFINITION OF DISEASE
Definition 1 A disease is a change away from a normal state of health to an abnormal state in
which health is diminished
Definition 2 Disease is also a medical condition. It is an abnormality of the body or mind that
causes discomfort, dysfunction, distress, or death to the person afflicted or those in contact with
the person. Sometimes the term is used broadly to include injuries, disabilities, disorders,
syndromes, infections, symptoms, deviant behaviors, and atypical variations of structure and
function, while in other contexts these may be considered distinguishable categories.
Definition 3 Cole (1970), defined disease as specific kinds of biological reactions to some kind
of injury or change affecting the internal environment of the body.
Disease thus alters the normal functioning of the body and creates a lot of anxiety for the sick
person. It is also a universal phenomenon, constitutes a threat to survival and disrupts socio-
economic life of people.
Definition 4 In biology, disease refers to any abnormal condition of an organism that impairs
function. The term disease is often used metaphorically for disordered, dysfunctional, or
distressing conditions of other things, as in disease of society.
Transmission of Disease
Some diseases, such as influenza, are contagious or infectious, and can be transmitted by any of
a variety of mechanisms, including aerosols produced by coughs and sneezes, by bites of insects
or other carriers of the disease, from contaminated water or food, etc.
Other diseases, such as cancer and heart disease are not considered to be due to infection,
although micro-organisms may play a role, and cannot be spread from person to person.
DEFINITION OF SAFE: Freefrom harm or risk or Securefrom threat of danger, harm, or
lossZero risk
DEFINITION OF RISK:Possibility of loss or injury, peril, The chance of loss; the degree of
probability of such loss

WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH SCIENCE

Environmental health is thus seen as the area of Public/Community health that is primarily
concerned with evaluating the relationship between environment and health. It thus seeks to
prevent, control, disrupt or eliminate environmental conditions or factors inimical to human
health or the environment. It includes sub-specialties like water supply and sanitation, solid
waste (refuse) management, air pollution, water pollution, environmental toxicology,
environmental epidemiology, radiation, health, toxic and hazardous waste management,
occupational health and safety, food sanitation, noise pollution and environmental health
administration. Environmental health us therefore a multifaceted and multi-disciplinary field.
*The term ‘environmental health’ is also used to describe problems that arise in the relationship
of the environment and health of populations within the environment
*Environmental health is also viewed the field of science that studies how the environment
influences human health and disease.
*Environmental health comprises those aspects of human health, including quality of life, that
are determined by physical, biological, social and psychological factors in the environment. It
also refers to the theory and practice of assessing, correcting controlling and preventing those
factors in the environment that can potentially affect adversely the health of present and future
generations
According to definitions of environmental health in the web, it is defined as:
· Well-being based on the health of the surrounding environment.
· Characteristics of health that result from the aggregate impact of both natural and man-made
surroundings, including health effects ofair pollution, water pollution, noise pollution, solid
waste disposal, and housing; occupational disease and injuries; and those diseases related to
unsanitary surroundings.
· The interrelationships between people and their environment that promote human health and
well-being and foster a safe and healthful environment.
· Environmental health is defined by the World Health Organization as the theory and practice of
assessing and controlling factors in the environment that can potentially affect health.
· Environmental health comprises those aspects of human health, including quality of life, that
are determined by physical, chemical, biological, social, and psychosocial factors in the
environment. It also refers to the theory and practice of assessing, correcting, controlling, and
preventing those factors in the environment that can potentially affect adversely the health of
present and future generations.
Goal of Environmental Health
The goal of environmental health is to prevent health problems by studying these relationships in
order to:
· Identify what in the environment is causing health concerns/problems.
· Identify how and where in the environment people are being exposed to these contaminants or
conditions.
· Identify what can be done to eliminate or minimize the exposure to these contaminants or
conditions.
· Monitor these environmental hazards over time to ensure continued safety of the public.
The result of these activities can lead to recommendations or policy decisions that help protect
both the human and ecological elements of the environment
Factors that Contribute to Environmental Health Problems
Environmental health problems experienced today can be largely attributed to human activity
and/or nature. For environmental health professionals, one of the main focus areas has been on
the materials and processes used to manufacture products, whether it be food, agrochemicals,
automobiles, or household goods. During the process of converting raw materials into so many
different products, many hazardous materials are used. A poorly designed product can often
result in hazardous materials "accidentally" entering the environment through accidents,
improper handling, storage, transportation and disposal. Human behavior and the lack of
environmental health awareness can result in trash burning, illegal dumping, improper food
preparation, contamination of drinking water, etc. In addition, there is an emerging trend that
includes social issues as environmental health concerns. This could include how a community
grows (i.e. sprawl, traffic, noise, crime, etc.) and the breakdown of social interactions among
neighbors and/or communities.
While many of the above factors can be directly or indirectly tied to human behaviors, it should
also be noted that there are many naturally occurring substances found in nature such as mercury,
arsenic, lead, anduranium, all of which are commonly found in water. Air quality isaffected by
naturally occurring pollen, dust, and mold. Exposure to theelements such as the sun can affect
health. In addition, there are numerous biological factors that affect health. Mosquitoes are a
very common vector for the spread of disease and most food borne illnesses are the result of
naturally occurring pathogens (i.e. salmonella, shigellosis, giardia, etc.). The following table
captures many of the environmental health factors mentioned that contribute to these
environmental health problems.
Who is affected by Environmental Health?
· Everyone is affected by environmental health issues in one way or another, but some groups are
more sensitive than others.
· For example, environmental health hazards pose serious risks to unborn fetus because they can
disrupt the development of the baby in-uterus.
· Young children are also affected more than adults because their organs are not fully developed
and they breathe, eat and drink larger amounts per body weight than adults.
· The elderly are also at increased risk to environmental influences because overall, their systems
do not function at the same capacity as they did when they were younger.
· Also, depending on the type of job that a person holds, there are certain groups that are exposed
to a lot more hazardous materials than the general public (i.e. mining, farming, construction).
Unfortunately, since the beginning of the post-World War II era, there has been a growing
number of individuals who have developed multiple chemical sensitivity, or severe susceptibility
to any contact with chemicals agents in the environment
Why is Environmental Health Important?
· The study of environmental health has improved our understanding of the role that we play in
the health of the planet.
· For instance, as a result of environmental health efforts and several catastrophic events,
numerous materials used to process goods and services have been completely removed from the
market.
· In other cases handling and disposal techniques have been improved to reduce environmental
contamination and improve worker safety.
· In Nigeria, knowledge of environmental health is crucial because there are many environmental
health hazards created from decades-old mining activities; oil explorations, contaminated water
and solid waste and disposal of nuclear and hazardous waste; pesticide exposure to farm workers
and their families; solid and hazardous waste dumps, and other destructive industries
How to Make a Difference
· As community members it may feel overwhelming to think about all of the existing and
potential environmental health hazards around us, but there are things we can do. Below is a list
of some of the steps that can be taken to improve the environmental status of our communities.
· Become familiar with the environmental health issues by contacting environmental health
groups in your area. If there are not any, consider starting one up.
· Identify potential polluters in and around your community and develop ways to monitor their
activities.
· Learn about the common hazards found where you live, work and play.
· Learn about and use of safe alternatives to common hazardous household products.
· Learn about how to protect your family from food borne illnesses, indoor air quality problems,
fire hazards, household hazardous materials, etc.
· Read safety labels and Material Safety Data Sheets to learn about health hazards and proper
handling and disposal procedures.
· Keep polluting industries accountable to the public by monitoring their activities.
· Monitor the public notices in your community to ensure that all proposed business activity in
your area receives the public scrutiny early in the process.
· Elect Public officials that will support legislations that protect the health of communities and
the environment

DRUG AND PESTICIDE RESIDUES IN MEAT, MILK AND LIVE ANIMALS THEIR
CONTROL AND PREVENTION
Human health is related directly to the environment and in particular the nature and
quality of food. Quality of food from animal products is widely concerning public health
agencies around the world since veterinary drugs have played an important role in the field of
animal husbandry and agro-industry, and increasing occurrence of residues, and resistance have
become interesting issues. Veterinary drugs or veterinary medicinal products (VMPs) are
critically needed to meet the challenges of providing adequate amounts of food for the growing
world population as drugs improve the rate of weight gain, improve feed efficiency, or prevent
and treat diseases in food producing animals. However, the benefit of improved productivity
from the use of VMPs in food producing animals is not obtained without the risk associated with
VMPs residues that remain in the tissues of treated animals at the time of slaughter or residues in
animal derived products and poses a health hazard to the customer. Antibacterial drugs and
hormonal growth promoters are the main VMPs that potentially contaminate foods of animal
origin.
Hence, veterinary drug or VMPs residue is one of many global issues concerning food
contamination
DEF: Residue is defined as any compound or metabolite of a compound that is present in
edible tissues from food animals because of the use of a compound in or on animals. Residues
can be from the compound itself, its metabolites, or any other substances formed in or on food as
a result of the compound's use or “pharmacologically active substances (whether active
principles, recipients or degradation products) and their metabolites which remain in foodstuffs
obtained from animals to which the VMPs in question has been administered” Under the normal
physiological conditions, following administration of a drug to an animal, most drugs are
metabolized in order to facilitate elimination, and to a large extent detoxification as well. In
general, most of the parent product and its metabolites are excreted in urine and a lesser extent
via faeces. However, these substances may also be found in milk and eggs, and in the meat.
Rationally, there is no product coming from a treated animal should be consumed unless the
entire drug administered has been eliminated. This is called zero tolerance, where this concept is
in fact equivalent to the idea of total absence of residual amounts.
Drug and pesticide residues in animal food pose significant public health, trade, and consumer
confidence concerns. These residues are trace amounts of chemicals or their metabolites that
remain in meat, milk, or organs after treatment of animals with veterinary drugs (e.g., antibiotics,
antiparasitic) or exposure to pesticides.

2. Key Concepts

Term Definition

Residue A small amount of a substance, such as a drug or pesticide, that remains

in the tissue or product of an animal after treatment.

Maximum Residue The highest level of residue is legally allowed in food, established by
Limit (MRL) international bodies (e.g., Codex Alimentarius).

Withdrawal Period The time required after the administration of a drug before the animal or
its products can safely enter the food chain.

3. Sources of Residues

3.1. Veterinary Drugs

 Antibiotics (e.g., oxytetracycline, sulfonamides)

 Anthelmintics (e.g., ivermectin)
 Growth promoters
 Hormones
3.2. Pesticides

 Organophosphates (e.g., diazinon)

 Organochlorines (e.g., DDT, lindane)
 Pyrethroids
 Herbicide contaminants via feed
3.3. Other Sources

 Contaminated feed and water

 Environmental exposure (e.g., spray drift)
 Improper use or overdosing
  Failure to observe withdrawal periods
4. Public Health Implications

 Antimicrobial resistance (AMR)

 Allergic reactions and toxicity
 Carcinogenic or teratogenic effects
 Hormonal disruption
 Economic losses (e.g., export bans)
5. Surveillance and Detection Methods

Method Description

Screening Tests Simple, fast tests (e.g., ELISA, lateral flow kits) used in the field or
lab.

Confirmatory Tests More accurate lab-based tests (e.g., HPLC, GC-MS, LC-MS/MS).

Bioassays Using bacteria (e.g., Bacillus subtilis) to detect antibiotic residues.

6. Control Measures

6.1. At Farm Level

 Sensitization of farmers on correct drug use

 Prescription-only access to veterinary drugs
 Adherence to withdrawal periods
 Good animal husbandry practices
 Avoidance of banned substances
6.2. At Veterinary Level

 Rational drug prescription

 Clear documentation and treatment records
 Reporting of adverse drug reactions and misuse
6.3. At Slaughterhouses and Dairies

 Ante-mortem and post-mortem inspection

 Random sampling and testing
 Condemnation of contaminated carcasses/products
6.4. Regulatory Framework

 Enforcement by NAFDAC, VCN, FMAFS, etc.

 National Residue Monitoring Plans (NRMP)
 Integration with food safety systems (e.g., HACCP)
7. Prevention Strategies

 Veterinary Pharmacovigilance: Surveillance for adverse effects and misuse.

 Education and Training: Targeting farmers, agrovet sellers, extension workers.
 One Health Approach: Collaboration across human, animal, and environmental health.
 Promotion of Organic and Sustainable Farming
8. Nigeria-Specific Context

 Use of unregulated drug vendors is high.

 Common residues: oxytetracycline, chloramphenicol, ivermectin.
 Gaps in enforcement of MRLs and withdrawal periods.
 Poor diagnostic infrastructure for routine residue testing.
 Emerging efforts through National Livestock Transformation Plan (NLTP) and VPH
curriculum reforms.
9. Case Study Activity (Practical Application)

Scenario: A meat inspector in Karu Abattoir, Abuja, finds that 3 out of 10 beef samples test positive
for oxytetracycline residues above Codex limits.

Tasks:

 Identify potential reasons for contamination.

 List the public health risks.
 Propose immediate and long-term control measures.
 Draft an awareness message to local livestock traders.

10. Conclusion

Controlling drug and pesticide residues in animal-derived foods is crucial to safeguarding public
health, preserving international trade, and maintaining consumer trust. It requires a coordinated
effort among farmers, veterinarians, regulators, and public health professionals.

Risk Factors for the Development of Residue in Food Producing Animals

Veterinary drug residues are one of the major problems for food contamination. VMPs and
agricultural chemicals used according to label directions should not result in residues at
slaughter. However, possible reasons for such residues include:
🧪 Practical Risk Factors for the Development of Residues in Food-Producing Animals in
Nigeria
Residues of drugs, pesticides, and other chemicals in meat, milk, and other animal products pose
a significant public health threat. In Nigeria, multiple practical and systemic factors contribute
to the persistence of these residues in animal-derived food. These include:

1. Lack of Veterinary Oversight

 Practice: Farmers often buy and administer antibiotics or pesticides without professional
guidance.
 Risk: Incorrect dosage, inappropriate drug use, and failure to observe withdrawal
periods.
2. Ignorance of Withdrawal Periods
 Practice: Farmers may slaughter or sell animals or milk shortly after drug administration.
 Risk: Residues remain in meat, milk, or eggs because drugs haven't cleared from the
animal’s system.
3. Use of Banned or Unregistered Drugs
 Practice: Easy access to unregulated veterinary drugs through open markets.
 Risk: Use of outdated or prohibited substances like chloramphenicol and nitrofurans.
4. Economic Pressures
 Practice: Livestock owners prioritize income over safety; they ignore withdrawal periods
to avoid loss of market value.
 Risk: Premature sale of animals or products leads to unsafe residue levels.
5. Lack of Awareness and Training
 Practice: Poor knowledge among pastoralists and smallholder farmers about drug
residues and their consequences.
 Risk: Improper drug handling, overuse, or incorrect routes of administration.
6. Inadequate Feed Control
 Practice: Contaminated animal feed with growth promoters or pesticide residues.
 Risk: Chronic exposure leads to accumulation of residues in animal tissues.
7. Poor Regulatory Enforcement
 Practice: Weak enforcement of veterinary drug control and residue surveillance laws.
 Risk: Limited deterrence for misuse and poor compliance with food safety standards.
8. Lack of Residue Monitoring Infrastructure
 Practice: Few laboratories and testing facilities for routine screening of food products.
 Risk: Contaminated products reach consumers without detection.
9. Use of Pesticides in Animal Housing
 Practice: Use of organophosphates, carbamates, or pyrethroids in animal pens or
spraying directly on animals (e.g., against ticks).
 Risk: Accidental ingestion or skin absorption by animals leading to residues.
10. Cultural Practices and Informal Markets
 Practice: Backyard slaughter and informal meat and milk sales without inspection.
  Risk: No oversight of treated animals or product safety.

💡 Field Example:
A pastoralist in Kaduna treats his cow with oxytetracycline and milks her the next morning for
local sale. Without knowledge of the 3–5 day withdrawal period, antibiotic residues remain in
the milk, which is sold unprocessed to consumers, contributing to antimicrobial resistance.

🔍 Implications
 Public Health: Allergic reactions, antibiotic resistance, toxicity.
 Trade: Rejection of animal products in international markets.
 Epidemiological Concern: Potential for zoonotic risk and long-term health effects.

Veterinary drugs or VMPs residues usually accumulate in the liver or kidney rather than other
tissues. It has been noted that different residue levels can be found in different tissue positions
such as site and route of administration. The most likely reason for drug residues may result from
human management, such as improper usage, including extra-label or illegal drug applications.
However, the most obvious reason for unacceptable residues might be due to failure to keep to
the withdrawal period including using overdose and long-acting drugs. Inadequate good sanitary
care during animal or product transportation, including the cross contamination of animal
feeding stuffs with inadvertently applied drugs, environmental and animal to animal transfer of
drugs may also cause residues.
The risk factors responsible for the development of residue are:
Age of Animal
Weaning status and, to a lesser extent, the age of the animal affect drug disposition. For instance,
the study conducted on comparisons of the pharmacodynamics of norfloxacin nicotinate between
weaning and unweaned calves revealed that the distribution of the drug did not differ between
the two groups of calves, but the total body clearance time was increased in weaned calves,
possibly due to increased weight from the presence of rumen fluid. Calves fed grain had shorter
clearance times (approximately four days) for sulfamethazine than unweaned calves. The
elimination half-life of tindazole is shorter in unweaned calves than in adult cows, while the
elimination half-life of apramycin is longer in calves than in adult cattle, possibly due to the
immaturity of the drug clearance system.
Feeding
Diet can affect the bioavailability of drugs. For instance, a study conducted to determine the
effects of diet content on the bioavailability of orally administered fenbendazole to cattle and
Indian buffalo, and fed dry hay either with or without fresh green herbage, showed that animals
receiving feed containing fresh herbage had lowered bioavailability of the drug. Fenbendazole
stays in the rumen and is progressively released with digesta, and the presence of fresh herbage
increases gut activity and the flow rate of digesta, which depletes the available stores of
fenbendazole in the rumen. About feeds, actual gut contents can also affect drug uptake and
pharmacodynamics.
Disease status
The disease status of an animal can affect the pharmacokinetics of drugs administered, which can
influence the potential for residues. This can occur either when the disease affects the metabolic
system (and consequently drug metabolism), or when the presence of infection and/or
inflammation causes the drug to accumulate in affected tissues. For example, cattle with acutely
inflamed mastitis quarters, apramycin penetrates these areas of the body, and concentrations of
the drug have been observed at ten times over the level recorded from cows without mastitis.
Ketoprofen levels in milk increase during clinical mastitis where there is an influx of serum
components into the udder. In calves with experimentally induced fasciolosis, the elimination
half-life of antipyrine was slightly increased, but was slightly decreased for erythromycin and
statistically significant decrease for oxytetracycline. The proposed mechanisms for these changes
were the changes in liver function by fasciolosis, which changed the processing of drugs through
the liver
Pharmacokinetics
The term pharmacokinetics refers to the movement of drug into, through and out of the body: the
time course of its absorption, bioavailability, distribution, metabolism, and excretion.
Absorption
It is described as the process, in which a compound passes from its site of administration into the
bloodstream. Absorption is influenced by many factors such as the properties of cell membrane,
drug properties and route of administration and physiopathological state of the animal. An
indication of the rate of drug absorption is obtained from the peak plasma concentration (Cmax)
and time of reaching the maximum concentration (Tmax).
Distribution
It is the process whereby a drug is transported to all the tissues and organs. After entering the
systemic circulation, in whatever route of administration, drugs are conveyed throughout the
body and reach their site of action. There are four major factors responsible for the extent and
rate of distribution. These are the physicochemical properties of the drug, the concentration
gradient established between the blood and tissue, the ratio of blood flow to tissue mass, and the
affinity of the drug for tissue constituents and serum protein binding . Only the fraction free form
(unbound) of the drug can exit the circulation to distribute through the body and exert activity at
the site of action. The parameter which defines the process of distribution is the volume of
distribution.
Metabolism (Biotransformation)
It is the principal mechanism of elimination for the transformation of drugs or xenobiotics into
metabolites of the chemical reaction. Hepatocytes play an extremely important role in the
metabolism of drugs and xenobiotic compounds that are foreign to the body, some of which are
toxic. The kidneys are responsible ultimately to dispose of these substances, but for effective
elimination, the drug or its metabolites must be made hydrophilic (polar, water-soluble). This is
because reabsorption of a substance by the renal tubules is dependent on its hydrophobicity. The
more hydrophobic (non-polar, lipid-soluble) substance is, the more likely it will be reabsorbed.
Many drugs and metabolites are hydrophobic, and the liver converts them into hydrophilic
compounds by using the two classes of enzymatic pathways of biotransformation: phase I (non-
synthesis) and phase II (conjugation). Phase I corresponds to functionalization processes
including oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis, hydration and isomerization reactions. Phase II
reactions involve conjugation of the drug or phase I metabolite with the endogenous substrate
such as glucuronic acid, sulfate, acetate and methyl group. Although some drugs are eliminated
from the body by uncharged, most drugs undergo metabolism where the liver is the main organ
of reaction. In addition, the liver’s function may change the drug’s form to be inactive and easy
to excrete but some drugs may be converted to an activating form.
Excretion
It is the process by which the parent drug or its metabolites are removed from the body fluids.
The kidney is the most important site of drug excretion. There are three renal mechanisms;
glomerular filtration, carrier-mediated proximal tubular secretion, and pH dependent, passive
tubular resorption in the distal nephron. Renal insufficiency usually significantly affects drug
excretion. The systemic clearance and elimination of half-life are important parameters referring
to the overall rate of elimination (metabolism and excretion). Although most compounds are
excreted primarily by the kidneys, some drugs are partially or completely excreted through the
bile. It has been reported that there is an extensive species variation among animals in their
general ability to excrete drugs in the bile; example, chickens are characterized as good biliary
excretors, whereas sheep and rabbits are characterized as moderate and poor excretes.
Extra-label drug use (ELU)
Extra-label Drug Use (ELU) refers to the use of an approved drug in a manner that is not in
accordance with the approved label directions. ELU occurs when a drug only approved for
human use is used in animals, when a drug approved for one species of animal is used in another,
when a drug is used to treat a condition for which it was not approved, or the use of drugs at
levels more than recommended dosages. For instance, the use of phenobarbital (a drug only
approved for use in humans) to treat epilepsy in dogs and cats; the use of ivermectin in dogs and
cats (an antiparasitic only approved for use in cattle); and the use of enrofloxacin solution as a
topical ear medication (only approved for use as an injection) are the common ELU in veterinary
medicine. There are conditions for ELU in food animals. For example, when considering ELU of
an approved human drug in food animals: the veterinarian must have medical rational for the
use; the veterinarian may not use an approved human drug if an animal drug approved for use in
food-producing animals can be used instead for the particular ELU; and if scientific information
on the human food safety aspect of the use of the drug in food-producing animals is not
available, the veterinarian must take appropriate measures to assure that the animal and its food
products will not enter the human food supply. The families of drugs (both in animals and
humans), and substances currently prohibited for ELU in all food producing animals, (including
horses intended for human food) are chloramphenicol, clenbuterol, diethylstilbestrol (DES),
dimetridazole, ipronidazole, furazolidone, nitrofurazone, sulfonamide drugs in lactating dairy
cattle (except approved use of sulfamethazine, sulfabromo-methazine, and
sulfamethoxypyridazine, fluoroquinolones, and glycopeptides).
Improper withdrawal time
The withdrawal time (also known as the depletion or clearance period) is the time for the residue
of toxicological concern to reach a safe concentration as defined by tolerance. Depending on the
drug product, dosage form, and route of administration, the withdrawal time may vary from a
few hours to several days or weeks. It is the interval necessary between the last administration to
the animals of the drug under normal condition of used and the time when treated animal can be
slaughtered to produce safe foodstuffs.
Incidence of veterinary drug residues
In many countries, VMPs may be used indiscriminately for the treatment of animal diseases, or
they may be used as feed additives for domestic animals. Different studies have been conducted
by Zuo et al. in Pennsylvania) and Babapour et al. in Iran to show the incidence rate of VMPs
residue in different parts of the world. The studies revealed that low level of heavy metals and
gentian violet residue from catfish was detected. Other studies conducted in Nigeria also
revealed the detection of antimicrobial drug residues in commercial eggs and in meat from
slaughtered cattle. Furthermore, oxytetracycline and penicillin G from milk, and tetracycline
from cattle beef were also detected in Ethiopia. The ongoing threat of antibiotic contamination is
one of the biggest challenges to public health that is faced by the human population worldwide.
Such residues are spreading rapidly, irrespective of geographical, economical, or legal
differences between countries. Additionally, the study reported in 2004 by EU also revealed that
most residues confirmed in animals were antibacterial agents.
Currently, the joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) has also reported
various veterinary drugs and other environmental substances residues in a series of working
documents. Additionally, the JECFA has been participating in further evaluating the safety of
residues of veterinary drugs in food and in establishing acceptable daily intakes (ADIs), and
recommend maximum residue limits (MRLs) for substances when they are administered to food-
producing animals in accordance with good veterinary practice in the use of veterinary drug.
POTENTIAL EFFECT OF VETERINARY DRUG RESIDUES ON PUBLIC HEALTH
Drug low-level contamination generally may not generate a violation problem on public health.
However, extensive use of drugs may increase the risk of an adverse effect of residues on the
customer including the occurrence of antibiotic resistance and hypersensitivity reaction.
Therefore, prudent use of drugs in the manner of preventing feed contamination is necessary.
Development of drug resistance
Human health can be affected through residues of drugs in food of animal origin, which may
cause direct side effects, or indirectly, through selection of antibiotic resistance determinants that
may spread human pathogens. Resistant microorganisms can get access to humans, either
through direct contact or indirectly via milk, meat, or eggs. As the bacteria of animal origin, they
may either colonize human endogenous flora or superimpose an additional load to the reservoir
of resistance genes already present in man. The potential for animal-to-human transfer of
resistance existed. Clearly, the use of antibiotics in livestock production has been associated with
the development of human antibiotic resistance. Animals fed with the low prophylactic level of
antibiotic may develop bacteria evolving resistance to this antibiotic during the preparation or
consumption of food of animal origin. It has been documented that humans develop drug-
resistant bacteria such as Salmonella, Campylobacter, and Staphylococcus from food of animal
origin. Examples of drugs that have been shown to cause the growth of resistant bacteria in food
of animal food are fluoroquinolones and avoparin. The resistance of microorganisms, arising
from subtherapeutic uses of penicillin, tetracyclines, and sulfa drugs; in agriculture is suggested
by the WHO to be a high priority issue.
Drug hypersensitivity reaction
Drug hypersensitivity is defined as an immune mediated response to a drug agent in a sensitized
patient, and drug allergy is restricted to a reaction mediated by IgE. An allergic or hypersensitive
effect following administration of a drug (i.e., drug allergies are quite like that typified by
allergic response to protein, carbohydrate, and lipid macromolecules. Allergic reactions to drugs
may include anaphylaxis, serum sickness, cutaneous reaction, a delayed hypersensitivity
response to drugs appear to be more commonly associated with the antibiotics, especially of
penicillin About 10% of the human population is considered hypersensitive to an amount of a
substance, including penicillin, but in animals, the extent of hypersensitive to, the drug is not
well known. Certain macrolides may also, in exceptionable responsible for liver injuries, caused
by a specific allergic response macrolide modified hepatic cells.
Carcinogenic effect
The term carcinogen refers to an effect produced by a substance having carcinogenic activity.
Considerable confusion has existed because a carcinogen applies to substances that are so varied
in their qualitative and quantitative characteristics. The potential hazard of carcinogenic residues
is related to their interaction or covalently binding to various intracellular components such as
proteins, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic acid (RNA), glycogen, phospholipids, and
glutathione.
Mutagenic effect
The term mutagen is used to describe chemical or physical agents that can cause a mutation in a
DNA molecule or damage the genetic component of a cell or organism. Several chemicals,
including alkalizing agents and analogous DNA bases, have been shown to elicit mutagenic
activity. There has been increasing concern that drugs as well as environmental chemicals may
pose a potential hazard to the human population by producing gene mutagen or chromosome
breakage that may have adversely affect human fertility.
Teratogenic effect
The term teratogen applies to a drug or chemical agent that produces a toxic effect on the embryo
or fetus during a critical phase of gestation. Consequently, a congenital malformation that affects
the structural and functional integrity of the organism is produced. The well-known thalidomide
incident involving several children in Europe was a direct testimony to the hazard that may occur
when such an agent is administered during pregnancy. Of the anthelmintics, benzimidazole is
embryo toxic and teratogenic when given during the early stage of pregnancy because of the
anthelminthic activity of the drug. In addition to embryo toxicity, including teratogenicity, the
benzimidazole drug of oxfendazole has also exhibited a mutagenic effect.
Disruption of Normal Intestinal Flora
The bacteria that usually live in the intestine act as a barrier to prevent incoming pathogens from
being established and causing diseases. Antibiotics may reduce the total number of the bacteria
or selectively kill some important species. The broad-spectrum antimicrobials may adversely
affect a wide range of intestinal flora and consequently cause gastrointestinal disturbance. For
example, the use of drugs like flunixin, streptomycin, and tylosin in animals, and the use of
vancomycin, nitroimidazole, and metronidazole in humans, is known for this effect.
Residue Avoidance
Pharmacological principles
To implement an effective residue avoidance program in a food animal practice, a veterinarian
must be aware of pharmacological principles of many drugs. Half-life (t1/2) is the time it takes to
remove 50% of the drug from the animal and used to estimate withdrawal time. A drug with a
large volume of distribution (Vd) generally has relatively good tissue distribution compared with
a drug of restricted distribution. The utility of viewing half-life as a function of the Vd and
clearance (CL) is that these two independent parameters reflect the underlying physiology of the
animal. Finally, another determinant of the elimination half time for slowly absorbed drugs
administered extravascular is the rate of absorption. If this process is lower than elimination half-
life, functionally becomes the biological half time. With depot and sustained release
preparations, this phenomenon takes on increased importance to residue avoidance. The problem
facing veterinarians is that most pharmacokinetic parameters have been determined in healthy
animals. Yet diseased animals would be expected to be altered physiology. The half-life will
increase if CL is reduced due to an increased Vd. This would result in increased elimination by
half-life by a factor of six. The disease may also prolong absorption half-life (decreased blood
perfusion of muscles, altered gastrointestinal transit time, etc.) to the point that the elimination
profile is different from normal animals. Based on this simplified overview of basic
pharmacokinetic principles, the relationship of half-life of the withdrawal time can be used to
reduce the incidence of violative residues. Doubling dose of the drug should only prolong the
approved withdrawal time by one half-life; however, doubling the half-life because of the disease
would double the necessary withdrawal time pathophysiological states that increased Vd and/or
CL would be expected to prolong half-life.
⚠️ PRACTICAL POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF VETERINARY DRUG RESIDUES ON
PUBLIC HEALTH
Veterinary drug residues are trace amounts of medications (e.g., antibiotics, anthelmintics,
hormones) that remain in animal-derived foods such as meat, milk, eggs, and organs. When
withdrawal periods are ignored, or drugs are misused, these residues can enter the human food
chain.
1. Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)
 Mechanism: Continuous low-dose exposure to antibiotic residues (e.g., tetracycline,
sulfonamides) selects for resistant bacteria in humans.
 Effect: Resistant pathogens (e.g., Salmonella, E. coli) cause infections that are difficult
or impossible to treat.
 Field Example: Resistant typhoid or UTIs becoming more common in urban Nigeria due
to prolonged low-level exposure from animal products.
2. Allergic Reactions and Hypersensitivity
 Mechanism: Individuals exposed to drug residues (e.g., penicillin, streptomycin) may
develop allergic responses.
 Effect: Ranges from mild rashes to anaphylaxis in sensitive individuals.
  Field Example: A consumer in Abuja develops severe allergy after eating beef with
penicillin residues.
3. Toxicity and Carcinogenicity
 Mechanism: Some drug residues, like chloramphenicol or nitrofurans, are toxic or
carcinogenic at low doses over time.
 Effect: Bone marrow suppression, cancer risk, liver/kidney toxicity.
 Field Example: Long-term consumption of catfish raised with banned substances
increases toxic exposure.
4. Disruption of Normal Gut Flora
 Mechanism: Residues in milk or meat may disrupt the human microbiome.
 Effect: Diarrhea, nutrient malabsorption, weakened immunity.
 Field Example: Children in rural Nigeria experience chronic gut issues from continuous
ingestion of contaminated milk.
5. Hormonal and Reproductive Effects
 Mechanism: Growth hormones or hormone-like substances (e.g., estrogens, zeranol) in
meat can act as endocrine disruptors.
 Effect: Early puberty, infertility, or hormonal imbalances.
 Field Example: Hormone-fed broilers contributing to earlier menarche in adolescent
girls.
6. Treatment Failures in Human Medicine
 Mechanism: Residues foster resistant bacteria that render standard treatments
ineffective.
 Effect: Increase in treatment costs, hospitalization, morbidity, and mortality.
 Field Example: Multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) or failed typhoid
treatments in urban clinics.
7. Food Intoxication and Poisoning
 Mechanism: High levels of antiparasitic (e.g., ivermectin) or pesticides used off-label
can cause acute toxicity.
 Effect: Nausea, vomiting, neurological symptoms, or organ damage.
 Field Example: Meat from sick goats treated with high-dose drugs sold in open markets.
8. Economic and Trade Consequences
  Mechanism: Detection of residues in exported animal products.
 Effect: Trade bans, economic losses, loss of trust in veterinary systems.
 Field Example: EU rejections of Nigerian fishery and meat exports due to residue
violations.
🧪 Public Health Implications
 Silent but cumulative health burden
 Reduced trust in animal products
 Greater risk in vulnerable populations (children, pregnant women,
immunocompromised)
✅ Recommendation Summary
Action Who Purpose
Enforce drug withdrawal periods Farmers, regulators Reduce exposure risk
Educate farmers on drug safety Extension agents, NGOs Prevent misuse
Screen animal products Labs, VPH officers Detect and act early
Promote residue monitoring Government & Protect consumers
academia

Control and preventive measures

In general, the residue control strategy is based on a two-step approach:
(1) The detection of residues using sensitive tests with a low rate of false negatives.
(2) Followed by confirmation, quantification against the MRL and identification with a low rate
of false positives. Hence, the residue prevention strategy is based on preventing the entry of
violative residues in meat or milk intended for human consumption by proper drug use guide
developed for use by both veterinarians and food animal (dairy and beef) producers include the
following:
1) Herd health management; all food animals should be maintained in a clean and healthy
environment whenever possible. Drug residues are best avoided by implementing
management practice (good nutrition to meet growth, maintenance and lactation needs)
and herd health program that keep animals healthy and producing efficiently.
2) Use of approved drugs; dairy and beef producers should not use or store un- approved
drugs, special mixes, or products within adequate labels as unapproved drugs have no
 data regarding efficacy, safety, or withholding time. The herd veterinarian should be
certain that ELU involves only approving products.
3) Establishment of valid veterinarian-client-patient relationship; the use of prescription
drug and the ELU necessitate a veterinary-client patient relationship, which is established
hence a veterinarian is closely with the owner in health management of the herd.
4) Proper drug administration and identification of treated animals; before administering or
dispensing drugs one must: know the drugs approved for all classes of cattle on the farm
and be familiar with approved dosage, route of administration, and withholding time.
5) Proper maintenance of treatment records and identification of treated animals; institute a
workable health record for each animal to record all health-related events, including
administration of medication. Record the identification of all animals in the permanent
health record book.
6) Having proper drug residue testing capabilities available on and off the farm; this control
point addresses the conditions under which residue testing should be considered; the
proper selection and interpretation of tests; the inherent limitation and potential misuse of
residue testing; and
7) Creating awareness of proper drug use, and methods to avoid marketing adulterated
products principally educational, total residue avoidance program is based upon the
objective of improving the livestock producer’s management and quality control of
marketing animals with emphasis on avoidance of drug residues.
FARM AND ABATTOIR WASTES AND THEIR ROLES IN THE MAINTENANCE
OF ANIMAL DISEASE CYCLES AND ZOONOSES
Definition of Terms.
Waste: any material lacking in direct value to the producer and so must be disposed of. The
production of waste material is known as the waste stream and includes the entire variety of
refuse generated during domestic, industrial, construction and commercial processes.
Waste management involves the collection, storage, transportation, processing, recycling or
disposal of wastes and its monitoring. Waste management usually relates to materials produced
by human and animal activities and is generally undertaken to reduce their effect on health
environment or aesthetics. Waste management can involve solids, liquids, gaseous or radioactive
substances with different methods and field of expertise in disposal management.
Waste disposal: involves the collection of such in designated areas (disposal points) from where
they are collected and transported for treatment or recycling. Waste disposal should be pollution
free and must be done in an environmental friendly manner.
Waste utilization: is the process of converting waste into useful products or resources e.g Biogas,
Bioorganic fertilizers etc.
Importance of Waste Management
1. It prevents /alleviates environmental pollution or degradation which may result due to wastes
generated by human and animal activities.
2. To protect human, animal and environmental health.
3. To recover useful and valuable resources that is beneficial.
4. Waste management plants or industries can serve to provide job opportunities or employment.
5. for aesthetics.
Waste Hierarchy
This refers to the “3RS which are REDUCE, REUSE and RECYCLE which classify waste
management strategies according to their desirability in terms of waste minimization. The aim of
this is to extract the maximum practical benefits from products and to generate minimum amount
of waste.

Methods of Waste Disposal

1. OPEN DUMPS: This is an uncontrolled surface disposal of waste (Cart the waste away) from
some uninhabited areas such as fields, unused acreage or in water ways. This form of disposal is
being widely discouraged but is still the most practiced in Nigeria and other developing
countries. A slight improvement on this is to burn the waste but this still contributes to to air
pollution in such environment.
Advantages
Inexpensive
Convenient
Disadvantages
Disease organisms, rodents, flies, thrive in this environment hence constituting health hazards.
can result in air pollution
can cause ground water and run-off pollution
2. SANITARY LANDFILL: Disposing wastes in a landfill involves burying the waste and this
remain a common practice in most countries. From public health point of view this was a major
improvement on open dumping. Properly designed and well managed sanitary landfills are very
hygienic while poorly managed ones can create a number of adverse environmental impact such
as wind blow litter, attraction of vermins and generation of liquid leachate which can
contaminate surface/ground water.
Technology
A landfill is usually below ground level and is lined with an impervious material usually plastics
to prevent leachates from escaping. It also contains a leachate removal system above. Once full it
is capped with an impervious material such as clay cap to prevent the introduction of rain water
that would increase the volume of leachate and breach the liner.
Advantages
when properly managed it is hygienic and safe
Not expensive to run
Filled land can be reused for other community purposes.
Disadvantages
Requires maintenance
Needs proper planning, design and operations
When poorly managed can lead to a lot of environmental impact such as odour problems, water
pollution,greenhouse effect, and may kill surface vegetation.
3. INCINERATION:
This is the burning of waste either solids, liquids, and is useful as an alternative heat source. The
waste in incineration is burned in a controlled vessel where more complete combustion is
achieved.
Advantages
Requires minimum land
Can be operated in any weather.
Produces stable odour free residue
Disadvantages
Expensive to build and operate
High energy requirement
Requires trained personnel
Needs continuous maintenance
4. COMPOSTING
This is used in the production of compost manure. Waste materials which are organic in nature
e.g. plant materials, animal manure and food scraps can be recycled using biological composting
and digestion process to break down organic matter. In places where no better utilization of
organic matter especially of animal origin is feasible, it can be composted to yield manure of
reasonably good quality. Compost pits or bunkers can be made of bricks, coarse materials such
as twig which are laid at the bottom for proper ventilation. Their alternate layers are laid up to 2
meters. The outside and top of the waste is protected by clean soil or grains.
Composting is a hygienic way of recycling nutrients of the organic by products of agricultural,
urban and industrial activities. It is safe in storage and easily handled.
It is economical source of plant nutrients. Rather than cause environmental pollution properly
composed organic material can be major asset in the enhancement of soil fertility, restoration of
degraded solids and sequestration of carbon dioxide.
Composting process for full carcass or significant quantities of waste takes several years is
labour intensive and maybe inefficiently disposing hides and bones. Bones even chicken bones
are notoriously difficult to compost.
5. RECYCLING
This is an important aspect of an efficient waste management system. Recycling turns waste
back into useful and valuable products. Many non-biodegradable materials are recyclable such as
plastics papers, glass etc.
Advantages
Conservation of natural resources.
Reduction of waste.
Creation of jobs which are free of health hazards
Decrease emission of greenhouse gases
Helps to sustain the environment for the future generation
Other Methods
Burial: This method is used for dead animals and other meat production wastes by producers
and abattoirs. The effects on water and soil and the risks of pathogen transmission have not been
fully studied.
Rendering: This is a process applied to materials derived from slaughter, packing, processing
food preparations and dead animals. It includes cooking, removing the moisture and separating
materials into sterile animal protein.
Biogas
Biogas is a combustible mixture of gases produced by microorganisms when livestock manure
and other biological wastes are allowed to ferment in the absence of air or oxygen usually in an
enclosed container.It is a methane rich flammable gas the result from the decomposition of
organic waste material.
Composition of BiogaS
Compound chemical Percentages
Methane CH4 50-75
Carbon dioxide CO2 25-50
Nitrogen N2 0-10
Hydrogen H2 0-1
Hydrogen sulphide H2S 0-3
Oxygen O2 0-2
Why use biogas?
Main reason is to treat waste. These wastes are precious resources if used properly , but
constitute major pollution when discharged into rivers and lakes.
It removes pollution and mitigates global warming.
Solves the most serious problems of energy supply in rural areas where people traditionally
forage for fuel wood in the forest.
Produces fuel for cooking, vehicles and is the cleanest biofuel available hence reducing
respiratory problems and diseases.
Can be used to generate electricity and heat. Hence prolong the active hours the day and
enabling families to engage in social or self-improvement activities or earn extra income.
Biogas also produces bio-slurry and bio-dregs rich in nutrients, minerals and this form excellent
organic fertilizers for crops, fish and pigs.
Where does biogas come
Farm and ranch animals
Sewage from human waste treatment plants
Biogas production
A biogas producing plant comprises of three components
Digester- this is a tank where in fermentation occurs causing production of gas.
Gasometer- A gas storage tank
Pipes- for gas distribution at desired points.
The entire assembly has to be water and gas proof. The receptacle or inlets feed the digester with
the waste and these undergo anaerobic fermentation. As a resultbiogas consisting of nearly 60%
methane and 30% carbon dioxide and traces of H2Sand CO are produced.
POLLUTION
Environmental pollution is any discharge of materials or energy into water, land or air that
causes or may cause acute (short term) or chronic (long term) detriment to the Earth’s ecological
balance or that lowers the quality of life.
This can also be defined as the unfavorable alteration of our surroundings whooly or largely as a
byproduct of man’s activities, through direct or indirect effect of changes in energy patterns,
radiation levels, chemical and physical constitution and abundance of microorganisms. These
changes may affect man directly or through his supplies of water and agricultural and other
biological products, his physical objects or possession or his opportunities for recreation and
appreciation of nature.
Until recently in humanity’s history, where pollution has existed, it has been primarily a local
problem. The industrialization of society, the introduction of motorized vehicles and the
explosion of human and animal population however has caused an exponential growth in the
productions of goods and services. Coupled with this growth has been a tremendous increase in
waste by products.
The indiscriminate discharge of untreated industrial and domestic wastes into waterways, the
spewing of thousands of tons of particulate and air borne gases into the atmosphere, the "throw
away" attitude towards solid wastes and the use of chemicals e.g. pesticides without considering
potential consequences have resulted into environmental disasters which include the climatic
change due to global warming, increase natural disasters, outbreak of diseases and zoonoses, etc.
Types of Pollution
All types of pollution have an impact on the living environment. The effect on living things may
range from mild discomfort to serious diseases such as cancer to physical deformities. Pollution
can also cause psychological and behavioral disorders in people.
The following are the types of pollution:
 Water pollution
 Air pollution
 Soil pollution
Water Pollution
This is the introduction into fresh or ocean water of chemical, physical or biological materials
that degrades the quality of water and affects the organisms living in it.
This process ranges from simple addition of dissolved or suspended solids to discharge of toxic
pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides, etc.
Effect on animals:
There may be nutrient pollution (Nitrogen, phosphate e.t.c) which causes overgrowth of toxic
algae and when eaten by other aquatic animals may cause death or outbreak of fish diseases.
 Contamination of water by chemicals e.g oil can negatively affect development of marine
bodies, increase susceptibility to diseases, liver and kidney damage as well as nervous. Mercury
in water can cause reduced reproduction, death and extinction.
Effects on plants:
May disrupts photosynthesis in aquatic plant thus affecting the ecosystem that depends on the
plant
 Terrestrial and aquatic plants may absorb pollutants and pass up the food chain to consumers.
 Plants may be killed by chemicals such as sodium chloride or pesticides in water.
Effect on humans:
 Water borne diseases when drinking water gets contaminated e.g. typhoid, amoebiasis,
Giardiasis, Hepatitis, e.t.c.
 Water diseases such as rashes, pinkeye, E coli O157:H7 infection, other gastroenteritis e.t.c.
can be got from contaminated beaches.
 Chemical pollutants in water such as pesticides, heavy metals can cause cancer, hormonal
problems, kidney, DNA, nervous, and kidney damages and death.
Air Pollution
This is the accumulation in the atmosphere of substances that, in sufficient concentrations
endangers human health or produces other measured effects. Among major sources of pollution
are power and heat generation, burning of solids, industrial and agricultural processes and
especially transportation.
Effects on humans:
 Reduced lung functioning
 Irritation of eyes, nose, mouth and throat
 Asthma attacks
 Respiratory symptoms e.g. coughing and wheezing
 Bronchitis
 Headaches and dizziness
Cardiovascular problems
 Cancer
Premature deaths
Effects on animals:
 Acid rain (formed in the air) destroys aquatic life in lakes and streams
 Ozone in the lower atmosphere may damage lung tissues
 Excessive ultraviolent radiation from the sun through ozone layer that has been depleted can
cause skin cancer.
Effects on plants and trees:
 Acid rain can kill trees, destroy leaves and infiltrates the soil by making it unsuitable for
nutrition and habitation.
 Ozone in the lower atmosphere can prevent photosynthesis rates which can stunt plant growth.
Soil Pollution
This is the degradation of the earth’s land surface through misuse of the soil by poor agricultural
practices e.g. soil erosion, mineral depletion, industrial waste
Dumping and indiscriminate disposal of urban wastes.
Effects on Humans:
 Cancer e.g. Leukemia
 Lead in soil is especially hazardous for young children because of brain damage.
 Headaches, eye irritations skin rashes.
Effect on plants:
 May alter plant metabolism and reduce crop yield.
 Trees and plants may absorb soil contaminants and pass them up the food chain.
Effect on animals:
 Small life forms may consume harmful chemicals which when passed up the food chain to
large animals may lead to increase mortality and animal extinction.
Can alter metabolism of microorganisms and arthropods in a given soil environment. This may
destroy some layers of primary food chain and have adverse effect on predators’ animal species.
IMPACT OF USE OF AGROCHEMICALS ON THE ENVIRONMENT AND
PUBLIC HEALTH.
What are agrochemicals? These re chemicals used for agro industries for the control of pests and
vectors of diseases in both animals and plants.
Pesticides used for these purposes are divided into 2 different types which are herbicides and
insecticides e.g. DDT.
Agrochemicals and the environment
These are essential to help to intensify crop production and reduce the effect of pests, parasites as
well as vectors causing diseases to farm animals. These chemicals can however be easily washed
into streams or infiltrate the soil, eventually contaminating ground water reserves. Pesticides can
be transmitted over a long distance by wind or water. This entails that the possibility exists for
them to accumulate in aquatic and marine food chains far from the site of application.
Agrochemicals threat to human health
Have you ever wondered why you might have at times experienced stomach problems after
taking some water? This experience may be as a result of consumption of polluted water.
Chemical pollutants pose a major threat to public health through poisoning. In both fresh and
marine water, algae can multiply rapidly or bloom when there is sudden increase in the nutrients
of the water particularly nitrates and phosphates. This contaminated alga in turn become an
important source of food for fresh water and marine animals. Toxic algal blooms have a variety
of effects on the public health. In some cases people experience the signs of acute diarrhea and
even death when they eat fish or animals contaminated with these chemicals.
In what ways can humans be exposed to these chemicals?
Agricultural chemicals such as pesticides and herbicides may be taken into human body by the
mouth, skins or through the lungs. The uptake of chemical poisons during application is minimal
unless operators unwisely eat, drink or smoke beforewashing hands and face. Oral poisonings
usually occur through accidental exposure i.e. when pesticides are improperly stored in food
containers or drink bottles. Other incidents of pesticide poisoning usually occur when recently
sprayed fruits have been eaten or when chemicals are taken intentionally in case of suicide.
Contamination of the body takes place principally by absorption through the skin which is
particularly vulnerable where there is cut or skin break. Remember the back of the wrists absorbs
chemicals more than the palms. Also the eyes, neck, feet,armpits and groins are areas that need
more protection. The risk of skin absorption is more in hot weathers when sweating occurs.
Safety precautions and Protective covering
Safety precautions to be taken in using agrochemicals depend on the hazard involved in
transportation, storage and use of a particular chemical, the level of toxicity that varies according
to their chemical structure, purity and formulations.
The risk of poisoning by more toxic chemicals can be reduced by suitable formulations and
packaging. Increasing emphasis is given to the design of application equipment’s that minimize
the risk of exposure of the operator.
Agrochemicals must be stored in safe places and used according to instructions. The first thing
the user of agrochemicals must do is to read the label and adhere to the instructions accordingly.
Protective covering
Appropriate protective coverings must be worn when pesticides are to be applied.
The minimum protective covering is an overall defined as a single garment fastening at the neck
and wrists.
A safe protective covering (P.C.) must meet the following criteria:
It must cover the whole body and must also include the face shield, goggles, respirator,
footwear or gloves.
Must have sleeves over the top of the gauntlet gloves unless elbow- length gloves are needed
for dipping plants or animals in pesticides/acaricides.
It must be resistant to penetration by liquid or solid particles in the circumstances in which it is
being used and minimize thermal stress to the operator who wears it.
It is advisable to wash P.C. preferably at the end of each days spraying after all the equipment
has been cleaned and stored.
IMPACT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY ON THE ENVIRONMENT ANDHUMAN
HEALTH.
Livestock farms also known as feedlots house thousands of cows, chickens or pigs produce
staggering amount of animal wastes. The way these wastes are stored and used has profound
effects on the humans and the environment.
Animal husbandry and activities has generated so much waste and environmental pollution e.g.
60 million hogs or pigs in the U.S.A produce an estimate 100 million
tonnes of faeces and urine. Also 46.5 million milk and beef cows produce 500 million tonnes of
waste per year. This has contributed to waste spills which have inturn introduced enteric
pathogens into surface water. The wastes generated also contaminate ground waters with nitrates,
air with ammonia and odour so offensive that could affect people psychologically.
Agricultural wastes disposal into lagoons and lakes also contribute to increase nutrients in them.
This encourages the growth of algae which utilizes the oxygen to give carbon dioxide.
Continuous utilization of the dissolved oxygen could cause depletion of oxygen which has an
adverse effect on the aquatic bodies hence resulting into death (asphyxiation). In addition the
risks of lagoon leakage, overflow and discharge pose direct treat to quality of soil and water
systems. A survey carried out between1986-1998 by CDC demonstrated that in every case where
the pathogen could be identified most likely originated from livestock.
In addition, livestock wastes when it contaminates ground water increases the nitrate level of the
water. Drinking water with nitrate concentrations above recommended increase the risk of blue
baby syndrome in infants below 6 months which can result in infants’ death as a result of oxygen
deprivation. High levels of nitrates in drinking water close to hog factories have also been linked
to spontaneous abortions.
 In addition wide uses of antibiotics also pose dangers to the environment and human health.
Large scale animal factories often give animals antibiotics as growth promoters or to compensate
for illness as a result of overcrowding and poor hygienic practices. Such antibiotics can get into
the environment and food chain hence resulting into antibiotic resistance in humans.
Another effect is the greenhouse effect. Livestock wastes has been implicated in greenhouse
emissions of greenhouse gases such as methane, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide gases which has
been found to influence global climate change as well as regional soil quality.
Also storage of animal wastes under industrial livestock facilities has been found to pose health
risk to both animals and humans. This can lead to death in animals due to poor ventilation and
buildup of toxic gases.
In humans, death of workers in livestock facilities has also been reported due to buildup of toxic
gases and respiratory complications.
PREVENTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
Practical remedies to these problems do exist. But implementing them will require some
important changes in animal husbandry practices and government oversight.
 Public awareness and participation: Local government and the residents should have a say in
whether to allow farms it their communities. The public is also entitled to review and comment
on the contents of pollution reduction plans and to enforce the terms where a factory farm is in
violation.
 Regulation and accountability: Factory farms should be taken as industrial facilities and
should be regulated accordingly. They must be registered, obtain permits, monitor water quality
as well as pollution and observe proper cleaning ,disposal and management of their wastes.
New technology: Animal farm technology standards must be strengthened and encouraged.
The FEPA must consider recent technology advances that significantly reduce pathogens and
pollution.
 Pollution reduction programs in small farms: Voluntary programme must be expanded to
encourage smaller factory farms which fall outside of the regulation for industries, to improve on
their management practices.

Disease causing organisms found in slaughter animals and abattoir wastes in Nigeria
Animal/ Source of organism Abattoir waste/effluent
Bacteria Bacillus sp, Claustriduimwelchi(Cl. Adesemoyeet al, 2006.
 perfringes), Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, Microccusluteus, Vibrio
sp, Lactobacillus platinum
Bacteria Staphylococcus sp., Streptococcus sp., Yakubuet al, 2007
Escherichia coli. Salmonella sp., Muoghalu and Omocho. 1997
Proteus sp. Bacillus sp.
Bacteria Mycobacterium bovis, Bikomet al, 2007
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Fungi Aspergillus niger, Mucor sp., Adesemoyeet al, 2006
Penicilliumsp.,Saccarhomyces sp.,
Fusariumsp

Bacteria Salmonella sp. Oboegbulemet al, 1981;

Tabukunet al, 1996.
Helminthes Hydatid cysts Opera M.N et al, 2006
Cysticercus cysts Okolo M.I, 1986