DAV Public School, Aundh, Pune
Physics Investigatory Project
On Study of Bipolar Junction
Transistors and their Applications
Name → Divij Verma
Class → 12A
Rollno → 120109
Acknowledgement
First and foremost, I would like to acknowledge and express my
sincere gratitude my physics teacher Mrs. Loveleen Sharda Ma'am,
for guiding, supporting and assisting me throughout the project. Her
valuable suggestions and guidance have helped me immensely in the
successful and timely completion of this project.
I would also like to express my heartfelt gratitude to the principal,
Mrs. Jayashree Khandekar, for her valuable guidance and support.
I would like to thank my parents and friends for their constant
support and encouragement.
The whole experience of preparing this project has been a very
insightful and memorable one.
Study of Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) and their application in
constructing Logic gates
Introduction
Digital logic gates are the backbone of all modern digital electronics. They are typically
implemented using transistors, specifically BJTs or MOSFETs, in integrated circuits. In this
project, we investigate how BJTs function and how they can be configured to behave like
basic logic gates: AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, and XOR.
This project investigates how discrete BJTs, along with basic passive components like
resistors and LEDs can be used to construct logic gates and emulate boolean algebra.
Theory
What is a Bipolar Junction Transistor?
A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three terminal semiconductor based passive device
that can act as either an amplifier or a switch. It uses both electrons and electron holes as
charge carriers hence its name bipolar.
Structure
A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal semiconductor device that can
amplify or switch electrical signals. It consists of a thin, differently doped region
sandwiched between two similarly doped semiconductor regions, forming two p-n
junctions.
There are two types of BJTs:
• NPN Transistor – Consists of a thin P-type base sandwiched between two N-type
regions (emitter and collector).
• PNP Transistor – Consists of a thin N-type base between two P-type regions.
P Type means semiconductor doped with trivalent impurities (such as Aluminium
and boron) which provide holes that readily accept electrons and N Type means
semiconductor doped with pentavalent impurities (such as Phosphorus and
Arsenic) that provide excess electrons to the silicon based intristic crystal.
Terminals of a BJT:
Each BJT has three terminals: * Emitter (E) – Heavily doped to inject carriers (electrons in
NPN, holes in PNP).
• Base (B) – Very thin and lightly doped; allows carriers to pass through.
• Collector (C) – Moderately doped and designed to collect carriers from the base.
alt text
BJTs as Switches
A BJT can operate in two distinct modes that make it behave like an electrical switch. This
switching action is the foundation for digital logic circuits.
1. Cut-off Region (OFF State)
In this mode, the transistor behaves like an open switch.
• Base current IB = 0
• Base-emitter junction: Not forward biased
– VBE ≤ 0.7V (for NPN transistors)
• Collector current: IC ≈ 0 (no current flows)
• Behavior: The transistor is OFF, and no conduction occurs between collector and
emitter.
2. Saturation Region (ON State)
In this mode, the transistor acts like a closed switch.
• Base current: IB > 0 (applied through a base resistor)
• Base-emitter junction: Forward biased
– VBE ≈ 0.7V (for NPN transistors)
• Collector-emitter voltage: VCE ≈ 0.2V (very low)
• Collector current: IC flows freely (determined by load)
• Behavior: The transistor is fully ON, allowing current to flow from collector to
emitter.
In digital logic applications, this binary ON/OFF behavior of BJTs is used to build
basic logic gates such as NOT, AND, OR, etc.
What are logic gates ?
Logic gates are the fundamental building blocks of digital electronics. They perform basic
logical functions that are essential for computation, signal processing, and control systems.
Each gate takes one or more binary inputs (0 or 1) and produces a single binary output
based on a specific logic rule.
The switching ability of transistor based upon the input voltage applied to its base, allows
control for the flow of current in a circuit in such a way that it implements boolean logic
through abstractions like NOT, AND and OR gates, and a combination of thereof.
Creating logic gates
In digital electronics, logic gates are usually built using integrated circuits. However, the
same logical operations can be physically implemented using discrete components like
BJTs, resistors, and power supplies. Below, we explore the construction and working of
NOT, AND, and OR gates using NPN transistors.
Components used
• 2N2222 NPN Transistor
• Resistors
– Base Resistor (x ohms)
– Load Resistor (y) ohms (x>y)
• Push Buttons
• LEDs
• 9V DC Battery
1. NOT Gate
• Function: Unary gate which inverts the incoming signal (A)
• Logical Symbol: ¬A or A̅ (where )
• Diagram
• Truth Table:
A Y
1 1
1 0
• Circuit diagram
-
Explaination: When the switch A is open (or off), input signal is 0 and the led glows but
when switch A is closed (or on), input signal is 1 and the transistor’s base recieves small
current, making the NPN junction forward baised and shorting the load’s current, causing it
to turn off
2. AND Gate
• Function: Binary gate that outputs HIGH only when both inputs A and B are HIGH.
• Logical Symbol: A · B or A ∧ B
• Diagram
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Circuit diagram
• Explanation: Two NPN transistors are connected in series. Current can only flow
from Vcc to ground if both switches A and B are ON, which means both base
terminals are receiving current and both transistors are conducting. Only then does
the output become LOW (if output is taken before ground). If an inverted pull-up
logic is used (output taken across a pull-up resistor), the output is HIGH only when
both inputs are HIGH, giving the correct AND logic.
3. OR Gate
• Function: Binary gate that outputs HIGH if either A or B is HIGH.
• Logical Symbol: A + B or A ∨ B
• Diagram
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
• Circuit diagram
• Explanation: Two NPN transistors are connected in parallel. If either A or B is ON,
current flows through the corresponding transistor, and the output becomes LOW. If
output is taken across a pull-up resistor and inverted (i.e., via NOT gate), the output
becomes HIGH when any one or both inputs are HIGH, mimicking the behavior of an
OR gate. The circuit utilizes the switching property of transistors to enable current
conduction when either base is energized.
7. Implementation and Experimental Setup
This section details the physical implementation of the logic gates using bipolar junction
transistors (BJTs) on a breadboard. The goal was to realize each logic gate (NOT, AND, OR,
NAND, NOR, XOR) using discrete components without using any integrated circuits (ICs).
Components Used
S. No. Component Specification Quantity
1 NPN Transistor 2N2222 8–12
2 Resistors 220Ω, 1kΩ, 10kΩ As needed
3 Switches (Push Button) SPST momentary switch 2–4
4 LEDs 5mm, red/green 1–2 per gate
5 Breadboard 840 tie-point 1
6 Jumper Wires Male-to-male ~30
7 Power Supply 9v LI-ion Battery 1
Experimental Setup
1. Breadboard Layout:
– The logic gates were built one by one on a breadboard.
– Transistors were inserted with their pins (C-B-E) properly aligned and
identified using the datasheet.
– Inputs were connected using push buttons or toggle switches to simulate
binary inputs (0/1).
2. Power Supply:
– A regulated 9v DC power source was used.
– Series resistors were added to limit current through base and LEDs.
3. Base Resistors:
– Typically, a 1kΩ resistor was used at the transistor base to limit base current.
– The value was chosen using:
𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝑅𝐵 = (with 𝑉𝐵𝐸 ≈ 0.7𝑉 and 𝐼𝐵 ≈ 1𝑚𝐴)
𝐼𝐵
4. LED Indicators:
– Outputs were visualized using LEDs connected with 220Ω resistors in series.
– Logic HIGH (1) turned the LED ON, logic LOW (0) turned it OFF.
Photographs
