DEPARTMENT OF PRODUCTION ENGINEERING & INDUSTRIAL MANAGEMENT

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE

(An Autonomous Institute of Govt. of Maharashtra)

A SEMINAR REPORT
On

“NANOFLUIDS”
SUBMITTED
By

PRANJAL GANPAT NANNOR

T.Y. B. Tech. Production (Sandwich)

MIS NO:111713045
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF
Prof. S.S. Anasane
Year
2019-2020
 DEPARTMENT OF PRODUCTION ENGINEERING & INDUSTRIAL MANAGEMENT

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE

(An Autonomous Institute of Govt. of Maharashtra)

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Miss PRANJAL GANPAT NANNOR has completed the seminar entitled
“NANOFLUIDS” in partial fulfillment of the requirement of the 5th semester of Production Engineering
(Sandwich) course at the Department of Production Engineering & Industrial Management, College of
Engineering, Pune, during the academic year 2017-2018.
Date: 19/11/2019

Prof. S.S. Anasane Head,

(Internal Guide) Dept. Of Production Eng. &Industrial Management,
College of Engineering, Pune

(External Examiner)
 AKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am extremely grateful to the Department of Production Engineering and Industrial

Management of College of Engineering, Pune for providing the necessary facilities towards the
completion of my seminar. I take this opportunity to extend my sincere thanks to Prof. S.S. Anasane
who guided me through the concepts of seminar which enabled me to do my best with practical
understanding.

I express my sincere and profound gratitude to Dr. P. D. Pantawane our Head of Department
for his valuable encouragement, suggestions and advices for the preparation of the seminar. I thank all
the teachers who have been a constant help for me, rendering their knowledge and skill which has
certainly given me new ideas throughout this seminar.

I also like to thank my parents and friends for the constant encouragement and support in this
venture, without which I would have found difficult to complete my seminar successfully. Above all, I
would like to thank God Almighty who has showered his blessings upon me and given the patience and
perseverance to undertake this seminar and helping me to make this seminar a success.
 Abstract

A wide variety of industrial processes involve the transfer of heat energy. Thermal properties of fluids
play a decisive role in heating as well as cooling applications. Conventional heat transfer fluids have
inherently poor thermal conductivity which makes them inadequate for advanced industrial processes
like ultra-high cooling applications. Although there has been an enormous growth in technologies
ranging from electronics and communication, and computers, heat management problems in these
areas are still intact. Nanofluids with their superior thermal and electrical properties can find their
applications in these areas.

Commonly used heat transfer fluids have relatively low thermal conductivities, when compared to the
thermal conductivity of solids. High thermal conductivity of solids can be used to increase the thermal
conductivity of a fluid by adding small solid particles to that fluid. A nanofluid is a fluid containing
nanometer-sized particles, called nanoparticles. These fluids are engineered colloidal suspensions of
nanoparticles in a base fluid. The nanoparticles used in nanofluids are typically made of metals, oxides,
carbides, or carbon nanotubes. Common base fluids include water, ethylene glycol and oil.

Along with a few drawbacks, there are considerable researches on the superior heat transfer properties
of nanofluids especially on thermal conductivity and convective heat transfer. The enhancement of
heating or cooling in an industrial process will save energy, reduce process time, raise thermal rating
and lengthen the working life of equipment. Recently, the number of industrial application potential of
nanofluids technology and their focus for specific industrial applications is increasing. Nanofluids can
effectively be used for a wide variety of industries, ranging from transportation to energy production
and in electronics systems like microprocessors and biotechnology.
1 Contents
1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................... 7
1.1 Emergence of nanofluids ........................................................................................................................................ 8
1.2 Types of Nanofluids............................................................................................................................................... 10
1.3 Thermophysical properties ................................................................................................................................... 11
1.3.1 Thermal conductivity .................................................................................................................................... 11
1.3.2 Viscosity ........................................................................................................................................................ 12
1.3.3 Specific heat and density .............................................................................................................................. 13
2 Preparation of Nanofluids ............................................................................................................................................. 14
2.1 Two - Step Method ............................................................................................................................................... 14
2.2 One – Step Method ............................................................................................................................................... 15
2.3 Other Novel Methods ........................................................................................................................................... 16
2.4 Stability of Nanofluids ........................................................................................................................................... 18
2.4.1 Stability Evaluation Methods ........................................................................................................................ 18
[Link] Zeta Potential Analysis .............................................................................................................................. 19
[Link] Sedimentation Photograph Capturing Method ........................................................................................ 20
[Link] Centrifugation Method ............................................................................................................................. 20
2.4.2 Spectral Analysis Method.............................................................................................................................. 21
[Link] 3ω-Method................................................................................................................................................ 22
[Link] Electron Microscopy Methods .................................................................................................................. 23
2.4.3 Stability Enhancement Procedures ............................................................................................................... 24
[Link] Addition of Surfactants ............................................................................................................................. 24
[Link] Surface Modification Techniques.............................................................................................................. 25
[Link] Ultrasonic Agitation .................................................................................................................................. 25
[Link] pH Control of Nanofluids .......................................................................................................................... 27
3 Applications and Advantages ........................................................................................................................................ 28
3.1 Heat transfer applications..................................................................................................................................... 28
3.1.1 Extraction of Geothermal Power and Other Energy Sources ....................................................................... 28
3.1.2 Smart Fluids................................................................................................................................................... 29
3.2 Automotive applications ....................................................................................................................................... 29
3.2.1 Nanofluid Coolant ......................................................................................................................................... 29
3.2.2 Nanofluid in Fuel ........................................................................................................................................... 30
3.3 Biomedical applications ........................................................................................................................................ 31
3.3.1 Cancer Therapeutics ..................................................................................................................................... 31
 3.3.2 Nano cryosurgery .......................................................................................................................................... 32
3.4 Electronic application............................................................................................................................................ 32
3.4.1 Cooling of Microchips ................................................................................................................................... 33
3.5 Other application .................................................................................................................................................. 33
3.5.1 Nanofluid Detergent ..................................................................................................................................... 33
3.6 Advantages............................................................................................................................................................ 34
4 Challenges and Future Aspects ..................................................................................................................................... 36
5 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................................... 39

2 List of Figures

Fig. 1. Two-Step Method ....................................................................................................................................................... 15

Fig. 2. One-Step Method ....................................................................................................................................................... 16
Fig. 3. Repulsion mechanisms ............................................................................................................................................... 18
Fig. 4. Zeta Potential Analysis ............................................................................................................................................... 19
Fig. 5. Types of sedimentation behaviors in nanofluids ....................................................................................................... 20
Fig. 6. Spectral Analysis Method ........................................................................................................................................... 22
Fig. 7. 3ω-Method ................................................................................................................................................................. 22
Fig. 8. Electron Microscopy Method ..................................................................................................................................... 23
Fig. 9. Surface Modification Techniques ............................................................................................................................... 25
Fig. 10. Ultrasonic Agitation .................................................................................................................................................. 26
Fig. 11. Geothermal Power Plant .......................................................................................................................................... 28
Fig. 12. Smart fluid developed in the labs of Michigan Institute of Technology .................................................................. 29
Fig. 13. Cooling System ......................................................................................................................................................... 30
Fig. 14. Diesel Engine ............................................................................................................................................................ 31
Fig. 15. MNPs in cancer therapeutics.................................................................................................................................... 32
Fig. 16. Cooling of Microchips ............................................................................................................................................... 33
 1. Introduction
The transfer of heat energy is involved in almost all the scientific processes. Throughout any
industrial facility, heat must be added, removed, or moved from one process stream to another
and it has become a major task for industrial necessity. These processes provide a source for
energy recovery and process fluid heating/cooling.
The enhancement of heating or cooling in an industrial process may create a saving in energy,
reduce process time, raise thermal rating and lengthen the working life of equipment. Some
processes are even affected qualitatively by the action of enhanced heat transfer. The
development of high-performance thermal systems for heat transfer enhancement has become
popular nowadays. Several works have been performed to gain an understanding of the heat
transfer performance for their practical application to heat transfer enhancement. Thus, the
advent of high heat flow processes has created significant demand for new technologies to
enhance heat transfer.

There are several methods to improve the heat transfer efficiency. Some methods are utilization
of extended surfaces, application of vibration to the heat transfer surfaces, and usage of micro
channels. Heat transfer efficiency can also be improved by increasing the thermal conductivity
of the working fluid. Commonly used heat transfer fluids such as water, ethylene glycol, and
engine oil have relatively low thermal conductivities, when compared to the thermal conductivity
of solids. High thermal conductivity of solids can be used to increase the thermal conductivity of
a fluid by adding small solid particles to that fluid. The feasibility of the usage of such
suspensions of solid particles with sizes on the order of 2 millimeters or micrometers was
previously investigated by several researchers and the following significant drawbacks were
observed (Das and Choi, 2006).

i. The particles settle rapidly, forming a layer on the surface and reducing the heat transfer capacity
of the fluid.
ii. If the circulation rate of the fluid is increased, sedimentation is reduced, but the erosion of the
heat transfer devices, pipelines, etc., increases rapidly.
iii. The large size of the particles tends to clog the flow channels, particularly if the cooling channels
are narrow.
iv. The pressure drop in the fluid increases considerably.
 v. Finally, conductivity enhancement based on particle concentration is achieved (i.e., the greater
the particle volume fraction is, the greater the enhancement—and greater the problems, as
indicated above).

Thus, the route of suspending particles in liquid was a well-known but rejected option for heat
transfer applications. However, the emergence of modern materials technology provided the
opportunity to produce nanometer-sized particles which are quite different from the parent
material in mechanical, thermal, electrical, and optical properties.

2.1 Emergence of nanofluids

The situation changed when Choi and Eastman in Argonne National Laboratory revisited this
field with their nanoscale metallic particle and carbon nanotube suspensions (Choi and Eastman
(1995); Eastman et al. (1996)). Choi and Eastman have tried to suspend various metal and metal
oxides nanoparticles in several different fluids (Choi (1998); Choi et al. (2001); Chon et al.
(2005); Chon et al. (2006); Eastman et al. (2001); Eastman et al. (1999); Eastman et al. (2004))
and their results are promising, however, many things remain elusive about these suspensions
of Nano-structured materials, which have been termed “nanofluids” by Choi and Eastman.
Nanofluid is a new kind of heat transfer medium, containing nanoparticles (1–100 nm) which are
uniformly and stably distributed in a base fluid. These distributed nanoparticles, generally a metal
or metal oxide greatly enhance the thermal conductivity of the nanofluid, increases conduction
and convection coefficients, allowing for more heat transfer.

Nanofluids have been considered for applications as advanced heat transfer fluids for almost
two decades. However, due to the wide variety and the complexity of the nanofluid systems, no
agreement has been achieved on the magnitude of potential benefits of using nanofluids for heat
transfer applications. Compared to conventional solid–liquid suspensions for heat transfer
intensifications, nanofluids having properly dispersed nanoparticles possess the following
advantages:

i. High specific surface area and therefore more heat transfer between particles and fluids.
ii. High dispersion stability with a predominant Brownian motion of particles.
 iv. Reduced pumping power as compared to pure liquid to achieve equivalent heat transfer
intensification.
v. Reduced particle clogging as compared to conventional slurries, thus promoting system
miniaturization.
vi. Adjustable properties, including thermal conductivity and surface wettability, by varying particle
concentrations to suit different applications.
vii. The first test with nanofluids gave more encouraging features than they were thought to possess.
The four unique features observed are listed below (Das and Choi, 2006).
viii. Abnormal enhancement of thermal conductivity: - The most important feature observed in
nanofluids was an abnormal rise in thermal conductivity, far beyond expectations and much
higher than any theory could predict.
ix. Stability: - Nanofluids have been reported to be stable over months using a stabilizing agent.
x. Small concentration and Newtonian behavior: - Large enhancement of conductivity was
achieved with a very small concentration of particles that completely maintained the Newtonian
behavior of the fluid. The rise in viscosity was nominal; hence, pressure drop was increased only
marginally.
xi. Particles size dependence: - Unlike the situation with micro slurries, the enhancement of
conductivity was found to depend not only on particle concentration but also on particle size. In
general, with decreasing particle size, an increase in enhancement was observed.

The above potentials provided the thrust necessary to begin research in nanofluids, with the
expectation that these fluids will play an important role in developing the next generation of
cooling technology. The result can be a highly conducting and stable nanofluid with exciting
newer applications in the future.
2.2 Types of Nanofluids
Nanofluid, which is a term used to describe fluids containing dispersed particles of nanoscale,
can be formed from nanoparticles of single element (e.g., Cu, Fe, and Ag), single element oxide
(e.g., CuO, Cu2O, Al2O3, and TiO2,), alloys (e.g., Cu-Zn, Fe-Ni, and Ag-Cu), multielement oxides
(e.g., CuZnFe4O4, NiFe2O4, and ZnFe2O4), metal carbides (e.g., SiC, B4C, and ZrC), metal
nitrides (e.g., SiN, TiN, and AlN), and carbon materials (e.g., graphite, carbon nanotubes, and
diamond) suspended in water, ethanol, EG, oil, and refrigerants. They can be classified into two
main categories: single material nanofluids and hybrid nanofluids.

i. Single Material Nanofluids: This category of nanofluid was first proposed by Choi, in 1995, and
is considered as the conventional form of nanofluids used, where a single type of nanoparticles
is used to produce the suspension via different preparation methods. It was reported by many
authors that nanofluids of such category are superior in performance, due to having much more
favorable thermophysical properties than their base fluid.
ii. Hybrid Nanofluids: Hybrid nanofluids are an advanced category of nanofluids which are made
of a combination of more than one type of nanoparticles suspended in a base fluid. This type of
fluids was first studied experimentally by Jana et al., in 2007, in order to enhance the fluid thermal
conductivity beyond that of a conventional single material type nanofluid. In their study, Cu
nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and Au nanoparticles dispersed in water, as well as
their hybrids (CNT–Cu/H2O and CNT–Au/H2O) were examined. The results showed that the
thermal conductivity of Cu/H2O nanofluid was the highest among the tested samples and
increased linearly with the rise of particle concentration. Nevertheless, the stability of the CNT–
Cu/H2O nanofluid achieved longer settling time than the other types of nanofluids. This enables
the fluid to conserve its thermal conductivity much longer before degrading.
2.3 Thermophysical properties
Thermo physical properties of the nanofluids are quite essential to predict their heat transfer
behavior. It is extremely important in the control for the industrial and energy saving
perspectives. There is great industrial interest in nanofluids. Nanoparticles have great potential
to improve the thermal transport properties compared to conventional particles fluids
suspension, millimeter and micrometer sized particles. In the last decade, nanofluids have
gained significant attention due to its enhanced thermal properties.

Experimental studies show that thermal conductivity of nanofluids depends on many factors such
as particle volume fraction, particle material, particle size, particle shape, base fluid material,
and temperature. Amount and types of additives and the acidity of the nanofluid were also shown
to be effective in the thermal conductivity enhancement.

The transport properties of nanofluid: dynamic thermal conductivity and viscosity are not only
dependent on volume fraction of nanoparticle, also highly dependent on other parameters such
as particle shape, size, mixture combinations and slip mechanisms, surfactant, etc. Studies
showed that the thermal conductivity as well as viscosity both increases by use of nanofluid
compared to base fluid. So far, various theoretical and experimental studies have been
conducted and various correlations have been proposed for thermal conductivity and dynamic
viscosity of nanofluids. However, no general correlations have been established due to lack of
common understanding on mechanism of nanofluid.

2.3.1 Thermal conductivity

A wide range of experimental and theoretical studies were conducted in the literature to model
thermal conductivity of nanofluids. The existing results were generally based on the definition of
the effective thermal conductivity of a two-component mixture. The Maxwell (1881) model was
one the first models proposed for solid–liquid mixture with relatively large particles. It was based
on the solution of heat conduction equation through a stationary random suspension of spheres.
The effective thermal conductivity equation is given by
 Where kp is the thermal conductivity of the particles, keff is the effective thermal conductivity of
nanofluid, kbf is the base fluid thermal conductivity, and ϕ is the volume fraction of the suspended
particles.

The general trend in the experimental data is that the thermal conductivity of nanofluids
increases with decreasing particle size. This trend is theoretically supported by two mechanisms
of thermal conductivity enhancement; Brownian motion of nanoparticles and liquid layering
around nanoparticles (Ozerinc et al, 2010). However, there is also a significant amount of
contradictory data in the literature that indicate decreasing thermal conductivity with decreasing
particle size.

Published results illustrated neither agreement about the mechanisms for heat transfer
enhancement nor a unified possible explanation regarding the large discrepancies in the results
even for the same base fluid and nanoparticles size. There are various models available for the
measurement of effective thermal conductivity of nanofluids (Wang and Mujumdar, 2007) but
there exist large deviations among them. Currently, there are no theoretical results available in
the literature that predicts accurately the thermal conductivity of nanofluids.

2.3.2 Viscosity
Compared with the experimental studies on thermal conductivity of nanofluids, there are limited
rheological studies reported in the literature for viscosity. Different models of viscosity have been
used by researchers to model the effective viscosity of nanofluid as a function of volume fraction.
Einstein (1956) determined the effective viscosity of a suspension of spherical solids as a
function of volume fraction (volume concentration lower than 5%) using the phenomenological
hydrodynamic equations. This equation was expressed by:

Where µeff is the effective viscosity of nanofluid, µbf is the base fluid viscosity, and ϕ is the volume
fraction of the suspended [Link], Brinkman (1952) presented a viscosity correlation that
extended Einstein’s equation to suspensions with moderate particle volume fraction, typically
less than 4%.
 The effect of Brownian motion on the effective viscosity in a suspension of rigid spherical
particles was studied by Batchelor (1977). For isotropic structure of suspension, the effective
viscosity was given by:

2.3.3 Specific heat and density

Using classical formulas derived for a two-phase mixture, the specific heat capacity. (Pak and
Cho,1998) and density ( Xuan and Roetzel, 2000). of the nanofluid as a function of the particle
volume concentration and individual properties can be computed using following equations
respectively:
3 Preparation of Nanofluids
Preparation of nanofluids is the first key step in applying nanophase particles to changing the
heat transfer performance of conventional fluids. The nanofluid does not simply refer to liquid –
solid mixture. Some special requirements are necessary, such as even suspension, stable
suspension, durable suspension, low agglomeration of particles, no chemical change of the fluid.
In general, these are effective methods used for preparation of suspensions:

i. To change the pH value of suspensions;

ii. To use surface activators and/or dispersants;
iii. To use ultrasonic vibration.

Generally, we are using two types of Technique. The following Techniques are discussed below:

3.1 Two - Step Method

Two-step method is the most widely used method for preparing nanofluids. Nanoparticles,
nanofibers, nanotubes, or other nanomaterials used in this method are first produced as dry
powders by chemical or physical methods. Then, the nanosized powder will be dispersed into a
fluid in the second processing step with the help of intensive magnetic force agitation, ultrasonic
agitation, high-shear mixing, homogenizing, and ball milling. Two-step method is the most
economic method to produce nanofluids in large scale, because Nano powder synthesis
techniques have already been scaled up to industrial production levels. Due to the high surface
area and surface activity, nanoparticles have the tendency to aggregate. The important
technique to enhance the stability of nanoparticles in fluids is the use of surfactants. However,
the functionality of the surfactants under high temperature is also a big concern, especially for
high-temperature applications. Due to the difficulty in preparing stable nanofluids by two-step
method, several advanced techniques are developed to produce nanofluids, including one-step
method. In the following part, we will introduce one-step method in detail.
 Fig. 1. Two-Step Method

3.2 One – Step Method

To reduce the agglomeration of nanoparticles, Eastman et al. developed a one-step physical
vapor condensation method to prepare Cu/ethylene glycol nanofluids. The one-step process
consists of simultaneously making and dispersing the particles in the fluid. In this method, the
processes of drying, storage, transportation, and dispersion of nanoparticles are avoided, so the
agglomeration of nanoparticles are minimized, and the stability of fluids is increased.

The one-step processes can prepare uniformly dispersed nanoparticles, and the particles can
be stably suspended in the base fluid. The vacuum-SANSS (submerged arc nanoparticle
synthesis system) is another efficient method to prepare nanofluids using different dielectric
liquids. The different morphologies are mainly influenced and determined by various thermal
conductivity properties of the dielectric liquids. The nanoparticles prepared exhibit needle-like,
polygonal, square, and circular morphological shapes. The method avoids the undesired particle
aggregation well.

One-step physical method cannot synthesize nanofluids in large scale, and the cost is also high,
so the one-step chemical method is developing rapidly. Zhu et al. presented a novel one-step
chemical method for preparing copper nanofluids by reducing CuSO4.5H2O with NaH2PO2.H2O
in ethylene glycol under microwave irradiation. Well-dispersed and stably suspended copper
nanofluids were obtained. Mineral oil-based nanofluids containing silver nanoparticles with a
narrow-size distribution was also prepared by this method. The particles could be stabilized by
Korantin, which coordinated to the silver particle surfaces via two oxygen atoms forming a dense
layer around the particles.
 The silver nanoparticle suspensions were stable for about 1 month. Stable ethanol-based
nanofluids containing silver nanoparticles could be prepared by microwave-assisted one-step
method. In the method, poly vinyl pyrrolidone (PVP) was employed as the stabilizer of colloidal
silver and reducing agent for silver in solution. The cationic surfactant octade cylamine (ODA) is
also an efficient phase transfer agent to synthesize silver colloids. The phase transfer of the
silver nanoparticles arises due to coupling of the silver nanoparticles with the ODA molecules
present in organic phase via either coordination bond formation or weak covalent interaction.

Fig. 2. One-Step Method

3.3 Other Novel Methods

Wei et al. developed a continuous-flow microfluidic microreactor to synthesize copper
nanofluids. By this method, copper nanofluids can be continuously synthesized, and their
microstructure and properties can be varied by adjusting parameters such as reactant
concentration, flow rate, and additive. CuO nanofluids with high solid volume fraction (up to 10
vol%) can be synthesized through a novel precursor transformation method with the help of
ultrasonic and microwave irradiation. The precursor Cu(OH)2 is completely transformed to CuO
nanoparticle in water under microwave irradiation. The ammonium citrate prevents the growth
and aggregation of nanoparticles, resulting in a stable CuO aqueous nanofluid with higher
thermal conductivity than those prepared by other dispersing methods.

Phase-transfer method is also a facile way to obtain monodisperse noble metal colloids. In a
water-cyclohexane two-phase system, aqueous formaldehyde is transferred to cyclohexane
phase via reaction with dodecylamine to form reductive intermediates in cyclohexane. The
intermediates can reduce silver or gold ions in an aqueous solution to form dodecylamine-
protected silver and gold nanoparticles in cyclohexane solution at room temperature. Feng et al.
used the aqueous organic phase-transfer method for preparing gold, silver, and platinum
nanoparticles based on the decrease of the PVP’s solubility in water with the temperature
increase.

Phase-transfer method is also applied for preparing stable kerosene-based Fe3O4 nanofluids.
Oleic acid is successfully grafted onto the surface of Fe3O4 nanoparticles by chemisorbed mode,
which lets

Fe3O4 nanoparticles have good compatibility with kerosene. The Fe3O4 nanofluids prepared by
phase-transfer method do not show the previously reported ―time dependence of the thermal
conductivity characteristic. The preparation of nanofluids with controllable microstructure is one
of the key issues. It is well known that the properties of nanofluids strongly depend on the
structure and shape of nanomaterials.

The recent research shows that nanofluids synthesized by chemical solution method have both
higher conductivity enhancement and better stability than those produced by the other methods.
This method is distinguished from the others by its controllability. The nanofluid microstructure
can be varied and manipulated by adjusting synthesis parameters such as temperature, acidity,
ultrasonic and microwave irradiation, types and concentrations of reactants and additives, and
the order in which the additives are added to the solution.
3.4 Stability of Nanofluids
Part of the challenges that faces commercializing nanofluids is their poor stability due to the
interaction between the particles themselves and between the particles and the surrounding
liquid. This kind of behavior can be linked to two opposing forces:

i. The well-known Van der Waals attractive forces on the particles surface which causes the
particles to be attracted to each other into forming clusters or agglomerations of particles and
then separate from the base fluid and settle at the bottom due to gravitational force and
ii. The electrical double layer repulsive force which tends to separate the particles from each other
via steric and electrostatic repulsion mechanisms.

The figure shows the steric and electrostatic repulsion mechanisms. Stability is a very important
element in commercializing nanofluids as it extends the shelf-life of the product while conserving
its thermophysical properties. To obtain a stable nanofluid the electrical double layer repulsive
force should surpass the Van der Waals attractive forces.

Fig. 3. Repulsion mechanisms

3.4.1 Stability Evaluation Methods

As previously mentioned, stability of nanofluids has a vital role in extending its shelf-life and
preserving the thermophysical properties of the fluid. Different evaluation methods for the
 stability of nanofluids were discussed by different researchers. These techniques are discussed
below.

[Link] Zeta Potential Analysis

The zeta potential analysis evaluates the stability of nanofluids through the observation of
electrophoretic behavior of the fluid. This is because the free charges in the base fluid get
attracted to the opposite charges on the dispersed particles surface, causing the development
of a layer of charged ions known as the stern layer. There is an additional layer that surrounds
the formed stern layer, defined as the diffuse layer, which has its individual charges and is more
diffusive. The zeta potential can be defined as the potential difference between the base fluid
and the stern layer in contact to the dispersed particles as shown in the figure below and is
measured in millivolts.

Fig. 4. Zeta Potential Analysis

In any nanofluid, the zeta potential can be ranged from positive, at low pH values, to negative,
at high pH values. In terms of nanofluid stability, zeta potential value > ±60 mV has excellent
stability, ± (40 to 60) mV has good stability, ± (30 to 40) mV is considered stable, and < ±30 mV
is highly agglomerative. Measurement of the zeta potential value in a nanofluid can be performed
using a Zeta Sizer Nano (ZSN) device.
[Link] Sedimentation Photograph Capturing Method
This method is one of the simplest approaches to measure the stability of nanofluids. In this
approach, the volume of the agglomerated nanoparticles in a nanofluid is monitored under an
external force. This is done by placing a sample of the prepared nanofluid in a transparent glass
vial; then the formation of sediments is observed via capturing photographs of the vial at equal
intervals of time using a camera. The captured images are then compared to each other to
analyze the stability of the nanofluid. Thus, the characterized nanofluid is stable when the
particles size and its dispersity remain constant with time (i.e., no sedimentation occurs).

Three behaviors of sedimentation can be observed in any unstable nanofluid: dispersed

sedimentation, where the sediment height is gradually increased from the bottom as the solution
clarifies; flocculated sedimentation, where the sediment height reduces with respect of time; and
mixed sedimentation, where both previous phenomena occur simultaneously in a nanofluid. The
figure below illustrates the three sedimentation behaviors.

Fig. 5. Types of sedimentation behaviors in nanofluids

[Link] Centrifugation Method

Nanofluid centrifugation is a much faster method for determining the stability of the prepared
fluid compared to the sedimentation photograph capturing approach. It has been employed in a
variety of stability studies, in which a visual examination of the nanofluid sedimentation is
performed using a dispersion analyzer centrifuge.

Singh and Raykar confirmed the stability of the as-prepared silver/ethanol nanofluids, of 30–
60 nm particle size and 0.0112–0.0114 vol%, with added polyvinylpyrrolidone surfactant and
centrifuging the samples for 10 h at 3000 rpm. The outcome of their experiment showed excellent
stability with no signs of sedimentation. Li and Kaner also evaluated the instability of an aqueous
polyaniline colloids
 via manipulating its pH value and employing the same stability technique. He found out that the
electrostatic repulsive force surrounded by the nanofibers helped in providing the longest
stability to the colloids, with an optimum stability reached at a pH value of 2.6. Mehrali observed
the instability via centrifuging their graphene/distilled water (DW) suspension, of 2 μm diameter
and 2 nm thickness, from 5 to 20 min at 6000 rpm. Four mass concentrations (0.025, 0.05, 0.075,
and 0.1 wt%) were used in their research and all have shown good stability with the presence of
few sedimentation at the bottom of the test tubes at the end of each centrifugation process.

3.4.2 Spectral Analysis Method

This method was firstly proposed, in 2003, by Jiang et al. and can be implemented only if the
dispersed nanoparticles have an absorption to wavelength between 190 to 1100 nm. The
nanoparticle size distribution in nanofluid is characterized via the absorbed spectrum due to the
optical properties of the particles, which depend on their morphology (i.e., shape and size). In
general, the absorption intensity and the concentration of nanoparticles in a nanofluid cohabit a
linear relationship. A UV-Vis spectral analyzer may be used in such process to determine the
variation in sedimentation time with the supernatant particle concentration via measuring the
absorption of the nanofluid. The main advantage of this method is its capability of presenting a
quantitative concentration from analyzing the nanofluid. Hwang et al. estimated the stability of
multiwalled carbon nanotube (MWCNTs) dispersed in paraffin oil nanofluids at different
sedimentation time for 800 h using this technique. The MWCNTs used into fabricating the
nanofluids had an average length of 10–50 μm and average diameter of 10–30 nm.

Their results showed that the MWCNTs nanofluids had a low spectrum absorption throughout
their wavelength (between 360 and 700 nm), with the highest spectrum absorption being at a
wavelength of 397 nm, revealing the poor stability and large agglomeration of their nanofluids.
Souza et al. examined the uniformity distribution of TiO2/DW, of 40.7 nm average particles size
and nanofluids of pH 7.5, via a UV-Vis absorption spectrum analysis. According to their results,
the nanofluids wavelength peaked with absorbency > 1 between 280 and 400 nm, which
demonstrated high stability. Some of the nanofluids absorption wavelength peaks reported by
different researchers, measured by UV-Vis method, can be seen in the table below
 Fig. 6. Spectral Analysis Method

[Link] 3ω-Method
Evaluation of the thermal conductivity changes in nanofluids, caused by the sedimentation of
nanoparticles, was also proposed as a stability measuring approach known as the 3ω-method.
Three articles were found using this method. Oh et al. work consisted of examining the stability
of the as-prepared Al2O3/DIW and Al2O3/EG nanofluids, where the nanoparticles were of 45 nm
diameter and 0–4 vol%. The nanofluids effective thermal conductivity was measured for one
hour, which showed an increase in its value with time. This was believed to be caused from the
aggregation of the nanoparticles within the base fluids. On the other hand, Martínez et al.
investigated the same effect on TiO2/H2O nanofluids that were constructed at 5°C and 15°C,
using 5 wt% as-received TiO2 of 6 nm average particles size. It was found that nanofluids
fabricated at 5°C lost its stability after 5.55 min but had maintained its form for 7.53 min when
applying a 1000 kPa inert pressure to the samples. Moreover, the 15°C samples had achieved
a 7.18 min and 6.77 min stability, with and without added pressure, respectively. The figure
below shows the experimental configuration of the 3ω-method.

Fig. 7. 3ω-Method
[Link] Electron Microscopy Methods
Particles size distribution can be measured to determine the nanofluid stability using a
transmission electron microscopy (TEM) or scanning electron microscopy (SEM) devices. These
very high-resolution microscopes tend to capture the digital image, known as the electron
micrograph, of approximately 0.1 nm in size. If clusters of nanoparticles are found within the
obtained images, then sedimentation mechanism is most likely to occur (i.e., the nanofluid is
considered unstable).The usual practice reported for inspecting the sample stability using a TEM
device is by placing a drop of the as prepared nanofluid on a carbon coated copper grid and
then monitoring the distribution of the nanoparticles on top of the copper grid when the base fluid
is completely evaporated. Total evaporation of the base fluid always results in aggregation of
the nanoparticles. For such reason, the TEM characterization approach is only applicable for
nanofluids of low particles concentration. On the other hand, SEM inspection of the sample is
performed by placing a drop of the nanofluid on a sticky tape, which is fixed on top of the
specimen holder, then heated in a vacuum oven, and dried naturally with air. Finally, the dried
sample is placed in the SEM vacuumed chamber to capture the particles images. Figures (a)
and (b) demonstrate the CuO nanoparticles images taken by TEM and SEM, respectively.

Fig. 8. Electron Microscopy Method

3.4.3 Stability Enhancement Procedures
Several literatures have reported diverse ways of improving the stability of nanofluids, which are
discussed in the following section.

[Link] Addition of Surfactants

Adding surfactants, also referred to as dispersant, is an effective stability enhancement method
that prevents the agglomeration of nanoparticles within the nanofluid. It is considered as a simple
and economical chemical method, which reduces the surface tension of the base fluid and
improves the immersion of nanoparticles. This is because surfactants consist of hydrophobic tail
portion (e.g., long-chain hydrocarbons) and hydrophilic polar head group that tends to increase
the hydrophilic behavior between the base fluid and the nanoparticles.

Based on the head composition, dispersant can be divided into four classes: ionic surfactants
with head groups of negative charge (e.g., alkyl sulphates, long-chain fatty acids, phosphates,
sulfosuccinates, and sulfonates), nonionic surfactants with neutral head groups (e.g., alcohols,
polyethylene oxide, and other polar groups), cationic surfactants with head groups of positive
charge (e.g., long-chain quaternary ammonium compounds and long-chain amines), and
amphoteric surfactants of zwitterionic head groups (charge is a pH depended).

Selecting a suitable surfactant is determined by the base fluid used in preparing the nanofluids.
In general, if the base fluid is a polar solvent, then a water-soluble surfactant should be used;
otherwise, an oil-soluble is used instead. The solubility of nonionic dispersant can be estimated
through the hydrophilic/lipophilic balance (HLB) value. The higher the HLB value, the more
water-soluble the surfactant, while the lower the HLB value, the more oil-soluble the surfactant.
HLB values can be found in many handbooks.

The disadvantage of using dispersant as a nanofluid stabilizer is its sensitivity to hot temperature.
This is because the rise in temperature causes the bounds between the nanoparticles and the
surfactant to be damaged and in some cases, it can chemically react into producing foams.
Additionally, excessive amount of surfactant affects the thermophysical properties of the
nanofluid, where it increases the viscosity of the nanofluid and reduces its thermal conductivity.
[Link] Surface Modification Techniques
One of the methods used to achieve long-term stability of nanofluids, without the need of
surfactants, is by modifying the nanoparticles surface via functionalization. This is done by
introducing functionalized nanoparticles into the base fluid in order to obtain a self-stabilized
nanofluid. Usually, suitable functional organic groups are selected as they tend to attach to the
atoms surface, enabling the nanoparticles to self-organize and avoid agglomeration.

There are two approaches where functional groups can be introduced. The first method is by
introducing all the functional ligand in one step, which requires bifunctional organic compounds.
A single functionality (X) is employed to be attached to the nanoparticle surface and an additional
group (Z) is where the nanoparticles are functionalized. The second method relies on the
reaction between the bifunctional compounds X-Y, where group Y acts as a coupling location
and can convert afterwards to a final functionality Z. The figure below shows the two
functionalized nanoparticles approaches.

Fig. 9. Surface Modification Techniques

[Link] Ultrasonic Agitation

Sonication, which is a physical method that depends on employing ultrasonic waves through the
fluid, can be used to enhance the stability of the nanofluid by rupturing the nanoparticles
attractional force within the sediments. There are two types of ultrasonicators available, the
probe type and the bath type. Both types can be seen in the figure below.
Many researchers have used ultrasonication in preparing and stabilizing their nanofluids. It was
also reported that the probe type sonicator gave a better improvement to the nanofluid than the
bath type. Chung et al. demonstrated this through their research work, where they examined the
as-prepared ZnO/H2O nanofluid, of 20 nm average particle size, in terms of rate of
sedimentation, rate of size reduction, and minimum size achieved. They found out that the probe
type sonicator was more effective than the bath type sonicator, where the particles within the
nanofluid were of 50–300 nm in size.

Petzold et al. investigated the distribution of 1.0 g of fumed silica (aerosol) particles, of 7–40 nm
size, dispersed in 100 ml of water samples. Particles scattering, within the base fluid, was
performed using a magnetic stirrer, high intensity ultrasonic probe, and an ultraturrax, each for
10 min. The zeta sizer analysis results have shown that, unlike the magnetic stirrer and
ultraturrax samples, the nanofluids prepared using ultrasonic probe had a uniform particles
dispersion along the 30 min examination period.

Although sonication technique is widely used, particularly in the nanofluid two-step preparation
method, the optimum sonication time, wave, and pulse mode are still unknown. It was also
pointed out that increasing sonication time does not necessarily improve the reduction in particle
size, as it can largen rather than reduce the particle size as illustrated by Kole and Dey. In their
work, ZnO/EG nanofluid, of 1.0 vol%, showed a rapid decrease in particles size (from 459 nm to
91 nm) between 40 and 60 h of sonication and then an increase in size that reached to 220 nm
after 100 h.

Fig. 10. Ultrasonic Agitation

[Link] pH Control of Nanofluids
Manipulating the pH value of nanofluids changes the nanoparticles surface and can strongly
improve the stability of the dispersed nanoparticles. This is because the stability of a nanofluid
is directly related to its electro kinetic properties. Therefore, the zeta potential can be
increased/decreased by changing the pH value of the nanofluid and as mentioned previously,
zeta potential values of nanofluids above +30 mV or below −30 mV are more stable because of
the high repulsive force generated between the charged nanoparticles. The pH value of a
nanofluid can be increased or decreased by adding an appropriate nonreactive alkaline or acidic
solution, respectively.

Many studies were carried out to demonstrate the effect of pH level on the stability of nanofluids.
Witharana et al. examined the settling and aggregation behavior of alumina (Al2O3)/H2O
nanofluid of 0.5 wt.%, 46 nm particle size, and of spherical particle shape at pH values of 6.3
and 7.8. They discovered that the suspensions were stable at a pH value of 6.3 for more than
30 min compared with the pH value of 7.8 which had endured a complete particle separation and
settlement after 30 min. Manjula et al. studied in their work the effect of added surfactants and
pH level on the dispersion behavior of water-based alumina nanofluid through its
sedimentations. Their results showed that adding surfactant and optimizing the pH level
maximized the stability of the nanosuspension. Zhu et al. investigated the influence of different
concentrations of SDBS and pH values on the behavior of Al2O3/H2O suspension. They found
out that the effective thermal conductivity and stability of their nanofluid were significantly
dependent on the SDBS concentration and pH value of the fluid, where the effective thermal
conductivity was increased by 10.1% at a pH value of 8 and particle concentration of 0.15 wt.%.
4 Applications and Advantages
4.1 Heat transfer applications
4.1.1 Extraction of Geothermal Power and Other Energy Sources
The world’s total geothermal energy resources were calculated to be over 13000ZJ (1 zJ =
1.0E+21 J) in a report from MIT (2007). Currently only 200 ZJ would be extractable, however,
with technological improvements, over 2,000ZJ could be extracted and supply the world’s energy
needs for several millennia. When extracting energy from the earth’s crust that varies in length
between 5 to 10 km and temperature between 500oC and 1000oC, nanofluids can be employed
to cool the pipes exposed to such high temperatures. When drilling, nanofluids can serve in
cooling the machinery and equipment working in high friction and high temperature environment.
As a “fluid superconductor,” nanofluids could be used as a working fluid to extract energy from
the earth core and processed in a PWR power plant system producing large amounts of work
energy.

In the sub-area of drilling technology, so fundamental to geothermal power, improved sensors

and electronics cooled by nanofluids capable of operating at higher temperature in downhole
tools, and revolutionary improvements utilizing new methods of rock penetration cooled and
lubricated by nanofluids will lower production costs. Such improvements will enable access to
deeper, hotter regions in high grade formations or to economically acceptable temperatures in
lower-grade formations.

Fig. 11. Geothermal Power Plant

4.1.2 Smart Fluids
In this new age of energy awareness, our lack of abundant sources of clean energy and the
widespread dissemination of battery-operated devices, such as cell-phones and laptops, have
accented the necessity for a smart technological handling of energetic resources. Nanofluids
have been demonstrated to be able to handle this role in some instances as a smart [Link] a
recent paper published in the March 2009 issue of Physical Review Letters, Donzelli et
[Link] that a class of nanofluids can be used as a smart material working as a heat valve to
control the flow of heat. The nanofluid can be readily configured either in a “low” state,where it
conducts heat poorly, or in a “high” state, where the dissipation is more efficient. To leap the
chasm to heating and cooling technologies, the researchers will have to show more evidence of
a stable operating system that responds to a larger range of heat flux inputs

Fig. 12. Smart fluid developed in the labs of Michigan Institute of Technology

4.2 Automotive applications

4.2.1 Nanofluid Coolant
In looking for ways to improve the aerodynamic designs of vehicles, and subsequently the fuel
economy, manufacturers must reduce the amount of energy needed to overcome wind
resistance on the road. At high speeds, approximately 65% of the total energy output from a
truck is expended in overcoming the aerodynamic drag. This fact is partly due to the large
radiator in front of the engine positioned to maximize the cooling effect of oncoming air. The use
of nanofluids as coolants would
 allow for smaller size and better positioning of the radiators. Because there would be less fluid
due to the higher efficiency, coolant pumps could be shrunk, and truck engines could be
operated at higher temperatures allowing for more horsepower while still meeting stringent
emission standards.

The use of high-thermal conductive nanofluids in radiators can lead to a reduction in the frontal
area of the radiator by up to 10%. This reduction in aerodynamic drag can lead to a fuel savings
of up to 5%. The application of nanofluid also contributed to a reduction of friction and wear,
reducing parasitic losses, operation of components such as pumps and compressors, and
subsequently leading to more than 6% fuel savings. It is conceivable that greater improvement
of savings could be obtained in the future.

Fig. 13. Cooling System

4.2.2 Nanofluid in Fuel

The aluminum nanoparticles, produced using a plasma arc system, are covered with thin layers
of aluminum oxide, owing to the high oxidation activity of pure aluminum, thus creating a larger
contact surface area with water and allowing for increased decomposition of hydrogen from
water during the combustion process. During this combustion process, the alumina acts as a
catalyst and the aluminum nanoparticles then serve to decompose the water to yield more
hydrogen. It was shown that the combustion of diesel fuel mixed with aqueous aluminum
nanofluid increased the total combustion heat while decreasing the concentration of smoke and
nitrous oxide in the exhaust emission from the diesel engine.
 Fig. 14. Diesel Engine

4.3 Biomedical applications

4.3.1 Cancer Therapeutics
There is a new initiative which takes advantage of several properties of certain nanofluids to use
in cancer imaging and drug delivery. This initiative involves the use of iron-based nanoparticles
as delivery vehicles for drugs or radiation in cancer patients. Magnetic nanofluids are to be used
to guide the particles up the bloodstream to a tumor with magnets. It will allow doctors to deliver
high local doses of drugs or radiation without damaging nearby healthy tissue, which is a
significant side effect of traditional cancer treatment methods. In addition, magnetic
nanoparticles are more adhesive to tumor cells than non-malignant cells and they absorb much
more power than microparticles in alternating current magnetic fields tolerable in humans; they
make excellent candidates for cancer therapy.

There are numerous biomedical applications that involve nanofluids such as magnetic cell
separation, drug delivery, hyperthermia, and contrast enhancement in magnetic resonance
imaging. Depending on the specific application, there are different chemical syntheses
developed for various types of magnetic nanofluids that allow for the careful tailoring of their
properties for different requirements in applications. Surface coating of nanoparticles and the
colloidal stability of biocompatible water-based magnetic fluids are the two particularly important
factors that affect successful application.
 Fig. 15. MNPs in cancer therapeutics

4.3.2 Nano cryosurgery

Cryosurgery is a procedure that uses freezing to destroy undesired tissues. This therapy is
becoming popular because of its important clinical advantages. Although it still cannot be
regarded as a routine method of cancer treatment, cryosurgery is quickly becoming as an
alternative to traditional therapies. Simulations were performed by Yan and Liu on the combined
phase change bioheat transfer problems in a single cell level and its surrounding tissues, to
explicate the difference of transient temperature response between conventional cryosurgery
and Nano cryosurgery.

According to theoretical interpretation and existing experimental measurements, intentional

loading of nanoparticles with high thermal conductivity into the target tissues can reduce the final
temperature, increase the maximum freezing rate, and enlarge the ice volume obtained in the
absence of nanoparticles. Additionally, introduction of nanoparticle enhanced freezing could also
make conventional cryosurgery more flexible in many aspects such as artificially interfering in
the size, shape, image and direction of ice ball formation. The concepts of Nano cryosurgery
may offer new opportunities for future tumor treatment.

4.4 Electronic application

Nanofluids are used for cooling of microchips in computers and elsewhere. They are also used
in other electronic applications which use microfluidic applications.
4.4.1 Cooling of Microchips
A principal limitation on developing smaller microchips is the rapid heat dissipation. However,
nanofluids can be used for liquid cooling of computer processors due to their high thermal
conductivity. It is predicted that the next generation of computer chips will produce localized heat
flux over 10MW/m2, with the total power exceeding 300W. In combination with thin film
evaporation, the nanofluid oscillating heat pipe (OHP) cooling system will be able to remove heat
fluxes over 10 MW/m2and serve as the next generation cooling device that will be able to handle
the heat dissipation coming from new technology.

Fig. 16. Cooling of Microchips

4.5 Other application

4.5.1 Nanofluid Detergent
Nanofluids do not behave in the same manner as simple liquids with classical concepts of
spreading and adhesion on solid surfaces. This fact opens the possibility of nanofluids being
excellent candidates in the processes of soil remediation, lubrication, oil recovery and
detergency. Future engineering applications could abound in such processes. When
encountering an oil drop, the polystyrene nanoparticles concentrate and rearrange around the
drop creating a wedge-like region between the surface and the oil drop. The nanoparticles then
diffuse into the wedge film and cause an increase in concentration and subsequently an increase
in disjoining pressure around the film region. Owing to the increase in pressure, the oil-solution
interface moves forward allowing the polystyrene nanoparticles to spread along the surface. It
is this mechanism that causes the oil drop to detach completely from the surface.
4.6 Advantages
i. Great heat conduction: - Nanofluid has better thermal conductivity as compared to base fluids.
This increase in the surface area of nanofluids help increase the rate of heat transfer between
solid particles and base fluid. The mobility of nanoparticles is great because they are small, and
this increases the micro convection of fluids greatly leading to better heat transfer. The thermal
conductivity of nanofluids can also be greatly increased by using nanoparticles having higher
thermal conductivity. Thermal conductivity of nanofluid can also be increased by using the
temperature because the increase in temperature in turn increases Brownian motion.
ii. Increased stability of nanofluid: - Nanofluids can stay in the liquid phase for months or years
together because of the small size. The stability can be increased by Brownian motion.
iii. Prevention of clogging: - Many atoms combine to form nanoparticles. They are about 1-1000 nm
in diameter and are spread nicely in the base fluids. Nanofluids do not cause any clogging
problems and this helps in the use of nanofluid in micro channels.
iv. Reduction of erosion: - Nanofluids containing nanoparticles have lesser momentum and kinetic
energy compared to micro and macro particles. They don't cause erosion of components like
pipeline, pumps and heat exchangers. Nanoparticles dispersed in liquids reduce friction and
wear.
v. The properties of nanofluid can be varied with a change in their concentration. This property has
the great advantage that this enables the use of nanofluids as smart fluids.
vi. Nanofluids can be optically selective; they show high absorption in the solar range and low
emittance in the infrared range.
vii. Absorption of solar energy will be maximized with change of the size, shape, material and
volume fraction of the nanoparticles.
viii. The suspended nanoparticles increase the surface area and the heat capacity of the fluid due
to the very small particle size.
ix. The suspended Nanoparticles enhance the thermal conductivity which results improvement in
efficiency of heat transfer systems.
x. Heating within the fluid volume, transfers heat to a small area of fluid and allowing the peak
temperature to be located away from surfaces losing heat to the environment.
xi. The mixing fluctuation and turbulence of the fluid are intensified.
xii. The dispersion of nanoparticles flattens the transverse temperature gradient of the fluid.
xiii. To make suitable for different applications, properties of fluid can be changed by varying
concentration of nanoparticles.
xiv. Nanofluids increase the temperature of solar thermal applications.
5 Challenges and Future Aspects
The development in the area of nanofluid application is hindered by many factors in which long
term stability of nanofluid in suspension is major reason. Nanofluids possess the following
disadvantages are,

i. Poor long-term stability of suspension

Long term physical and chemical stability of nanofluids is an important practical issue because
of aggregation of nanoparticles due to very strong Vander wall’s interactions so the suspension
is not homogeneous. Physical or chemical methods have been applied to get stable nanofluids
such as

a. an addition of surfactant;
b. surface modification of the suspended particles;
c. applying strong force on the clusters of the suspended particles.

Lee and Choi found that Al2O3 nanofluids kept after 30 days exhibit some settlement compared
to fresh nanofluids. Particles settling must be examined carefully since it may lead to clogging
of coolant passages.

ii. Increased pressure drops and pumping power

Pressure drop development and required pumping power during the flow of coolant determines
the efficiency of nanofluid application. It is known that higher density and viscosity leads to higher
pressure drop and pumping power. There are many studies showings significant increase of
nanofluids pressure drop compared to base fluid. One of the experimental studies by Choi (2009)
calculated 40% increase of pumping power compared to water for a given flow rate.

iii. Lower Specific heat

An ideal heat transfer fluid should possess higher value of specific heat so the fluid can exchange
more heat. Previous studies show that nanofluids exhibit lower specific heat than base fluid. It
limits the use of nanofluid application.
iv. High cost of nanofluids

Nanofluids are prepared by either one step or two step methods. Both methods require advanced
and sophisticated equipments. This leads to higher production cost of nanofluids. Therefore,
high cost of nanofluids is drawback of nanofluid applications.

Nanofluids may not be physically or chemically stable for a long period of time. The homogeneity
of nanofluids is greatly limited by the agglomeration of nanoparticles. The agglomeration is
caused by the strong Vandervalk’s forces of attraction between nanoparticles. Physical or
chemical stability of nanofluids can be increased by adding surfactants, but it can lead to further
complications. The boiling characteristics of nanofluids are poor. When the concentration of
nanoparticles increases, the boiling performance gets degraded causing an increase in the
surface temperature of the nanofluids. This imposes a severe limitation on the design of cooling
system with nanofluids and can cause overheating.

Nanofluids have been shown to be superior, as an HTF, to conventional known fluids available
in the market. In order to commercialize such type of advanced fluids, some factors are required
to be improved and better understood by researchers. Examples of these factors are listed
below:

a. Experimental investigations of nanofluids need to be optimized with respect to stability,

preparation technique, temperature, particle size, particle shape, and particles type.
b. The right ratio of nanoparticles to base fluid should be found to obtain the highest effective
thermal conductivity as well as the lowest possible effective viscosity from the fabricated
nanofluid. This is important to meet the applications of heat transfer and overcome the pressure
drop in the system.
c. Additional research inputs are needed to develop much precise correlations, which can predict
the changes in nanofluids pH value caused by temperature, particle concentration, type of base
fluid, and so forth, since this affects the stability and thermophysical properties of nanofluids.
d. Several studies have considered the fouling effect of nanofluids in a thermal aspect but, to the
best of our knowledge, have ignored their influence on the dynamics of the fluid. Though, if fully
deposited on the inner pipe surface, it can provide similar wettability properties as nanocoating.

The challenges need to be focused on and tackled by researches so that commercialization of

nanofluids can be possible.

Nanofluids have a variety of applications as of now and many more are expected in the future.
The main area of research should probably be directed towards inventing efficient energy
transport methods using nanofluids. The rate of heat transfer is mainly depended on the thermal
conductivity of nanofluid. The effect of particle shape, particle agglomeration on the thermal
conductivity of nanoparticles should be thoroughly researched for inventing efficient energy
transport mechanisms. There are concerns regarding the safety in the use and production of
nanofluids currently and these are also areas of future research. Nanofluids present a novel
method for extracting energy from the core of the earth. Nanofluid particles could also help in
improving the efficiency of the cooling system employed by the nuclear reactors. Nanofluid
particles could also aid in developing microchips of smaller size. Smaller microchips could lead
to better computers. Nanofluids could also help in targeted drug delivery, will help
pharmaceutical industry to make big leaps and bounds. Improvement of thermal conductivity of
nanofluids could also help to make better automobile engines. Nanofluid technology can only be
harnessed by inventing non-toxic or biodegradable nanoparticles.
6 Conclusion
This report presents overview about nanofluid, including the preparation methods, properties,
the evaluation methods for their stability, and their potential applications in heat transfer
intensification, mass transfer enhancement, energy fields, mechanical fields, biomedical fields
and so forth. Although nanofluids have displayed enormously exciting potential applications,
some vital hinders also exist before commercialization of nanofluids. The following key issues
should receive greater attention in the future.

i. Further experimental and theoretical research is required to find the major factors influencing
the performance of nanofluids. Up to now, there is a lack of agreement between experimental
results from different groups, so it is important to systematically identify these factors. The
detailed and accurate structure characterizations of the suspensions may be the key to explain
the discrepancy in the experimental data.
ii. Increase in viscosity using nanofluids is an important drawback due to the associated increase
in pumping power. The applications for nanofluids with low viscosity and high conductivity are
promising. Enhancing the compatibility between nanomaterials and the base fluids through
modifying the interface properties of two phases may be one of the solution routes.
iii. The shape of the additives in nanofluids is very important for the properties; therefore, the new
nanofluid synthesis approaches with controllable microscope structure will be an interesting
research work.
iv. Stability of the suspension is a crucial issue for both scientific research and practical applications.
The stability of nanofluids, especially the long-term stability, the stability in the practical
conditions, and the stability after thousands of thermal cycles should be paid more attention.
v. There is a lack of investigation of the thermal performance of nanofluids at high temperatures,
which may widen the possible application areas of nanofluids, like in high-temperature solar
energy absorption and high-temperature energy storage. At the same time, high temperature
may accelerate the degradation of the surfactants used as dispersants in nanofluids and may
produce more foams.
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