8/22/2025

Convection Today’s Topic Convection Free or Natural Convection

➢ Free convection refers to fluid motion induced by buoyancy

Lecture # 12 forces.
➢ Buoyancy forces may arise in a fluid for which there are density
External Natural Convection gradients and a body force that is proportional to density.
➢ In heat transfer, density gradients are due to temperature
gradients and the body force is gravitational.

natural convection current

The cooling of a boiled egg in a cooler The warming up of a cold drink in a warmer
environment by natural convection. environment by natural convection.
Page 674 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 675 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

Convection Buoyancy Force Convection Buoyancy Force

➢The magnitude of the buoyancy force is equal to the weight of ➢In the absence of other forces, the net vertical force acting on a
the fluid displaced by the body. That is, body is the difference between the weight of the body and the
buoyancy force. That is,
Fbuoyancy =  fluid gVbody
Fnet = W − Fbuoyancy
g is the gravitational acceleration,
= body gVbody −  fluid gVbody
ρfluid is the average density of the fluid
(not the body), and
= ( body −  fluid ) gVbody
Vbody is the volume of the portion of the body immersed in the fluid
(for bodies completely immersed in the fluid, it is the total volume ➢Note that this force is proportional to the difference in the
of the body). densities of the fluid and the body immersed in it.
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Convection Volume Expansion Coefficient Convection Volume Expansion Coefficient

1  − 
➢ In order to represent the net buoyancy force in terms of  −   −  = −  (T − T ) =   (T − T )
temperature differences, it is necessary to express the density  T − T
difference in terms of a temperature difference, which requires a where ρ∞ is the density and T∞ is the temperature of the quiescent
knowledge of a property that represents the variation of the fluid away from the surface.
1
density of a fluid with temperature at constant pressure. For ideal gas (p = ρRT) = (1 / K )
T
➢ The property that provides that information is the volume
➢ A large value of β for a fluid means a large change in density with
thermal expansion coefficient, β. 1  v  1   
 =   =−   temperature.
v  T  p   T  p ➢ The buoyancy force is proportional to the density difference, which
is proportional to the temperature difference at constant pressure.
v is the specific volume (volume per unit mass) and is reciprocal ➢Therefore, the larger the temperature difference between the fluid
of density. 1  1  −  adjacent to a hot (or cold) surface and the fluid away from it, the
Boussinesq  =− − at constant pressure larger the buoyancy force and the stronger the natural convection
 T  T − T currents, and thus the higher the heat transfer rate.
Approximation
Page 678 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 679 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

Derivation of Boussinesq Derivation of Boussinesq

Convection Convection
approximation approximation
➢ The equation of state of the ideal fluid is Using series expansion, (1 − x )−1 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + for − 1  x  1
P P
P =  RT   = and  = In the limit, T >>T − T
 −    −    −    T −T 2

RT RT  − 1 + +  + =

−1  

1        

T
ρ∞ = bulk fluid density, kg/m3
ρ = boundary layer density, kg/m3 It can be written as,
 P P  P T  g  −  T − T  T − T 
 −  =  − =  − 1       1 −  β = 1/T∞ (for gas) is
 RT RT  RT  T  1   T  T  the volume thermal
=
 −  =  (T − T ) T     1 −  (T − T )
expansion coefficient
at constant pressure

It can be written as,   −     (T − T )
−1
 −      −     −   T − T
  = 1 −  =  This result states that the density decreases slightly below ρ∞ as the local
        T absolute temperature T increases slightly above the free stream absolute
temperature T∞.
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Convection Volume Expansion Coefficient Convection Influence of Temperature Gradient

➢ Consider two fluids, one with a large coefficient of volume Explain the cases of stable and unstable fluid circulation during
expansion and the other with a small one. In what fluid will a hot the presence of (positive/negative) temperature gradients across
surface initiate stronger natural convection currents? Why? a fluid layer between hot and cold surfaces.
Assume the viscosity of the fluids to be the same.
The greater the volume expansion coefficient, the greater the
change in density with temperature, the greater the buoyancy
force, and thus the greater the natural convection currents.

Page 682 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 683 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

Boundary Layer: Natural

Convection Influence of Temperature Gradient Convection
Convection on vertical Plate
First case (unstable): If the temperature difference exceeds a Draw the temperature and the velocity
critical value, conditions are unstable and buoyancy forces are distributions in the vicinity of a heated flat
able to overcome the retarding influence of viscous forces. The plate placed vertically in still air.
gravitational force on the denser fluid in the upper layers exceeds The plate is immersed in an extensive,
that acting on the lighter fluid in the lower layers, and the quiescent fluid, and with Ts > T∞ the fluid
designated circulation pattern will exist. The heavier fluid will close to the plate is less dense than fluid
descend, being warmed in the process, while the lighter fluid will that is further removed.
rise, cooling as it moves. Buoyancy forces therefore induce a free
Second case (stable): When T1 > T2 and the density no longer convection boundary layer in which the
decreases in the direction of the gravitational force, conditions heated fluid rises vertically, entraining fluid
now become stable, and there is no bulk fluid motion. In first case, from the quiescent region.
heat transfer occurs from the bottom to the top surface by free The resulting velocity distribution is
convection; for second case, heat transfer (from top to bottom) unlike that associated with forced
occurs by conduction. convection boundary layers.
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Boundary Layer: Natural Equation of Motion: Natural

Convection Convection
Convection on vertical Plate Convection Boundary Layer
The thickness of the boundary layer ➢ Consider a vertical hot flat plate immersed in
increases in the flow direction. a quiescent fluid body.
➢ Assumptions:
▪ steady,
Unlike forced convection, the fluid velocity ▪ laminar,
is zero at the outer edge of the velocity ▪ two-dimensional,
boundary layer as well as at the surface of ▪ Newtonian fluid,
the plate. ▪ no internal heat generation,
g
▪ neglect viscous dissipation, and 
▪ constant properties, except the density
At the surface, the fluid temperature is
difference ρ – ρ∞ (Boussinesq approximation).
equal to the plate temperature, and ➢ Consider the upward direction along the plate 
gradually decreases to the temperature of to be x- coordinate, and the direction normal to
the surrounding fluid at a distance
sufficiently far from the surface.
surface to be y-coordinate. 
➢ Gravity acts in the negative x-direction.
Page 686 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 687 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

Convection Natural Convection Boundary Layer Convection Natural Convection Boundary Layer

Prandtl boundary layer equations for natural convection heat transfer Prandtl's boundary layer approximations
over a vertical heated plate 1.u v
Assumptions: Steady, two-dimensional flow (𝑥 along the u u v v
2. , 0, 0
plate, 𝑦 normal to it) with no internal heat generation and no y x x y
viscous dissipation, incompressible fluid, Boussinesq T T
approximation, isothermal heated plate 3.
y x
u v
Continuity equation + =0 Boussinesq approximation  −  =  (T − T )
x-momentum x y
 u u  p   2u  2u  The x-momentum equation in the quiescent fluid outside the boundary
equation  u + v  = − +   2 + 2  − g
 x y  x  x y  layer (u = v = 0) gives
 u u  p   2u  2u  p p
y-momentum
 v   2v  2v   u + v  = − +   2 + 2  −  g  0 = −  −  g   = −  g
v  p  x y  x  x y  x x
 equation  u + v  = − +   2 + 2 
x y y x y
  
No body forces (including gravity) in the y-direction: ∂p/∂y = 0
Energy T T  T  T 
2 2
k For a given x, the pressure in the boundary layer is equal to the pressure
 u +v =  2 + 2  =
equation x y  x y  C p in the quiescent fluid, p(x) = p∞(x)  p = p = −  g
x x
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Convection Natural Convection Boundary Layer Convection Natural Convection Boundary Layer

Prandtl boundary layer equations for natural convection heat transfer Effect of Prandtl number on hydrodynamic and thermal boundary
over a vertical heated plate layer thickness during natural convection over a vertical isothermal
u v flat plate.
Continuity equation + =0
x y

u u  2u 
x-momentum equation u + v = g  (T − T ) + 2 =

x y y

v v 1 p   2v  2v 
y-momentum equation u +v = − +  2 + 2   0
x y  y  x y 

T T  2T δv = Distance
Energy equation u +v = 2 Active scalar (T)
x y y from the wall to
the velocity peak

Pr >>1 (water) Pr <<1 (air)

Page 690 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 691 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

Scale Analysis: Laminar Natural Scale Analysis: Laminar Natural

Convection Convection
Convection Boundary Layer Convection Boundary Layer (Pr >> 1)
u u  2u L = Flat plate length T T  2T Friction ~ Inertia
u + v = g  (T − T ) + 2 u +v = 2 within the layer of
x y y U = maximum u-velocity x y y
∆T = Temperature thickness 

Heated vertical plate

difference Outer fluid is isothermal and
U U ~  U2
Net Momentum Fluxes Buoyancy Force Viscous force
δT = Thermal boundary
Convection Conduction buoyancy effect is absent L 
 2 ~L = L
( Inertia Forces) (Friction Force)
layer thickness
T T T
U U
g T 
U
g TL3 U ,v  U  Ra1/2
U ,v
L T T2 RaL = L T T2 L L
  ~ LRaL−1/4 Pr1/2

Inertia Buoyancy Friction
 g T =
L3
RaL Convection Conduction  ~ Pr1/2  1
U 2
U Energy conservation in U T ~  T  U ~  L
T
1 T2 T2
Lg T T2 g T the same heated layer L
Friction ~ Buoyancy
qw = −k T = hT  k T ~ hT  h ~ k
4
L
2 4
  L  L2 L
4 4
L  L U2
   RaL ~ 1T ~ LRaL
−1 −1/4
−1
  RaL Pr
−1
1   RaL
−1 Inertia: = 
Lg T  T2  
RaL−1 =   RaL−1 Pr −1
 T 
y T T
 T   T   T Nu = hL ~ k L = L−1/4  Nu ~ Ra1/4
U ~ L =  L U ~  Ra1/2
4
U   L L3 −1  L  k T k LRaL L
Friction: = Ra =   RaL−1
Inertia Buoyancy Friction T2 g T T2 T2  L  T  T2 L2 RaL−1/2 L L
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Scale Analysis: Laminar Natural Scale Analysis: Laminar Natural

Convection Convection
Convection Boundary Layer (Pr << 1) Convection Boundary Layer
Buoyancy effect is present within the
layer of thickness δ H = Flat plate length

(L ) Ra Pr
Heated vertical plate

4
−1 −1
L ~1
 ~ LRa −1/4
L Pr −1/4
 ~1
T

Inertia
4
~ Buoyancy Nu = hL
L k
   RaL Pr ~ 1T ~ LRaL Pr
−1 −1 −1/4 −1/4
 Nu ~ k L = L
 T T k LRaL−1/4 Pr −1/4
U ~ L = L U ~  Ra1/2  Nu ~ Ra1/4 1/4
Pr1/2 L Pr
T2 L2 RaL−1/2 Pr −1/2 L L
Page 694 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 695 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

Laminar Free Convection Boundary Laminar Free Convection Boundary

Convection Convection
Layer: Exact Analysis (Pr ≥ 1) Layer: Exact Analysis (Pr ≥ 1)
Based on the scale analysis for Pr > 1, T ~ xRax−1/ 4 ,U ~  Ra1x/ 2 ,Rax = g Tx
3
Prandtl Boundary Layer Equation:
x 
δ
u v 1
+ =0 y  g Tx3  4
1
 g T  4 − 4
1
x y The similarity variable  =
y
= Ra1/4
y
x =   = y  x
u u  2u T x x      
u + v = g  (T − T ) + 2 1
Tw x y y   g T  4  1  − 4
5
y
 = y   −  x = − 2 Ra1/4
T T  2T x     4  4x
x
= 2
δT
u +v
Pr > 1 x y y  1 1/4
Boundary conditions (isothermal heating):  = Rax
y x
u = v = 0, T = Tw at y = 0 and u = 0, T = T at y =   
From the definition of the stream function ψ u= ,v = − .
y x
T − T T − T u u  2u u
= G ( ,Pr ) 

= UG ( ,Pr ) 
   1/ 2
= Rax G ( ,Pr )
Let  = = u + v = g TΘ + 2 Law of similarity, y  y x
T Tw − T x y y U
 1 1/ 4  1/ 2
   2 Here,  Rax = Rax G ( ,Pr )  d =  Ra1x/ 4G ( ,Pr ) d
u +v = 2 Boundary conditions (isothermal heating):
 F ( ,Pr ) =  G ( ,Pr ) d   x x
x y y u = v = 0, Θ = 1 at y = 0 and u = 0, Θ = 0 at y =   
 =   Ra1x/ 4G ( ,Pr ) d =  Ra1x/ 4 F ( ,Pr )
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Laminar Free Convection Boundary Laminar Free Convection Boundary

Convection Convection
Layer: Exact Analysis (Pr ≥ 1) Layer: Exact Analysis (Pr ≥ 1)
Ra1x/ 4   g T 
1/ 4
  g T 
1/ 4   Ra1x/ 4 F 3 F 
=  x3 / 4  = 
3 −1/ 4 3
x = Ra1x/ 4 v=− = −  Ra1x/ 4 F ( ,Pr ) = − F −  Ra1x/ 4 = − Ra1x/ 4 F −  Ra1x/ 4
x x       
 4 4x x x x x 4x  x
3 1/ 4  y 1/ 4  3 1/ 4 y 1/ 2
  Ra1x/ 2    g T  x3 / 2   g T  1 −1/ 2
1/ 2 1/ 2
1  v = − Rax F −  Rax F   − 2 Rax  = −
1/ 4
Rax F + 2 Rax F 
  =    =  x = 2 Ra1x/ 2 4x  4x  4x 4x
x  x  x    x     2 2x
Θ = Θ ( ,Pr )
  F F  1 
u= =  Ra1x/ 4 F ( , Pr ) =  Ra1x/ 4 =  Ra1x/ 4 =  Ra1x/ 4 F  Ra1x/ 4 = Ra1x/ 2 F  Θ Θ  Θ  y  y
y y  y  y x x = = −
x  x   4 x 2
Ra1x/ 4  = − 2 Ra1x/ 4Θ
 4x
u   1/ 2    Ra1/ 2   F    F   Θ Θ  Θ  1 1/ 4  1 1/ 4
=  Rax F  =   x  F  + Ra1x/ 2 = Ra1x/ 2 F  + Ra1x/ 2 = = Rax  = Rax Θ
x x  x  x  x  x x 2 x 2 x  x y  y   x  x
u    y   y  Θ   1 1/ 4  1 1/ 4 Θ 1 1/ 4 Θ  1 1/ 4 1 1/ 4 1
2
 = Ra1x/ 2 F  + Ra1x/ 2 F   − 2 Ra1x/ 4  = 2 Ra1x/ 2 F  − 3 Rax3 / 4 F  = Rax Θ  = Rax = Rax = Rax Θ Rax = 2 Ra1x/ 2Θ
x 2 x 2 x  4x  2x 4x y 2 y  x  x y x  y x x x
u   1/ 2   1/ 2 F   1/ 2 F    1/ 2 F  1 1/ 4 
= Rax F  = Rax = Rax = Rax Rax = 2 Rax3 / 4 F 
y y  x  x y x  y x  x x
 2u      3/ 4 F   3/ 4 F    3 / 4 F  1 1/ 4 
= Rax F   = 2 Rax
3/ 4
= Rax = Rax Rax = 3 Rax F 
y 2 y  x 2  x y x 2  y x 2  x x

Page 698 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 699 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

Laminar Free Convection Boundary Laminar Free Convection Boundary

Convection Convection
Layer: Exact Analysis (Pr ≥ 1) Layer: Exact Analysis (Pr ≥ 1)
u u  2u    2
u + v = g TΘ + 2 u +v = 2
x y y x y y
   y    y   3 1/ 4 y  1  1
  Ra1x/ 2 F   2 Ra1x/ 2 F  − 3 Rax3 / 4 F     Ra1x/ 2 F   − 2 Ra1x/ 4Θ  +  − Rax F + 2 Ra1x/ 2 F   Ra1x/ 4Θ  =  2 Ra1x/ 2Θ
x  2 x 4x  x  4 x   4x 4x  x  x
 3 1/ 4 y 1/ 2     y 3 y 
+− Rax F + 2 Rax F   2 Rax3 / 4 F   = g TΘ + 3 Rax F   − 3 Rax3 / 4 F Θ − 2 Ra1x/ 2 FΘ + 3 Rax3 / 4 F Θ = 2 Ra1x/ 2Θ
 4x 4x  x  x 4x 4x 4x x
2 y 2 3 2 y 2   3
 − FΘ = Θ
 Rax F 2 − 4 Rax5 / 4 F F  − 3 Rax FF  + 4 Rax5 / 4 F F  = 3 Rax Θ + 3 Rax F  4
2 x3 4x 4x 4x x x
 4Θ + 3FΘ = 0 This is second order non-linear ODE for energy equation.
1 2 3
 F − FF  = Θ + F  Physical coordinates Similarity coordinates
2 4
1 3 u=0 at y = 0 F = 0 at  = 0
 F 2 − FF  = Θ + F 
2 Pr 4 Pr v=0 at y = 0 F=0 at  = 0
 4 Pr F  + 3FF  − 2F 2 + 4 Pr Θ = 0 T = Tw at y = 0 Θ=1 at  = 0
u=0 at y →  F = 0 at  → 
This is third order non-linear ODE for momentum equation.
T = T at y →  Θ=0 at  → 
Page 700 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 701 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

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Laminar Free Convection Boundary Laminar Free Convection Boundary

Convection Convection
Layer: Exact Analysis (Pr ≥ 1) Layer: Exact Analysis (Pr ≥ 1)
The wall heat flux is given by The average Nusselt number is given by
 T     k T 1/ 4 4
qw = −k   = −k T   =− Rax Θ  =0 Q = hL AT = hLbLT = − bk T Θ  =0 Ra1L/ 4

  y =0
y  y  y =0 x 3
The local Nusselt number is given by hL L 4
qw = hx (Tw − T ) = hx T  NuL = = − Θ  =0 Ra1L/ 4
k 3
k T 1/ 4
− Rax Θ  =0 = hx T 4
x  NuL = − Θ ( 0 ) Ra1L/ 4 ; Pr  1
hx 3
 Nux = x = − Θ  =0 Ra1x/ 4 = −Θ ( 0 ) Ra1x/ 4
k Pr 1.0 5.0 10.0 50 100 1000
The total heat transfer by the vertical plate of length L and width b is
given by F″(0) 0.908 1.019 1.054 1.109 1.123 1.142
1/ 4
L L
k T 1/ 4 L
Ra1/ 4 L
 g Tx3  1
Q =  qwdA =  qwbdx = b  − Rax Θ  =0 dx = −bk T Θ  =0  x dx = −bk T Θ  =0  
 
dx
A 0 0 x 0 x 0 x Θ'(0) −0.401 −0.451 −0.465 −0.484 −0.489 −0.495
 g T   g T 
1/ 4 L 1/ 4
L3 / 4 4
 Q = −bk T Θ  =0  x dx = −bk T Θ  =0  = − bk T Θ  =0 Ra1L/ 4
−1/ 4
  NuL/RaL1/4 0.535 0.601 0.62 0.645 0.652 0.66
   0    3/ 4 3
Page 702 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 703 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

Laminar Free Convection Boundary Laminar Free Convection Boundary

Convection Convection
Layer: Exact Analysis (Pr ≤ 1) Layer: Exact Analysis (Pr ≤ 1)

Prandtl Boundary Layer Equation: Based on the scale analysis for Pr ≤ 1, T ~ xRax−1/ 4 Pr −1/ 4 ,U ~ Ra1x/ 2 Pr1/ 2
x
u v The similarity variable
+ =0  g T 
1
1
x y y y
 = = Ra1/4 Pr1/4 = y 
4 −
 x Pr
4 1/4

u u  2u T x x   
u + v = g  (T − T ) + 2 1
x y y   g T  4  1  − 4 1/4
5
y
T T T 2 = y    −  x Pr = − 2 Ra1/4 x Pr
1/4

+v = 2
u x     4  4x
x y y  1 1/4 1/4
Boundary conditions (isothermal heating):  = Rax Pr
y x
u = v = 0, T = Tw at y = 0 and  
u = 0, T = T at y =  From the definition of the stream function ψ u= ,v = − .
y x
T − T T − T u u  2u     1/ 2 1/ 2
u + v = g TΘ + 2
u
Let  = = Law of similarity, = G ( ,Pr )  = UG ( ,Pr )  = Rax Pr G ( ,Pr )
T Tw − T x y y U y  y x
 1 1/ 4 1/ 4  1/ 2 1/ 2
Boundary conditions: Here,  Rax Pr = Rax Pr G ( ,Pr )  d =  Ra1x/ 4 Pr1/ 4G ( ,Pr ) d
  
2
 x
= 2
x
Pr < 1 u +v u = v = 0, Θ = 1 at y = 0  F ( ,Pr ) =  G ( ,Pr ) d 
   =  Ra1/ 4 Pr1/ 4G ( ,Pr ) d =  Ra1/ 4 Pr1/ 4 F ( ,Pr )
x y y and u = 0, Θ = 0 at y =   x x

Page 704 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 705 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

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Laminar Free Convection Boundary Laminar Free Convection Boundary

Convection Convection
Layer: Exact Analysis (Pr ≤ 1) Layer: Exact Analysis (Pr ≤ 1)
Ra1x/ 4   g T    g T 1/ 4 3 −1/ 4 3  2u      F   F  
1/ 4

=  x3 / 4  =  x =
x     Ra1x/ 4
= Rax3 / 4 Pr 3 / 4 F   = 2 Rax3 / 4 Pr 3 / 4 = Rax3 / 4 Pr 3 / 4
    4
y 2 y  x 2
x 4x
 x y x 2  y
  Ra1x/ 2    g T  x3 / 2   g T  1 −1/ 2
1/ 2 1/ 2
1
 = 
x  x  x   
=
x     2
x = 2 Ra1x/ 2 u 
2
F  1 1/ 4 1/ 4 
2x  2 = 2 Rax3 / 4 Pr 3/ 4 Rax Pr = 3 Rax Pr F 
  F y x  x x
u= =  Ra1x/ 4 Pr1/ 4 F ( ,Pr ) =  Ra1x/ 4 Pr1/ 4
y y  y
  Ra1x/ 4 1/ 4 F
 u =  Ra Pr 1/ 4 1/ 4 F  1 
=  Ra1x/ 4 Pr1/ 4 F  Ra1x/ 4 Pr1/ 4 = Ra1x/ 2 Pr1/ 2 F  v=− = −  Ra1x/ 4 Pr1/ 4 F ( , Pr ) = − Pr F −  Ra1x/ 4 Pr1/ 4
x
 y x x x x x x
u   1/ 2 1/ 2    Ra1/ 2   F    F   3 1/ 4 F 
=
x x  x
Rax Pr F  =   x  Pr1/ 2 F  + Ra1x/ 2 Pr1/ 2
x  x 
=
x 2 x 2
Ra1x/ 2 Pr1/ 2 F  + Ra1x/ 2 Pr1/ 2
 x
 v = − Rax Pr F −  Rax Pr
1/ 4 1/ 4 1/ 4
 x x
4x  x
u    y   y
 =
x 2 x 2
Ra1x/ 2 Pr1/ 2 F  + Ra1x/ 2 Pr1/ 2 F   − 2 Ra1x/ 4 Pr1/ 4  = 2 Ra1x/ 2 Pr1/ 2 F  − 3 Rax3 / 4 Pr 3 / 4 F  3 1/ 4 1/ 4  y 
x  4x  2x 4x
 v = − Rax Pr F −  Ra1x/ 4 Pr1/ 4 F   − 2 Ra1x/ 4 Pr1/ 4 
u   1/ 2 1/ 2   1/ 2 1/ 2 F   1/ 2 1/ 2 F  
= Rax Pr F  = Rax Pr = Rax Pr
4x  4 x 
y y  x  x y x  y
3 1/ 4 1/ 4 y 1/ 2 1/ 2
u  1/ 2 1/ 2 F  1 1/ 4 1/ 4 
 = Rax Pr Rax Pr = 2 Rax Pr F 3/ 4 3/ 4 v = − Rax Pr F + 2 Rax Pr F 
y x  x x 4x 4x

Page 706 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 707 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

Laminar Free Convection Boundary Laminar Free Convection Boundary

Convection Convection
Layer: Exact Analysis (Pr ≤ 1) Layer: Exact Analysis (Pr ≤ 1)
Θ = Θ ( ,Pr ) u
u u  2u
+ v = g TΘ + 2
x y y
Θ Θ  Θ  y  y    y 
= = − Ra1x/ 4 Pr1/ 4  = − 2 Ra1x/ 4 Pr1/ 4Θ   Ra1x/ 2 Pr1/ 2 F   2 Ra1x/ 2 Pr1/ 2 F  − 3 Rax3/ 4 Pr 3 / 4 F  
x  x   4 x 2  4x x  2 x 4x 
 3 1/ 4 1/ 4 y 1/ 2 1/ 2    
Θ Θ  Θ  1 1/ 4 1/ 4  1 1/ 4 1/ 4 +− Rax Pr F + 2 Rax Pr F   2 Rax Pr 3 / 4 F   = g TΘ + 3 Rax Pr F 
3/ 4

= = Rax Pr  = Rax Pr Θ  4x 4x  x  x
y  y   x  x 2 y 2 5 / 4 5 / 4 3 2 y 2
 Rax Pr F 2 − Rax Pr F F  − 3 Rax Pr FF  + 4 Rax5 / 4 Pr 5 / 4 F F 
2 x3 4 x4
 Θ   1 1/ 4 1/ 4  1 1/ 4 1/ 4 Θ 1 1/ 4 1/ 4 Θ 
2 4x 4x
= Rax Pr Θ  = Rax Pr = Rax Pr  
y 2 y  x  x y x  y =
x3
Rax Θ +
x3
Rax Pr F 
1 2 3 Θ
 2 Θ 1 1 / 4 1 / 4 1 1 / 4 1 / 4 1 1 / 2 1/ 2  F − FF  = + F 
 = Rax Pr Θ Rax Pr = 2 Rax Pr Θ 2 4 Pr
y 2 x x x 1 3 Θ
 F 2 − FF  = + F 
2 Pr 4 Pr Pr
 4 Pr F  + 3FF  − 2 F  + 4Θ = 0
2

This is third order non-linear ODE for momentum equation.

Page 708 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 709 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

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Laminar Free Convection Boundary Laminar Free Convection Boundary

Convection Convection
Layer: Exact Analysis (Pr ≤ 1) Layer: Exact Analysis (Pr ≤ 1)
   2
u +v = 2 The wall heat flux is given by
x y y
 T     k T 1/ 4 1/ 4
  y   3 1/ 4 1/ 4
  Ra1x/ 2 Pr1/ 2 F   − 2 Ra1x/ 4 Pr1/ 4Θ  +  −
y  1 
Rax Pr F + 2 Ra1x/ 2 Pr1/ 2 F   Ra1x/ 4 Pr1/ 4Θ  qw = −k   = −k T   =− Rax Pr Θ  =0
x  4 x   4x 4x  x  
  y =0
y  y  y =0 x
1
=  2 Ra1x/ 2 Pr1/ 2Θ The local Nusselt number is given by
x
y 3 y  1/ 2 1/ 2 qw = hx (Tw − T ) = hx T
  
 − 3 Rax Pr F Θ − 2 Rax Pr FΘ + 3 Rax Pr F Θ = 2 Rax Pr Θ
3/ 4 3/ 4 1/ 2 1/ 2 3/ 4 3/ 4
  
4x 4x 4x x k T 1/ 4 1/ 4
3 − Rax Pr Θ  =0 = hx T
 − FΘ = Θ x
4
 4Θ + 3FΘ = 0 This is second order non-linear ODE for energy equation. hx
 Nux = x = − Θ  =0 Ra1x/ 4 = −Θ ( 0 ) Ra1x/ 4 Pr1/ 4
Physical coordinates Similarity coordinates k
u=0 at y = 0 F = 0 at  = 0
The total heat transfer by the vertical plate of length L and width b is
given by
v=0 at y = 0 F=0 at  = 0 1/ 4
L L
k T 1/ 4 1/ 4 L
Ra1/ 4 L
 g Tx3  1
Q =  qwdA =  qwbdx = b  − Rax Pr Θ  =0 dx = −bk T Θ  =0 Pr1/ 4  x dx = −bk T Θ  =0 Pr1/ 4  
 
dx
T = Tw at y = 0 Θ=1 at  = 0 A 0 0 x 0 x 0 x

at y →  at  →   g T   g T 
1/ 4 L 1/ 4
u=0 F = 0 L3 / 4 4
 Q = −bk T Θ  =0 Pr1/ 4  x dx = −bk T Θ  =0 Pr1/ 4  = − bk T Θ  =0 Ra1L/ 4 Pr1/ 4
−1/ 4
 
      3/ 4 3
at y →  Θ=0 at  → 
0
T = T
Page 710 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 711 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

Laminar Free Convection Boundary Laminar Free Convection Boundary

Convection Convection
Layer: Exact Analysis (Pr ≤ 1) Layer: Approximate Analysis
The average Nusselt number is given by Uniform wall temperature, Ts > T∞
4 Consider, 3rd order polynomial for velocity
Q = hL AT = hLbLT = − bk T Θ  =0 Ra1L/ 4 Pr1/ 4
3 2nd order polynomial for temperature
 ( x)
hL L 4 = 3.93Pr −1/2 ( 0.952 + Pr ) Grx−1/4
1/4
 NuL = = − Θ  =0 Ra1L/ 4 Pr1/ 4
k 3 x
g  (Ts − T ) x3
4
 NuL = − Θ ( 0 ) Ra1L/ 4 Pr1/ 4 ; Pr  1 Grx =
3 2

Pr 1.0 0.72 0.01 For Ts < T∞, this difference becomes (T∞ − Ts)
1/4
F″(0) 0.908 1.124 13.969 Nu L = 0.677 Ra1/4  Pr  104  RaL  109
L 
 0.952 + Pr 
Θ'(0) −0.401 −0.415 −0.57
Physical properties of fluid are evaluated at film temperature Tf =
NuL/RaL1/4Pr1/4 0.535 0.553 0.76 (Ts + T∞)/2 except for gases β is evaluated at T∞.
Page 712 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 713 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

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Transition to Turbulence: Natural Convection on

Convection Convection
Isothermally Heated Vertical Plate Horizontal Plate
Amplification of disturbances ➢ Buoyancy force is normal, instead of parallel, to the plate.
depends on relative magnitudes of ➢ Flow and heat transfer depend on whether the plate is heated
buoyancy and viscous forces. or cooled and whether it is facing upward or downward.
➢ For a hot surface in a cooler environment, the net force acts
Transition occurs at a critical upward, forcing the heated fluid to rise.
Rayleigh Number. ➢ If the hot surface is facing upward, the heated fluid rises freely,
inducing strong natural convection currents and thus effective
g  (Ts − T ) x3 heat transfer.
Rax,c = Grx,c Pr =  109
 Ts  T
Laminar natural convection usually occurs within the ➢ Heated Surface Facing Upward
following range: 4
10  RaL  10
9
and bottom surface is insulated

The flow remains stable until RaL > 104 and the heat transfer is
mostly dominated by conduction for RaL < 104.
Page 714 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 715 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

Natural Convection on Natural Convection on

Convection Convection
Horizontal Plate Horizontal Plate
➢ If the hot surface is facing downward, the plate blocks the ➢The opposite is true for a cold plate in a warmer environment
heated fluid that tends to rise, impeding heat transfer. since the net force (weight minus buoyancy force) in this case
acts downward, and the cooled fluid near the plate tends to
ineffective heat transfer
descend. ineffective heat transfer
Identify the cases of
effective and
ineffective heat
transfer with proper
sketch during
Ts  T natural convection
on horizontal hot
Ts  T and cold plates.
Ts  T
Heated Surface Facing
Cooled Surface Facing Downward and Cooled Surface Facing upward and
Downward and top top surface insulated bottom surface insulated
surface insulated Natural convection flows on the upper and lower surfaces Because the plate impedes the ascending / descending natural convection flow
of a horizontal hot plate. that has to move horizontally. This makes convection heat transfer ineffective.
Page 716 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 717 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

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Natural Convection on Natural Convection on

Convection Convection
Inclined Hot Plate Inclined Hot Plate
The inclined hot plate makes an angle θ from the vertical in a cooler At the upper hot surface, the The resulting flow is three-dimensional
environment. force component Fy initiates and the boundary layer breaks up and
The net force F = g(ρ∞– ρ) per forms plumes.
upward motion in addition to

Upper surface
unit volume is acting always in the parallel motion along the
the vertical [Link] force plate, and thus the boundary
can be resolved into two layer development is
components: Fx= Fcosθ parallel interrupted by the discharge of
to the plate that drives the flow parcels of hot fluid from the
along the plate, and Fy = Fsinθ surface. The hot fluid

Lower surface
normal to the plate. The discharged from the top surface
component of buoyancy force, is continuously replaced by the
Fx acts to maintain the cool ambient fluid.
ascending boundary layer flow
in contact with the bottom The force that drives the motion is reduced,
surface of the hot plate. hence weaker convection currents.
Page 718 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 719 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

Natural Convection on Natural Convection on

Convection Convection
Inclined Hot Plate Inclined Cold Plate
As a result, the thickness of the Higher heat transfer
In the case of a cold plate in a Ts  T
Upper surface

boundary layer and thus the

resistance to heat transfer warmer environment, the
decreases, and the rate of heat opposite occurs as expected:
transfer increases relative to the The boundary layer on the
vertical orientation. upper surface remains intact
with weaker boundary layer
Heat transfer enhancement due flow and thus lower rate of
to the three-dimensional flow heat transfer, and the boundary
Lower surface

typically exceeds the reduction layer on the lower surface

associated with the reduced x- breaks apart (the colder fluid
component of g, and the falls down) and thus enhances The three-dimensional flow is now
combined effect is to increase heat transfer. associated with the bottom surface,
heat transfer to the top surface. Lower heat transfer from which parcels of cold fluid are
discharged.
Page 720 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 721 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

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Natural Convection
Convection Convection Free Boundary Flows
Horizontal vs Vertical Plate
Why natural convection from top heated isothermal horizontal ➢ Occur in an extensive (in principle, infinite), quiescent (motionless
plate is higher than that from a vertical isothermal plate? at locations far from the source of buoyancy) fluid.
Stronger Buoyancy Instability: Heating from above creates an
unstable fluid layer, enhancing convective mixing and heat
transfer.
Multiple Rising Plumes: The horizontal plate generates
numerous thermal plumes, increasing local convection compared
to the more uniform vertical flow.
Three-Dimensional Circulatory Patterns: Horizontal heating
promotes 3D convection cells (e.g., Rayleigh-Bénard cells), which
improve mixing and heat transport. (a) (b)
Gravity Acts Perpendicularly: Buoyancy forces act directly away
from the surface, maximizing vertical fluid acceleration and heat
transfer. Buoyancy-driven free boundary layer flows in an extensive, quiescent medium. (a) Plume formation
above a heated wire. (b) Buoyant jet associated with a heated discharge.

Page 722 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 723 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

Correlations of Free Convection

Convection Natural Convection over Surface Convection
on Vertical Wall
➢ Natural convection heat transfer on a surface depends on McAdams (Uniform wall temperature)
▪ geometry,
▪ orientation, Nu L = 0.59 Ra1/4
L 104  RaL  109
▪ variation of temperature on the surface, and Nu L = 0.10 Ra1/3
L 109  RaL  1013
▪ thermophysical properties of the fluid.
Churchill and Chu (Uniform wall temperature)
➢ The simple empirical correlations for the average Nusselt number Nu
0.670 Ra1/4
in natural convection are of the form Nu L = 0.68 + L
4/9
10−1  RaL  109
hLc 1 + ( 0.492 / Pr )9/16 
Nu = = C ( GrL Pr ) = CRaLn  
n
2
k  
 0.387 Ra1/6 
where RaL is the Rayleigh number Ra = Gr Pr = g  (Ts − T ) Lc Pr
3 Nu L = 0.825 + L
8/27  10−1  RaL  1012
 1 + ( 0.492 / Pr )9/16  
L L 2
    
➢ The values of the constants C and n depends on the geometry of the
surface and the flow regime based on Rayleigh number. Physical properties of fluid are evaluated at film temperature
Tf = (Ts + T∞)/2
Page 724 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 725 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

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Correlations of Free Convection Correlations of Free Convection

Convection Convection
on Inclined Wall (Isothermal case) on Inclined Wall (Isothermal case)
Rich (1953) suggested that
when the boundary layer
remains intact (the lower surface
of a hot plate or the upper
surface of a cold plate), Nusselt
number can be determined from
the vertical plate relations
provided that g in Ra is replaced
by gcosθ for 0 < θ < 60o.
2
 1/6 
laminar
 0.387 ( RaL cos ) 
Nu L = 0.825 +  0    60 ; RaL cos  109
o
9/16 8/27
 1 + ( 0.492 / Pr )   g  (Ts − T ) L3
The transition and three-dimensionality of the flow on the hot top surface     RaL =
or under the cold bottom surface limits to ability to develop generalized 
correlations. Physical properties of fluid are evaluated at film temperature Tf = (Ts + T∞)/2
Page 726 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 727 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

Correlations of Free Convection Correlations of Free Convection

Convection Convection
on Inclined Wall (Isoflux case) on Inclined Wall (Isoflux case)
Case 1: When heated surface facing downward or cooled surface Case 2: When heated surface facing upward, Fujii and Imura (1972) obtained
facing upward, Fujii and Imura (1972) proposed proposed two correlations for two different size plates (5 cm and 30 cm).

Nu = 0.56 ( RaL cos ) 0o    +88o ;105  RaL cos  1011

1/4

Laminar

Properties are evaluated at Tm = Ts − 0.25 (Ts − T )

β is evaluated at T f = (Ts + T ) / 2
g  (Ts − T ) L3 qw
RaL = ;h = However, Holman and Ozisik
 Ts − T introduced single correlation
Nu = 0.14 ( GrL Pr ) − ( Grc Pr ) 
1/3 1/3
 
+0.56 ( Grc Pr cos )
1/4

Page 728 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 729 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

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Correlations of Free Convection Correlations of Free Convection

Convection Convection
on Inclined Wall (Isoflux case) on Inclined Wall (Isoflux case)
Case 2: When heated surface facing upward (laminar flow)
Case 3: When heated surface facing upward (turbulent flow)
Nu = 0.14 ( GrL Pr ) − ( Grc Pr )  + 0.56 ( Grc Pr cos )
1/3 1/3 1/4
  Nux = 0.17 ( Grx* Pr )
1/4
1010  Grx* Pr  1015
−15o    −75o ;105  GrL Pr cos  1011
g  (Ts − T ) L3 qw
GrL = ;h = g cos qs L4 qs
 2
Ts − T Grx* = ;h =
k 2 Ts − T
Grc is the critical value of Grashof
number causing flow separation. Properties are evaluated at Tm = Ts − 0.25 Ts − T ( )
Properties are evaluated at
(
β is evaluated at T f = Ts + T / 2 )
Tm = Ts − 0.25 (Ts − T )

(
β is evaluated at T f = Ts + T / 2)
Page 730 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 731 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

Convection Correlations of Free Convection Convection Correlations of Free Convection

Page 732 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 733 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

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General Algorithm for Problems of General Algorithm for Problems of

Convection Convection
Natural Convection Natural Convection
Step 1: Calculate: Ts + T Step 4: Check and select appropriate correlation:
Tf =
2 thermal conditions (isothermal/isoflux)
For isoflux heating, assume average surface temperature Ts if Plate positions (vertical/horizontal up/horizontal down)
missing, based on heating or cooling condition. Remember for accuracy: Churchill > McAdams
Step 2: Evaluate following properties from given Table at Tf Step 5: Isothermal, Q = hAs (Ts − T )

 , k , Pr  for liquid =
1
for gas Isoflux, Q = qw As ; qw = h Ts − T( )
Data Table Tf ( K ) qw
Ts = T +
Step 3: Calculate: h
g  (Ts − T ) L3
Isothermal, RaL = Pr Step 6: Q = mC p (Ts , f − Ts ,i )
2
g  qw L4 Q = Qconv + Qrad
Isoflux, Gr * =
k 2
ModifiedGr  Qrad =  As (Ts4 − T4 )
Page 734 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 735 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

Problem #1: Free Convection on

Convection Properties of Air Convection
Vertical Isothermal Heated Plate
Q. Consider a 1.2-m-high and 2-m-
wide glass window with a thickness of
6 mm, thermal conductivity, k = 0.78
W/mK and emissivity ε = 0.9. The
room and the walls that face the
window are maintained at 25oC, and
the average temperature of the inner
surface of the window is measured to
be 5oC. If the temperature of the
outdoors is −5oC, determine (a) the
convection heat transfer coefficient on
the inner surface of the window and
(b) the rate of total heat transfer
through the window.

Page 736 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 737 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

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Problem #1: Free Convection on Problem #2: Free Convection on

Convection Convection
Vertical Isothermal Heated Plate Vertical Isothermal Heated Plate
Solution: Room temperature, T∞ = 25oC = 298 K Q. A glass-door firescreen, used to reduce exfiltration of room air
Surface temperature of glass window, Ts = 5oC = 278 K through a chimney, has a height of 0.71 m and a width of 1.02 m
Surrounding temperature, Tsurr = −5oC and reaches a temperature of 232oC. If the room temperature is
Height of glass window, L = 1.2 m 23oC, estimate the convection heat rate from the fireplace to the
Width of glass window, W = 2 m room.
Thickness of glass window, t = 6 mm
Thermal conductivity of glass window, k = 0.78 W/mK
Emissivity of glass window, ε = 0.9
Stefan-Boltzmann constant  = 5.67 10−8 W/m2 K 4
Heat transfer from inner surface of glass window
(Ts − Tsurr ) = 0.78 1.2  2 5 − ( −5) = 3120W
Qcond = kAs ( )
t 6 10−3
Qrad =  As (T − Ts ) = 0.9  5.67 10−8  (1.2  2 ) ( 2984 − 2784 ) = 234.33W
4 4

Qconv = hAs (T − Ts ) = h (1.2  2 )( 25 − 5) =48h W

Qcond = Qconv + Qrad  3120 = 48h + 234.33 h = 60.12W/m2K
Page 738 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 739 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

Problem #2: Free Convection on Problem #2: Free Convection on

Convection Convection
Vertical Isothermal Heated Plate Vertical Isothermal Heated Plate
Solution: room temperature, T∞ = 23oC Churchill and Chu (Uniform wall temperature)
Firescreen temperature, Ts = 232oC 2
 
Height of the firescreen, L = 0.71 m  0.387 Ra1/6 
Width of the firescreen, W = 1.02 m Nu = 0.825 + L

9/16 8/27
Heat transfer from inner surface of firescreen



1 + ( 0.492 / Pr ) 
 

2
Film temperature, Tf = (Ts + T∞)/2 = (232 + 23)/2 = 127.5oC = 400.5K  
 1/6 
 0.387 (1.91109 ) 
1 = 0.825 +  = 150
( )
 = 2.6056 10−5 m2 /s, k = 0.03287 W/mK, Pr = 0.7061,  = = 2.5 10−3K −1   0.492
9/16 8/27
 
Tf
 1 +  
  0.7061  
g  (Ts − T ) L3
Ra L = Pr
2 Nu = hL  h = k Nu = 0.03287 (150 ) = 6.94 W/m2K
k L 0.71
( 9.81) ( 2.5 10−3 ) ( 232 − 23)( 0.71)3 Q = hAs (Ts − T ) = ( 6.94 )( 0.711.02 )( 232 − 23) =1.05 103 W = 1.05 kW
= ( 0.7061) = 1.91109 ;10−1  RaL  1012
( 2.6056 10−5 )
2

Page 740 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 741 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

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Problem #3: Free Convection on Problem #3: Free Convection on

Convection Convection
Vertical Isoflux Heated Plate Vertical Isoflux Heated Plate
Q. A thin vertical panel L = 3 m high and w = 1.5 m wide is Solar energy absorbed by the wall is qw = αsqs = 0.8  750 = 600 W/m2
thermally insulated on one side and exposed to a solar radiation The modified Grashof number at x = L is
g  qw L4 ( 9.81) ( 2.83 10 ) ( 600 )( 3)
flux of qs = 750 W/m2 on the other side. The exposed surface has −3 4
an absorptivity of αs = 0.8 for solar radiation. Assuming that the Gr =
*
= = 1.04 1014
k ( 0.02953) ( 2.097 10−5 )
L 2 2
energy absorbed by the plate is dissipated by free convection into
the surrounding quiescent air at atmospheric pressure and T∞ =
300K, calculate the surface temperature of the panel. GrL* Pr = 1.04 1014  0.7154 = 7.44 1013 2 1013  Grx* Pr  1016
 Nux x=L = 0.17 (GrL* Pr ) = 0.17 ( 7.44 1013 )
1/ 4 1/ 4
One side of the panel is thermally insulated = 499.3
Air temperature, T∞ = 300 K = 27oC
Height of the panel, L = 3 m Nu L = 1.136  Nux x= L = 1.136  499.3 = 567.2
Width of the panel, w = 1.5 m hL k 0.02953
Assume, average surface temperature, Ts = 133oC
Nu L =  h = Nu = ( 567.2) = 5.58W/m2K
k L 3
Another iteration is unnecessary, as the
Tf = (Ts + T∞)/2 = (133 + 27)/2 = 80oC = 353 K q 600
1 Ts = T + w = 27 + = 134.5C assumed surface temperature (Ts = 133oC) is
close to the updated value (Ts = 134.5oC),
 = 2.097 10−5 m2 /s, k = 0.02953W/mK,Pr = 0.7154,  = = 2.83 10−3K −1 h 5.58
Tf resulting in negligible property changes.
Page 742 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 743 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

Problem #4: Free Convection on Problem #4: Free Convection on

Convection Convection
Vertical Wall Vertical Wall
Q. A 28-cm-high, 18-cm-long, and 18-cm-wide rectangular container Solution: Air Container
suspended in a room at 24oC is initially filled with cold water at 2oC. The Room temperature, T∞ = 24oC = 297 K T = 24C
surface temperature of the container is observed to be nearly the same Ts
Initial surface temperature, Ts,i = 2oC = 275 K
as the water temperature inside. The emissivity of the container surface  = 0.6
Height of the container, H = 28 cm
is 0.6, and the temperature of the surrounding surfaces is about the Surface temperature of the
Length of the container, L = 18 cm
same as the air temperature. Determine the water temperature in the container is same as the
Width of the container, W = 18 cm
container after 3 h, and the average rate of heat transfer to the water.
Assume the heat transfer coefficient on the top and bottom surfaces to Emissivity of the container surface, ε = 0.8 inside water temperature.
be the same as that on the side surfaces. Stefan-Boltzmann constant  = 5.67 10−8 W/m2 K 4
Let us assume the final surface temperature, Ts,f = 12 oC = 285 K
Mean surface temperature, Ts = (Ts,i + Ts,f)/2 = (2 +12)/2 = 7oC = 280 K
Film temperature, Tf = (Ts + T∞)/2 = (7 + 24)/2 = 15.5oC = 288.5 K
Properties of air at 15.5oC
1
 = 1.4746 10−5 m2 /s, k = 0.0248 W/mK, Pr = 0.7322,  = = 3.47 10−3K −1
Tf
Page 744 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 745 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

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Problem #4: Free Convection on Problem #4: Free Convection on

Convection Convection
Vertical Wall Vertical Wall
Since water temperature is same as surface temperature of the container, h = k Nu = 0.0248 ( 42.42 ) = 3.76 W/m2 .C
Properties of water at 280 K or 7oC are Lc 0.28
 = 999.82 kg/m3 , C p = 4200.6 J/kg  K Total surface area As = 2 ( H  L + L W + H W )
First evaluate the heat transfer coefficient on the side surfaces. The = 2 ( 0.28  0.18 + 0.18  0.18 + 0.28  0.18) = 0.2664m2
characteristic length in this case is the height of the container, The mass flow rate of water in the container is
Lc = H = 28 cm = 0.28 m V  W  H  L 999.82  0.18  0.28  0.18
g  (T − Ts ) L3c
m= = = = 8.4 10−4 kg/s
Ra L = Pr t t 3  60  60
2 The average rate of heat transfer to the water is
( 9.81) (3.47 10−3 ) ( 24 − 7 )( 0.28)3 Q = mC p (Ts , f − Ts ,i ) = (8.4 10−4 ) ( 4200.6 ) (Ts , f − 275) = 3.53 (Ts , f − 275) W
= ( 0.7322) = 4.28 107 ;10−1  RaL  109
(1.4746 10 ) −5 2
 275 + Ts , f 
Qconv = hAs (T − Ts ) = ( 3.76 )( 0.2664 )  297 −  = (159.5 − 0.5Ts , f ) W
0.670 Ra 1/4 0.670 ( 4.28 10 )
7 1/4
 2 
Nu = 0.68 + L
= 0.68 + = 42.42
9/16 4/9 9/16 4/9
1 + ( 0.492 / Pr )  1 + ( 0.492 / 0.7322 ) 
   
Page 746 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 747 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

Problem #4: Free Convection on Problem #5: Free Convection on

Convection Convection
Vertical Wall Horizontal and Vertical Walls
  275 + Ts , f  
4
Q. Consider a 15-cm  20-cm printed Insulation
Qrad =  As T 4 − Ts4  = ( 0.8) ( 5.67 10−8 ) ( 0.2664 ) ( 297 ) −   
4

  2   circuit board (PCB) that has electronic PCB, Ts

components on one side. The board is
= 1.2110 ( 297 ) − (137.5 + 0.5Ts , f )  W
−8  4 4
8W
o
  placed in a room at 20 C. The heat loss
Q = Qconv + Qrad from the back surface of the board is L = 0.2 m

 3.53 (Ts , f − 275) = (159.5 − 0.5Ts , f ) + 1.2110−8 ( 297 ) − (137.5 + 0.5Ts , f )  negligible. If the circuit board is
4 4
Air
  dissipating 8 W of power in steady
T = 20C
 Ts , f = 285.32K = 12.32o C operation, determine the average
temperature of the hot surface of the
Another iteration is unnecessary, as the assumed final surface Vertical board
board, assuming the board is (a) vertical PCB, Ts Air
temperature (Ts = 12oC) is close to the updated value (Ts = 12.32oC), and (b) horizontal with hot surface facing Insulation 8 W T = 20C
resulting in negligible property changes. up. Take the emissivity of the surface of
Q = 3.53 (Ts , f − 275) =3.53 ( 285.32 − 275) =36.43W
the board to be 0.8 and assume the
surrounding surfaces to be at the same L = 0.2 m
temperature as the air in the room. Horizontal board
Page 748 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 749 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

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Problem #5: Free Convection on Problem #5: Free Convection on

Convection Convection
Horizontal and Vertical Walls Horizontal and Vertical Walls
Negligible heat loss from the back surface of the board Q = Qconv + Qrad = qw A +  As (Ts 4 − Tsurr 4 )
Room temperature, T∞ = 20oC = 293 K
Length of the board, L = 20 cm = 0.2 m  8 = qw ( 0.2  0.15) + 0.8 ( 0.2  0.15) (5.67 10−8 )(317 4 − 2934 )
Width of the board, W = 15 cm = 0.15 m  qw = 142.92 W/m2
Emissivity of the board surface, ε = 0.8
g  qw L4 ( 9.81) ( 3.28 10 ) (142.92 )( 0.2 )
−3 4
Dissipated heat, Q = 8 W
GrL* = = = 1.07 109
Assume, isoflux condition at the board surface. k 2 ( 0.02603 ) (1.6268 10 )
−5 2

(a) The board is vertical

GrL* Pr = 1.07 109  0.7276 = 7.79 108 105  Grx* Pr  1011
Since the board average surface temperature is unknown, assume
 Nux x=L = 0.60 (GrL* Pr ) = 0.60 ( 7.79 108 )
1/ 5 1/ 5
average surface temperature of the board is Ts = 44oC = 317K. Now, film = 36.0
temperature, Tf = ( Ts + T∞)/2 = (44 + 20)/2 = 32oC = 305 K. Properties of
air at 32oC Nu L = 1.25 Nux x= L = 1.25  36.0 = 45
hL k 0.02603
1
 = 1.6268 10−5 m2 /s, k = 0.02603W/mK, Pr = 0.7276,  = = 3.28 10−3K −1 Nu L =  h = Nu L = ( 45) = 5.86W/m2K
Tf k L 0.2
Page 750 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 751 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

Problem #5: Free Convection on Problem #5: Free Convection on

Convection Convection
Horizontal and Vertical Walls Horizontal and Vertical Walls
qw Q = Qconv + Qrad = qw A +  As (Ts 4 − Tsurr 4 )
Average surface temperature Ts = T + = 20 + 142.92 = 44.4C
 8 = qw ( 0.2  0.15) + 0.8 ( 0.2  0.15) (5.67 10−8 )(3204 − 2934 )
h 5.86
Another iteration is unnecessary, as the assumed surface temperature
 qw = 125.34 W/m2
( Ts = 44oC) is close to the updated value ( Ts = 44.4oC), resulting in
g  (Ts − T ) L3
negligible property changes. RaL = Pr
2
(b) The board is horizontal with hot surface facing up
( 9.81) (3.26 10−3 ) ( 47 − 20 )( 0.2 )3
Since the board average surface temperature is unknown, assume = ( 0.7254) = 1.72 107  2 1010
average surface temperature is Ts = 47oC = 320K. Now, film temperature, (1.7044 10 )−5 2

Tf = ( Ts+ T∞)/2 = (47 + 20)/2 = 33.5oC = 306.5 K and mean temperature, Nu = 0.13 Ra1L/ 3 = 0.13 (1.72 10 ) 7 1/ 3
= 33.56
Tm = Ts − 0.25 (Ts − T ) = 47 − 0.25 ( 47 − 20 ) = 40.25C = 313.25K hL k 0.02664
Properties of air at 40.25oC Nu =  h = Nu = ( 33.56) = 4.47W/m2K
k L 0.2
q 125.34 Another iteration is unnecessary, as the assumed
1 Ts = T + w = 20 + = 48C surface temperature (
 = 1.7044 10−5 m2 /s, k = 0.02664 W/mK, Pr = 0.7254,  = = 3.26 10−3K −1 h 4.47 Ts = 47oC) is close to the
Tf updated value ( Ts = 48oC), resulting in negligible
property changes.
Page 752 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 753 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

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Problem #6: Free Convection on Problem #6: Free Convection on

Convection Convection
Horizontal Wall Horizontal Wall
Q. A manufacturer makes absorber plates that are 1.0 m × 0.8 m Equilibrium temperature of plate, Ts = 100oC = 373 K
in size for use in solar collectors. The back side of the plate is Surrounding temperature, T∞ = 20oC = 293 K
heavily insulated, while its front surface is coated with black Sky temperature, Tsky = 10oC = 283 K
chrome, which has an absorptivity of 0.87 for solar radiation and Length of the plate, L = 1.0 m
an emissivity of 0.09. Consider such a plate placed horizontally Width of the plate, W = 0.8 m
outdoors in calm air at 20oC. Solar radiation is incident on the Emissivity of the surface, ε = 0.09
plate at a rate of 700 W/m2. Taking the effective sky temperature Absorptivity of the surface, αs = 0.87
to be 10oC, and assuming the equilibrium temperature of the Solar radiation, qs = 700 W/m2
absorber plate to be 100oC, find the following: (a) Determine Stefan-Boltzmann constant  = 5.67 10−8 W/m2 K 4
Rayleigh number and mention the type of flow. (b) Determine Assume, isoflux condition at the plate surface.
Average Nusselt number and average convection heat transfer Now, film temperature,T f = (Ts + T ) / 2 = (100 + 20 ) / 2 = 60C = 333K
coefficient. (c) Determine heat gain by the plate by absorption of Mean temperature, Tm = Ts − 0.25 (Ts − T ) = 100 − 0.25 (100 − 20 ) = 80C
Properties of air at Tm = 80C,
solar radiation. (d) Determine the calculated surface temperature
1
of the plate. Comment on your results.  = 2.097 10−5 m2 /s, k = 0.02953W/mK, Pr = 0.7154,  = = 3.003 10−3K −1
Tf
Page 754 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 755 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

Problem #6: Free Convection on Problem #6: Free Convection on

Convection Convection
Horizontal Wall Horizontal Wall
g  (Ts − T ) L3 Q = hAs (Ts − T ) +  As (Ts4 − Tsky
4
)
RaL = Pr
2  7.39 1.0  0.8 (Ts − 293) + 0.09  5.67 10−8 1.0  0.8 (Ts4 − 2834 ) = 487.2
( 9.81) (3.003 10 ) (100 − 20)(1)
−3 3
 5.912 (Ts − 293) + 4.0824 10−9 (Ts4 − 2834 ) − 487.2 = 0
= ( 0.7154) = 3.83 109
( 2.097 10 ) −5 2
 4.0824 10−9 Ts4 + 5.912Ts − 2245.6 = 0
2 10  RaL  10
8 11
 Ts = 367.3K = 94.3C
NuL = 0.16 Ra1L/ 3 = 0.16 ( 3.83 10 )
9 1/ 3
= 250.3
Comments:
hL k 0.02953 • The calculated temperature is slightly below 100oC but still realistic.
NuL =  h = NuL = ( 250.3) = 7.39W/m2K
k L 1 • Indicates balance between absorbed solar energy and heat losses.
Q =  s qs As =  s qs ( L W ) = 0.87  700  (1.0  0.8) = 487.2W • High absorptivity ensures good solar gain.
• Low emissivity reduces radiative losses.

Page 756 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 757 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

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Problem #7: Free Convection on Problem #7: Free Convection on

Convection Convection
inclined plate inclined plate
Q. A square plate 0.5 m by 0.5 m is thermally insulated on one side and Let, average surface temperature of the plate is Ts = 401K.
subjected to a solar radiation flux q = 600 W/m2 on the other side which Now, film temperature,T f = (T s + T ) / 2 = ( 401 + 300 ) / 2 = 350.5K Ts
is considered a black surface. The plate makes an angle θ = –60o with the Mean temperature,Tm = T s − 0.25 (T s − T ) = 401 − 0.25 ( 401 − 300 ) = 375.75K
vertical, so that the hot surface is facing upward. The heated surface Properties of air at Tm = 375.75K = 102.75C,
dissipates heat by free convection into quiescent atmospheric air at T∞ = 1
300K. Calculate the equilibrium temperature of the plate.  = 2.336 10−5 m2 /s, k = 0.03114 W/mK, Pr = 0.7106,  = = 2.85 10−3K −1
Tf
Air temperature, T∞ = 300 K
Length of the plate, L = 0.5 m GrL =
( )
g  Ts − T L3
=
( 9.81) ( 2.85 10−3 ) ( 401 − 300 )( 0.5)3
= 6.47 108
Width of the plate, W = 0.5 m 2 ( 2.336 10 )−5 2

Surface heat flux due to absorption by black surface, qs = 600 W/m2

Inclination angle of the plate with vertical, θ = –60o GrL Pr cos = 6.47 108  0.7106  cos60o = 2.3 108
One side of the plate is insulated and other hot side is black surface and 105  GrL Pr cos  1011
upward facing
Critical Grashof number at θ = −60o is Grc = 108
Page 758 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 759 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

Problem #7: Free Convection on Natural Convection on

Convection Convection
inclined plate Vertical Isothermal Layer
Nu = 0.14 ( GrL Pr ) − ( Grc Pr )  + 0.56 ( Grc Pr cos )
1/3 1/3 1/4
  ➢ Natural convection flow through a
= 0.14 ( 6.47 108  0.7106 ) − (108  0.7106 )  + 0.56 (108  0.7106  cos60o ) channel between two isothermal vertical
1/3 1/3 1/4

  plates.
= 93.3
➢ When the plates are hot (Ts > T∞), the
Nu = hL  h = k Nu = 0.03114 ( 93.3) = 5.81W/m2K ambient fluid at T∞ enters the channel from
k L 0.5 the lower end, rises as it is heated under the
q effect of buoyancy, and the heated fluid
Average surface temperature Ts = T + s = 300 + 600 = 403.3K
h 5.81 leaves the channel from the upper end.
Another iteration is unnecessary, since the assumed surface temperature ➢ Boundary layers start to develop at the
(Ts = 401K ) is close to the updated value (Ts = 403.3K ) , resulting in
lower ends of opposing surfaces, and
negligible property changes. eventually merge at the midplane if the
plates are vertical and sufficiently long
(fully developed channel flow).

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Natural Convection on Differentially Natural Convection on Differentially

Convection Convection
Heated Vertical Layer Heated Vertical Layer
A hot plate and a cold plate are placed
vertically near to one another as shown in
Fig. Show and discuss the velocity and
temperature profile of air in between.

➢ At very low Grashof numbers, there are

very minute free-convection currents and
the heat transfer occurs mainly by
conduction across the fluid layer.
➢ As the Grashof number is increased,
different flow regimes are encountered
with a progressively increasing heat
transfer.

Typical velocity and temperature profiles for the vertical convection layer
Page 762 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET Page 763 © Dr. Sumon Saha, Professor, ME Dept., BUET

23