The model considers the balance point of the ruler, the position and area of

the paper, the effect on the balance point, the stability condition of the ruler,
and the energy change of the balance point due to the paper.
Next, we consider previous equations and formulas related to ”impulse” to
derive a more complete model.
First, consider the effect of impulse. When the ball strikes the ruler, it
applies an impulse J = m′ v0 d. This impulse generates a torque on the ruler,
with a magnitude of Jt.
Combining the balance equations, we get:
√ √ √
(mg + M g)Ls + N d + N d + 4 R E δ + M g(x − x′ ) + J = 0

Next, consider the stability of the ruler. The stability of the ruler requires that
the energy change of the paper at the balance point is always greater than or
equal to zero, i.e., Wp ≥ 0. This can be expressed as:

kp Ap |δx| ≥ 0

Combining the stability equation, we get:

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
(mg+M g)(L+Nl d)+4 R E δ+4 R E δ+4 R E δ+kp Ap |x|+M |x|+J ≥ 0

Model 2: Considering Paper Deformation 1. **The relationship between

paper deformation and support force**: We can introduce a deformation coef-
ficient α to describe the effect of paper deformation on its support force. When
the paper deforms, its support force Ff2 on the ruler can be expressed as:

Ff2 = Ff′ (1 − α∆δ)

where Ff′ is the support force when the paper is undeformed, ∆δ is the amount
of paper deformation, and α is a coefficient describing the effect of deformation
on the support force.
2. **The relationship between deformation and paper energy**: Paper de-
formation will lead to the storage of some elastic potential energy. This energy
can be expressed as:
1
Wp2 = kp ∆δ 2
2
where kp is the elastic coefficient of the paper, and ∆δ is the amount of paper
deformation. Combining the previous equations, we can modify the balance and
stability equations.
The modified balance equation is:
√ √ √
(mg + M g)Ls + N d + N d + 4 R E δ + M g(x − x′ ) + J − Ff2 = 0

The modified stability equation is:

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
(mg+M g)(L+Nl d)+4 R E δ+4 R E δ+4 R E δ+kp Ap |x|+M |x|+J−Ff2 +Wp ≥ 0

1
 Model 3: The Relationship Between Paper Deformation Speed and Wave
Speed 1. **The relationship between paper deformation speed and wave speed**:
When the paper is impacted, deformation waves will propagate through the pa-
per. The speed of these waves (i.e., the wave speed of the paper) can affect the
instantaneous deformation of the paper after impact. Suppose the wave speed
of the paper is vw and the speed of deformation is vd . When vd exceeds vw , the
support force of the paper may momentarily decrease, as the deformation wave
cannot propagate through the paper in time.
Therefore, we reintroduce a deformation coefficient β to describe the effect
of paper deformation speed on its support force. The support force Ff3 on the
ruler can be expressed as:

Ff3 = Ff2 (1 − β(vd − vw ))

where β is a coefficient describing the effect of deformation speed on the support

force.
2. **Modified Balance and Stability Equations**: Combining the equations
from Model 2, we can modify the balance and stability equations.
The modified balance equation is:
√ √ √
(mg + M g)Ls + N d + N d + 4 R E δ + M g(x − x′ ) + J − Ff3 = 0

The modified stability equation is:

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
(mg+M g)(L+Nl d)+4 R E δ+4 R E δ+4 R E δ+kp Ap |x|+M |x|+J−Ff3 +Wp ≥ 0

Model 4: 1. **The deformation of paper and the dynamic response of the

ruler**: When the paper is impacted, it will undergo some deformation, which is
the result of interactions between molecules within the paper. We can introduce
a parameter γ to describe these interactions. The deformation of the paper ∆δ
can be expressed as:
∆δ = γ · Fimpact
where Fimpact is the impact force applied by the ball on the paper.
2. **The dynamic response of the ruler**: As a rigid body, the ruler will
have a dynamic response when subjected to external impact. We can introduce
a parameter ξ to describe the dynamic response of the ruler. The response of
the ruler ∆L can be expressed as:

∆L = ξ · Fimpact

3. **Coupling between paper and ruler**: The deformation of the paper and
the dynamic response of the ruler are coupled. The deformation of the paper
will affect its support force on the ruler, which in turn affects the dynamic
response of the ruler. Conversely, the dynamic response of the ruler also affects
the deformation of the paper. We can introduce a parameter η to describe this
coupling. The form of the coupling can be expressed as:
Fcoupling = η · (∆δ + ∆L)

2
 4. Corrected Balance Equation:
Combining the equations from Model II and the above considerations, we
obtain the corrected balance equation:√ √ √
(mg + Mg)Ls + N d + N d + 4 R E δ + M g(x − x0 ) + J − F − F =
0 (2llg3cpepctf 2coupling)
Model V: Refinement
1. Local Contact Characteristics Between Paper and Ruler: When
the paper is impacted, it may not contact the entire surface of the ruler uni-
formly. We can consider the local contact area Alocal between the paper and
the ruler. This area changes with the deformation of the paper and affects the
distribution of the supporting force.
2. Dynamic Stability Analysis of the Ruler: Considering the dynamic
stability of the ruler, when the paper is impacted, the ruler may undergo small
oscillations near its support point. We can introduce an angle θ describing the
oscillation of the ruler and its corresponding oscillation frequency ω to analyze
the dynamic stability of the ruler.
3. Damping Characteristics of the Paper: The paper not only has
elasticity but also damping properties. When the paper is impacted, it absorbs
part of the energy and releases it in the form of heat. We can introduce a
parameter d to describe the damping characteristics of the paper.
4. Re-derivation of the Ruler’s Equilibrium Position: Considering
the factors above, we can re-derive the equilibrium position of the ruler. The
equilibrium position of the ruler xe2 can be expressed as:

∆δ 2
xe2 = L − Lp − dp + γ · Fimpact − ξ · Fimpact − η · (∆δ + ∆L) − d ·
2
According to Model V, the equilibrium of the ruler is determined by multiple
factors. To make it clearer, we will consider each factor’s contribution separately.
1. Gravity: The torque generated by the ruler’s own gravity and the paper’s
gravity is (mg + M g) · Ls /2.
2. Paper Deformation: Due to the deformation of the paper, the sup-
porting force applied by the paper to the ruler changes, generating a torque of
γ · Fimpact .
3. Ruler’s Response: Due to the dynamic response of the ruler, its position
changes, generating a torque of ξ · Fimpact .
4. Paper-Ruler Coupling: The interaction between the paper and the
ruler generates a torque of η · (∆δ + ∆L).
5. Paper Damping: The damping of the paper absorbs part of the impact
2
energy, reducing the supporting force on the ruler, generating a torque of d· ∆δ2 .
6. Other Torques: As considered in Model II, the torques due to contact
and collisions between the ruler and the table are Nld + Nldg + Jt .
In summary, the corrected balance equation is:

∆δ 2 Ls ∆δ 2
Ls +(mg+M g)· +γ·Fimpact −ξ·Fimpact −η·(∆δ+∆L)−d· +Nld +Nldg +Jt = 0
2 2 2

3
 This equation describes the sum of the torques acting on the ruler in the
equilibrium state being zero.
Model VI: Advanced
1. Relationship Between the Ruler’s Natural Frequency and the
Frequency of Disturbances Generated by the Paper: Every object has
its own natural frequency of vibration. When the external applied frequency
is close to the object’s natural frequency, resonance may occur. We assume
that the ruler also has a natural frequency f0 . When the paper is impacted
and produces a disturbance at a certain frequency f , if f ≈ f0 , resonance may
occur, increasing the likelihood of the ruler leaving the table.
2. Microscopic Intermolecular Interactions: The contact between the
paper and the ruler is not only macroscopic friction and pressure. On the
microscopic level, weak intermolecular interactions occur between the paper
and the ruler. We can introduce a parameter α to describe these microscopic
interactions, which have additional effects on the contact between the paper and
the ruler.
Considering the factors above, we can obtain the new balance equation:

∆δ 2 Ls ∆δ 2
Ls +(mg+M g)· +γ·Fimpact −ξ·Fimpact −η·(∆δ+∆L)−d· +Nld +Nldg +Jt +αFvdW = 0
2 2 2
where FvdW is the additional supporting force due to van der Waals forces.
At the same time, we introduce the resonance condition:

f ≈ f0
Model VIII: Innovation
1. Distribution Function Describing the Paper’s Deformation: Con-
sidering the deformation of the paper after impact, we can introduce a distribu-
tion function φ(x) to describe the deformation at various points on the paper
after impact.
2. Differential Equation Describing the Dynamic Response of the
Ruler: After being impacted, the ruler undergoes a dynamic response. We can
use a differential equation to describe this response:

d2 θ dθ
I 2
+ b + kθ = τ
dt dt
Among them, θ is the pendulum angle of the ruler, I is the moment of
inertia, b is the damping coefficient, k is the restoring coefficient, and τ is the
torque generated by paper deformation.
3. **Probability theory analysis of the ruler’s stability**: Consider the
stability of the ruler from a probabilistic perspective. Assume that after the ruler
is impacted, there is a certain probability p that it will fall. This probability
can be determined by the solution of the above differential equation and the
deformation distribution function of the paper. Combining the above three

4
points, we can obtain new stability conditions:
p = P (θ > θc |φ(x), dθ, τ )dt
where θc is the critical swing angle at which the ruler falls, and P represents
the probability. Continuing to think under Laplace’s framework, we know that
the deformation distribution function φ(x) of the paper after impact should
be influenced by many factors, such as the instantaneous force of impact, the
material properties of the paper, and the material properties of the ruler. First,
considering that the impact on the paper occurs in a local area, the deformation
distribution function should reach a maximum at the impact point and decrease
as the distance from the impact point increases. To describe this change, we can
consider using a Gaussian function to describe the distribution. Model Nine:
Paper deformation distribution function We can express the paper deformation
distribution function as:
(x−x0 )2
φ(x) = Ae− 2σ2
where: - A is the maximum deformation, related to the force of the impact. - x0
is the position of the impact point. - σ describes the width of the deformation
distribution, related to the material properties, thickness of the paper, and
material properties of the ruler. At the boundary of the paper, due to the fixed
constraint, the deformation should reduce to zero. We can adjust the above
Gaussian function or add a correction term to satisfy this condition. To further
describe the interaction between the deformation of the paper and the ruler,
we also need to introduce a contact model between the paper and the ruler.
Considering that after the impact, the paper forms a local area of contact with
the ruler, we can use Hertz contact theory to describe this contact. According
to Hertz contact theory, the shape of the contact area can be described by an
ellipse, and the long and short axes of the ellipse are related to the direction and
magnitude of the impact. In summary, the deformation distribution function
φ(x) of the paper can describe the deformation situation of the paper after
impact, as well as the contact situation with the ruler.
Model Ten: Advanced description of paper deformation 1. **Adjust the
Gaussian function to meet boundary conditions**: To satisfy the boundary
conditions of the paper, we can consider a modified Gaussian function, where
the deformation at the boundary of the paper is zero. Considering that the
width of the paper is W (the distance from the free end of the ruler to the fixed
end), we can introduce a sine correction term to meet the boundary conditions:
(x−x0 )2
 πx 
φ(x) = Ae− 2σ2 sin
W
2. **Use Hertz contact theory**: According to Hertz contact theory, the contact
area between two very hard materials can be approximated by an elliptical
shape. For an impact point, the radius r of the contact area below the point
can be expressed using the following formula:
 1/3
3F δ
r=
2πE ∗

5
where F is the vertical force at the contact point, δ is the deformation of the
paper, and E ∗ is the effective elastic modulus of the paper and the ruler, which
can be expressed as:
1 1 − νp2 1 − νs2
= +
E∗ Ep Es
where νp , νs , Ep , and Es are the Poisson ratios and elastic moduli of the paper
and the ruler, respectively. 3. **Comprehensive deformation distribution func-
tion**: Considering Hertz contact theory, the deformation distribution function
of the paper can be further refined as:
 πx   |x − x0 |1/2

(x−x0 )2
φ(x) = Ae− 2σ2 sin 1−
W r
Model Eleven: Effects of the microscopic structure of paper 1. **Consider
the microscopic structure of the paper**: The paper is made up of many mi-
croscopic structures, which can be viewed as microscopic springs. When the
paper is impacted, these springs may be compressed or stretched, leading to
deformation of the paper. Consider a small region of the paper containing N
fibers, each with a spring constant of k. Then, the total elastic coefficient of this
region is K = N k. 2. **Introduce a spatial distribution function**: Consider-
ing that the fibers of the paper may not be uniformly distributed in space, we
can introduce a spatial distribution function f (x), representing the fiber density
at position x. Thus, the elastic coefficient at position x is K(x) = N f (x)k. 3.
**Spatial deformation distribution function**: Combining the above models,
we can obtain the spatial deformation distribution function of the paper:
|x − x0 |1/2
 
(x−x0 )2
φ(x) = Ae− 2σ2 1−
r
 1/2

Here, we have added a term 1 − |x−xr0 | to describe the variation of defor-
mation near the impact point, where the value is positive inside the contact
region and zero outside the contact region. Before conducting further analysis,
let’s first assess the limitations and potential dimensional errors of the current
model. 4. **Dimensional consistency**: In the spatial deformation distribu-
tion function φ(x), we directly multiply the position-dependent elastic coefficient
K(x) by the magnitude of the deformation. However, in reality, K(x) should
be related to the second derivative of the deformation (i.e., the deformation
acceleration).
**Improving the model** 1. **Effects of atmospheric pressure**: When the
impact occurs, the paper is struck and may form an air gap. The effects of
atmospheric pressure on this air gap can be described using Bernoulli’s equa-
tion, which relates fluid pressure, velocity, and height. When the paper moves,
changes in the size of the air gap cause air flow, which affects the energy of the
system. We can assume that at the moment of impact, the formation of the air
gap follows the following energy equation:
1 2
∆E = ρv + p0 − p(x) = 0
2

6
 Where ∆E is the change in the system’s energy, ρ is the air density, v is the
airflow velocity in the gap, p0 is atmospheric pressure, and p(x) is the pressure
on the paper at position x.

1 Equations of Deformation for the Ruler and

Paper
Considering the influence of atmospheric pressure, we can derive the equations
describing the deformation of the ruler and paper. First, we need to correct the
spatial distribution function of deformation by associating the elastic coefficient
with the acceleration of deformation:

ϕ′′ (x) = −K(x)ϕ(x) + Fatm (x)

where ϕ′′ (x) is the acceleration of deformation, and Fatm (x) is the force
resulting from changes in atmospheric pressure.
Taking into account the conservation of energy in the system, we can relate
the energy equation to the deformation equation to obtain a motion equation
describing the deformation of the ruler and paper:

∂(∆E)
mϕ′′ (x) = −K(x)ϕ(x) + Fatm (x) −
∂x
where m is the mass element of the paper at position x, and − ∂(∆E)
∂x rep-
resents the gradient of energy change with respect to position, indicating the
conversion of energy into deformation force.

1.1 Dimensional Analysis of the Energy Equation

First, we note that the terms in the energy equation ∆E = 21 ρv 2 + p0 − p(x) = 0
have different dimensions. The velocity squared term 21 ρv 2 and the pressures p0
and p(x) cannot be directly added because they have different physical dimen-
sions. To correct this, we should multiply the velocity squared term by an area
A to represent the force acting over the entire affected region, thereby obtaining
a pressure term. Therefore, the energy equation should be modified as:
1 2
∆E = ρv A + p0 − p(x) = 0
2

1.2 Dimensional Consistency of the Deformation Equa-

tion
In the deformation equation ϕ′′ (x) = −K(x)ϕ(x) + Fatm (x), K(x), ϕ(x), and
Fatm (x) must be dimensionally consistent. In the current equation, K(x) is an
elastic coefficient with units of force per length, ϕ(x) is displacement with units
of length, and Fatm (x) is force. To maintain dimensional consistency, we should
multiply K(x) by a length dimension, such as the thickness t of the paper,

7
so that K(x)ϕ(x) becomes a force dimension. Thus, the deformation equation
should be modified to:

ϕ′′ (x) = −K(x)tϕ(x) + Fatm (x)

1.3 Introduction of Field Theory

Considering the interaction between the paper and the ruler, we can treat the
air gap between them as a varying field—a ”pressure field” or ”energy field.”
The strength and direction of this field change with the deformation of the paper
and ruler, and this change can be described by a field equation. Gauss might
suggest introducing an equation that describes the gradient of this field, such
as:
   
∂p ∂p ∂x
, ∇E(x, t) = −γ
∂x ∂t ∂t
where E(x, t) represents the field intensity at position x and time t, ∇E(x, t)
is the gradient of the field, γ is a coefficient related to material properties, and
∂p ∂p
∂x and ∂t are the partial derivatives of pressure with respect to position and
time, respectively.

1.4 Considering Nonlinear Effects

The deformation of the paper and the movement of the ruler can be very com-
plex, especially at the moment of impact. Gauss might recognize the nonlinear
characteristics of the system and suggest introducing nonlinear terms to more
accurately describe the dynamic behavior of the system. For example, we can
introduce a term that describes the nonlinearity of deformation, such as βϕ(x)3 ,
where β is a nonlinear coefficient. Therefore, the deformation equation is mod-
ified to:

ϕ′′ (x) = −K(x)tϕ(x) + Fatm (x) + βϕ(x)3

2 Effects of Aerodynamics
2.1 Generation and Propagation of Airflow
When the paper is struck and a gap is formed, the formation and disappearance
of this gap generate airflow. These airflows can be described using the funda-
mental equations of fluid dynamics, particularly the Navier-Stokes equations.
Considering that the air between the paper and the ruler is an incompressible
fluid, we can use the incompressible Navier-Stokes equations to describe the
movement of airflow:
 
∂v
ρ + v · ∇v = −∇p + µ∇2 v + f
∂t

8
 where ρ is the air density, v is the velocity field, p is the pressure field, µ
is the dynamic viscosity, and f is the external force acting on the fluid (e.g.,
gravity).

2.2 Impact of Pressure Difference

Due to the generation of airflow, a pressure difference forms on the upper and
lower sides of the paper. This pressure difference exerts a net force on the paper,
affecting its support of the ruler. According to Bernoulli’s equation, we can find
the relationship between pressure and velocity along a streamline of the fluid:
1
p + ρv 2 + ρgh = constant
2
Here, v is the fluid velocity, g is the gravitational acceleration, and h is
the height of the fluid relative to a reference point. When the paper is struck,
especially when a gap forms between the paper and the ruler, the fluid velocity
v increases, leading to changes in pressure p. This pressure difference can be
used to estimate the net force acting on the paper:

∆F = A · ∆p
where A is the area of the paper, and ∆p is the pressure difference between
the upper and lower sides.
We need to update the deformation equation to account for the additional
force ∆F generated by the airflow. Additionally, we need to combine the Navier-
Stokes equations and Bernoulli’s equation to obtain a comprehensive description
of the system. The updated deformation equation might be:
∆F
ϕ′′ (x) = −K(x)tϕ(x) + Fatm (x) + βϕ(x)3 +
A
For fluid dynamics, we need to solve the Navier-Stokes equations and Bernoulli’s
equation in combination.
Position of the equilibrium point and maximum collision velocity 1. **Po-
sition of the equilibrium point**: By considering all the forces and torques,
we can obtain an expression for the position of the ruler’s equilibrium point,
xbalance . This position is determined by factors such as the center of mass of the
ruler, the center of mass of the paper, the coverage location, and atmospheric
pressure. The expression for the equilibrium point can be:

(mg + M g)L/2 + Nℓ d + Nℓ dg + ∆F · A
xbalance =
mg + M g + Fatm
2. **Maximum collision velocity**: The maximum collision velocity vmax
is the highest collision velocity the ruler can withstand without losing balance.
This can be found by setting the angular acceleration of the ruler to zero and
solving for the balance of forces:

9
 Fcrit − Fatm
vmax =
m
where Fcrit is the critical force required to keep the ruler stable, which can be
calculated using the equilibrium point expression above and stability conditions.
Effect of paper coverage location The location of the paper coverage xpaper
will affect both the position of the equilibrium point and the maximum collision
velocity. Specifically:
1. **Position of the equilibrium point**: The closer the paper coverage is
to the free end of the ruler, the closer the equilibrium point xbalance will be to
the fixed end of the ruler, as the paper provides additional supporting force.
2. **Maximum collision velocity**: The closer the paper coverage is to the
free end of the ruler, the smaller the maximum collision velocity vmax , as the
effective length of the ruler is reduced, thereby decreasing its ability to withstand
impact.
By adjusting xpaper and observing the changes in xbalance and vmax , we can
quantify the specific effect of the paper’s position on the ruler’s balance and
stability.

10