India's Foreign Relations: Objectives,

Challenges, and Strategic Partnerships

in a Shi�ing Global Order
2. Introduction: India's Foreign Policy in a Shi�ing World Order:
The contemporary global landscape is characterized by a complex interplay of geopolitical
tensions and transformative shi�s in power dynamics. A "polycrisis," marked by ongoing
con�icts such as the war in Ukraine and instability in West Asia, alongside the persistent
rivalry between the United States and China, shapes the international environment within
which India's foreign policy operates.1 This period also witnesses a notable rebalancing of
global power, with economic, military, and strategic in�uence increasingly shi�ing from the
Atlantic to the Paci�c, accompanied by the rise of Asian powers, including India.1 India's
foreign policy agenda has become increasingly intricate, driven by the powerful engines of its
growing economy and rapid technological advancements.1 As India strives towards its
ambitious goal of becoming a 'Viksit Bharat' (Developed India) by 2047, a congruent and
adaptive foreign policy is essential to both navigate the complexities of the external world and
create a conducive environment for domestic progress.1 The nation's strategic calculations
must skillfully integrate national security, economic imperatives, and diplomatic
considerations to e�ectively project its in�uence in the region and beyond.1
3. Core Principles and Objectives of India's Foreign Policy:
* 3.1 Guiding Principles:
* Panchasheel: The �ve principles of peaceful coexistence – mutual respect for each other's
territorial integrity and sovereignty, mutual non-aggression, mutual non-interference in each
other's internal a�airs, equality and mutual bene�t, and peaceful coexistence – serve as a
foundational framework for India's bilateral relations.2 These principles, �rst articulated in a
1954 agreement with China, underscore India's commitment to fostering relationships based
on mutual respect and the peaceful resolution of disputes.4 They were later enshrined in the
Bandung Declaration of 1955, becoming a core tenet of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).4
Rooted in India's post-independence vision of a cooperative international order, these
principles aim to guide its engagement with a diverse array of nations. However, the practical
application of Panchasheel can be challenging in a global arena o�en characterized by power
asymmetries and competing national interests.
* Non-Alignment (NAM): Historically a crucial element of India's foreign policy, the
Non-Aligned Movement emerged during the Cold War as a means for India to maintain its
independence by not aligning with either the United States-led Western bloc or the Soviet-led
Eastern bloc.4 In the post-Cold War era, with the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the
emergence of a unipolar world, the relevance and focus of NAM have evolved. In the 21st
century, NAM continues to provide a pla�orm for developing countries to address
contemporary global challenges, focusing on issues such as the promotion of a multipolar
world order, advocating for economic development, fostering South-South cooperation, and
pushing for reforms in international institutions like the United Nations.5 While the original
context of superpower rivalry has diminished, the underlying principle of strategic
independence remains pertinent for India as it navigates a complex and increasingly
multipolar global landscape, allowing it to avoid entanglement in the strategic contests of
major powers.
* Strategic Autonomy: A cornerstone of India's foreign policy, strategic autonomy is de�ned as
the nation's ability to make independent decisions, particularly in the realm of foreign
relations, without being unduly in�uenced by other states.2 This concept has its roots in
Jawaharlal Nehru's policy of non-alignment and has been particularly emphasized and
actively pursued under the administration of Prime Minister Narendra Modi.8 It signi�es a
paradigm shi� from passive equidistance to dynamic engagement, enabling India to navigate
global complexities with strategic foresight and diplomatic �exibility.10 By maintaining
strategic autonomy, India aims to balance its relationships with major global powers such as
the United States, China, and Russia, allowing it to pursue its national interests pragmatically
and engage with various countries based on speci�c contexts without entering into rigid or
permanent alliances.7 This approach is crucial for India as it seeks to counter regional
hegemony and carve out a path towards becoming a leading global power in the 21st
century.7
* “Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam” (The world is one family): This ancient Sanskrit phrase
encapsulates a core philosophical principle that underpins India's foreign policy, emphasizing
the interconnectedness of humanity and advocating for global cooperation and inclusive
growth.2 It signi�es a worldview where India sees itself as part of a larger global community,
commi�ed to fostering understanding, mutual respect, and collective action to address global
challenges.13 By adhering to this principle, India aims to position itself as a "Vishwa Bandhu"
or friend of the world, promoting universalism and a sense of global responsibility amidst a
volatile and divided international arena.13 This philosophical foundation balances India's focus
on its national interests with a broader commitment to the well-being of the entire global
family, guiding its foreign policy towards inclusivity and a cooperative international order.13
* 3.2 Key Objectives:
* Safeguarding National Security: The paramount objective of India's foreign policy is to
protect its national security against external threats, ensuring the territorial integrity,
sovereignty, and overall interests of the nation.2 This involves a multi-pronged approach,
including the modernization of its armed forces with advanced weaponry and the promotion
of indigenous defense production.2 Strengthening maritime security in the strategically
crucial Indian Ocean Region (IOR) and enhancing cyber defense capabilities to counter global
cyber threats are also integral aspects of this objective.2 Furthermore, India adopts a
balanced approach in addressing border issues with its neighboring countries while
simultaneously maintaining economic ties and fostering regional cooperation.2
* Promoting Economic Growth: A key driver of India's foreign relations is the objective of
promoting robust economic growth through the establishment of strategic global
partnerships.2 This involves actively enhancing trade relations, a�racting foreign investment
into key sectors, and participating in prominent global economic forums such as the G20.7
India leverages its economic growth to enhance its international pro�le, focusing on initiatives
like promoting trade, a�racting foreign investment, and engaging in global economic
discussions.7 Economic diplomacy plays a crucial role in achieving India's foreign policy
objectives by fostering sustainable development through enhanced trade, technological
exchange, and strategic partnerships aimed at securing energy and trade corridors.2
* Enhancing Global In�uence: India actively seeks to enhance its global in�uence by actively
participating in international decision-making processes and advocating for reforms in major
multilateral institutions, including its long-standing aspiration for a permanent seat on the
United Nations Security Council.1 The nation is proactive in projecting its ambition to be a
leading power on the world stage, engaging in dialogues, participating in multilateral forums,
and leveraging its strategic autonomy to amplify its voice on global issues.1 India aims to
establish itself as a signi�cant regional player, particularly in East Asian a�airs, and to play a
key role in shaping the future world order by strengthening global partnerships and
expanding its diplomatic networks.2
* Protecting and Empowering the Indian Diaspora: With the largest diaspora worldwide, India
places a strong emphasis on protecting and empowering its diaspora communities residing in
various countries.2 This objective is pursued by maintaining good and peaceful relations with
other nations to safeguard the interests and well-being of the Indian diaspora, promoting
their cultural, economic, and social ties with India.3 India also endeavors to leverage the
diaspora for national development, recognizing their potential as uno�cial ambassadors and
contributors to India's global image and its progress at home.2
4. India's Strategic Partnerships with Major Global Powers:
* 4.1 India and the United States: Deepening Cooperation and Addressing Contentions.
India and the United States share a comprehensive global strategic partnership that spans
almost all areas of human endeavor, underpinned by their shared commitment to democratic
values and a growing convergence of interests on a wide range of global issues.16 This
partnership is increasingly driven by a mutual recognition of the importance of the
Indo-Paci�c region and a shared concern regarding the rise of China.18 To further strengthen
their strategic alignment, the leaders of both nations launched the "U.S.-India COMPACT
(Catalyzing Opportunities for Military Partnership, Accelerated Commerce & Technology) for
the 21st Century," an initiative designed to bring about transformative change across key
pillars of cooperation.16 A signi�cant focus of this partnership is the Initiative on Critical and
Emerging Technology (ICET), which aims to foster strategic technology collaborations,
co-development, and co-production in vital sectors such as AI, quantum computing, telecom,
space, biotech, and semiconductors.16 Defense cooperation between India and the US has
also witnessed substantial growth, with the US designating India as a Major Defence
Partner.16 This has led to increased arms sales, including signi�cant acquisitions like the
MQ-9B Sea Guardian combat drones, and a greater willingness from the US to transfer
technology and even engage in some manufacturing in India, exempli�ed by the agreement
for General Electric F414 jet engines for India's Tejas �ghters.16 Joint military exercises have
become a regular feature, enhancing the interoperability between their armed forces.19
Cooperation extends to other critical areas such as space exploration, with discussions on
strengthening collaboration in this domain, as well as in arti�cial intelligence and sustainable
development.16 Bilateral trade between India and the US has seen a signi�cant upswing,
reaching $194 billion in 2023, making the US India's largest trading partner and most
important export market.17 The two nations have set an ambitious new goal to more than
double this �gure to $500 billion by 2030, with plans to negotiate a mutually bene�cial
Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA) to achieve this.16 Despite the overall positive trajectory, the
relationship has encountered some points of contention. The US has expressed concerns
regarding human rights and the state of democracy in India, and trade disputes occasionally
arise, particularly concerning market access for American goods and services in sectors like
information technology, pharmaceuticals, and agriculture, as well as intellectual property
rights.18

* **4.2 India and Russia:** A Time-Tested Partnership Adapting to New Realities.

Russia has long been a steadfast and time-tested partner for India, with the development
of India-Russia relations serving as a key pillar of India's foreign policy.[14] Since the signing
of the "Declaration on the India-Russia Strategic Partnership" in 2000, the relationship has
evolved into a qualitatively new phase characterized by enhanced levels of cooperation
across a wide spectrum of areas, including political, security, defense, trade, and
economy.[14] In the wake of the Ukraine con�ict and the subsequent imposition of Western
sanctions on Moscow, economic relations between India and Russia have experienced a
signi�cant surge. Bilateral trade has dramatically increased from a mere $12 billion before the
con�ict to an impressive $65.70 billion in FY 2023-24, making India Russia's second-largest
trading partner.[14, 21, 22] This increase is largely a�ributed to India's imports of crude oil
from Russia, coupled with a rise in India's exports of consumer electronics, machinery, and
mechanical appliances to Russia.[21, 22] To facilitate this growing trade, the Indian Central
Bank has enabled Russian entities to open special Vostro accounts in Indian banks.[21, 22]
While the economic partnership has strengthened, the military-technical partnership, which
has been the bedrock of India-Russia relations since the Cold War era, has witnessed a
decline. The share of India's defense imports from Russia has decreased from 76% in 2009 to
36% in 2023, as India pursues a strategy of diversifying its defense procurement by importing
arms from Western countries like France and the United States and by bolstering its domestic
defense production capabilities.[21, 22] Concerns persist in New Delhi regarding the
increasingly close relationship between Russia and China, with Beijing becoming Moscow's
largest trading partner and ramping up military cooperation.[21, 22] Despite India's
con�dence that this development is not impacting its relations with Russia, Indian
policymakers are wary that Moscow might prioritize its relationship with Beijing, potentially
a�ecting the supply of defense equipment to India.[21, 22] Nevertheless, India and Russia are
actively exploring new areas for cooperation to ensure the continued relevance of their
partnership, including increasing bilateral trade, cooperation in the Russian Far East and the
Arctic, development of the Northern Sea Route, and enhancing tra�c along the
Chennai-Vladivostok economic corridor.[21] Cooperation in science and technology remains
robust, encompassing �elds like space, including joint lunar exploration missions, and civilian
nuclear energy, with Russia's assistance in the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant project.[23]

* **4.3 India and China:** Navigating Competition and Seeking Areas of Engagement.
The relationship between India and China is characterized by a complex interplay of
cooperation and contention, marked by a long history of border disputes, most notably along
the Line of Actual Control (LAC).[24, 25] Despite decades of diplomatic engagement, the
border issue remains unresolved and continues to be a source of tension, occasionally
leading to military stando�s and clashes, such as the deadly incident in the Galwan Valley in
2020.[24, 26, 27, 28] Strategic competition between the two Asian giants is evident in their
vying for in�uence in the Indo-Paci�c region, with India viewing China's Belt and Road
Initiative (BRI) and its growing presence in South Asia with apprehension, while Beijing
remains wary of India's increasing engagements with other regional powers and its
participation in initiatives like the Quad.[25, 26, 27] Despite the political and strategic
complexities, economic ties between India and China have remained remarkably robust. In the
�scal year 2024, bilateral trade reached an impressive $118.4 billion, with China's exports to
India amounting to $101.7 billion and India's exports to China at $16.67 billion.[24] However,
this signi�cant trade imbalance in favor of China has been a long-standing concern for India,
highlighting its reliance on Chinese imports, particularly in sectors like electronics and
pharmaceuticals.[24, 27] Despite the persistent challenges, both nations have engaged in
numerous rounds of diplomatic dialogues and con�dence-building measures aimed at
managing tensions and seeking potential areas of cooperation. High-level meetings between
leaders, such as the Wuhan Summit in 2018 and the Mamallapuram Summit in 2019, have
aimed to reduce tensions and foster greater cooperation.[26] More recently, there have been
some indications of a potential diplomatic reset, with both countries agreeing to resume
direct air services in January 2025 a�er nearly �ve years and expressing a commitment to
work on resolving di�erences over trade and economic issues.[29] In 2025, India and China
also marked 75 years of diplomatic ties with various events and bilateral dialogues, including a
breakthrough agreement on troop withdrawals in some disputed border areas in late
2024.[27] While these e�orts signal a willingness from both sides to engage and manage their
relationship, the underlying border dispute and strategic competition continue to cast a long
shadow, making a complete return to a pre-2020 "normal" relationship appear unlikely.[29]

* **4.4 India and Japan:** Strengthening Strategic and Economic Convergence.

The partnership between India and Japan has been rapidly strengthening in recent years,
driven by a shared and growing concern over the rise of China and its increasing
assertiveness in the Indo-Paci�c region.[30] This convergence of strategic interests has
fostered a warmer relationship between Tokyo and Delhi, with both countries recognizing the
need to counteract China's expanding in�uence, particularly in the Indian Ocean.[30] As a
result, India and Japan have been actively enhancing their economic and military ties, leading
to speculation that their combined strength could potentially challenge China's dominance at
sea.[30] However, despite this growing strategic convergence, the two countries have also
exhibited di�erences in their responses to global crises, such as the invasion of Ukraine,
which exposed some underlying strategic di�erences in their foreign policy approaches.[31]
Nevertheless, the shared objective of ensuring a free and open Indo-Paci�c has led to a new
level of strategic alignment between India and Japan, especially since the India-China border
clash in June 2020.[31] This has translated into practical cooperation within the framework of
the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad), which also includes Australia and the United
States. The four Quad members have focused on collaborating in various areas, including the
COVID-19 pandemic response, vaccine production, infrastructure development, addressing
climate change, enhancing cybersecurity, and fostering cooperation in critical and emerging
technologies.[31] In recent times, there have been notable developments in defense and
technology cooperation between India and Japan. This includes an agreement for the
co-development of Uni�ed Complex Radio Antenna (UNICORN) masts, an innovative stealth
technology for �tment on Indian Navy ships.[32, 33, 34] This endeavor marks the �rst instance
of the two countries working together to develop and produce defense equipment, with India
becoming only the second Asian nation to receive Japanese defense technology a�er the
Philippines.[33] Furthermore, India and Japan have been actively discussing a military
logistics sharing agreement to enhance interoperability between their armed forces and to
counter China's growing military presence in strategic waters.[34] They have also agreed to
explore new areas of cooperation in the air domain and to enhance collaboration in the
co-production and co-development of military hardware and technology.[34]

* **4.5 India and Germany:** Enhancing Cooperation in Technology, Trade, and Security.
The partnership between Germany and India has been gaining signi�cant momentum in
recent years, re�ecting Germany's growing recognition of India's increasing geopolitical
importance in the evolving global landscape.[35, 36] This has been underscored by
Germany's release of its "Focus on India" document, which signals a non-partisan and
cross-ministerial e�ort to strengthen relations with India in hopes of bolstering both
countries' economic resilience, fostering innovation, and enhancing geopolitical stability.[35]
Germany is also actively trying to increase its presence in the Indo-Paci�c region, conducting
naval deployments in the Indian Ocean and joining naval exercises with India, Japan, the US,
and other allies, with the aim of keeping trade routes open and counterbalancing China's
presence.[35] Recognizing India's strengthened role as a "net security provider" in the region,
Germany's policy seemingly puts new emphasis on India as a "security partner".[35] To realize
their "convergences on key foreign and security policy challenges," the German and Indian
governments are focusing on practical cooperation between their armed forces and reliable
armaments cooperation, including more complex military maneuvers and enhanced
industrial-level cooperation in the defense sector, focusing on technology collaboration,
manufacturing/co-production, and co-development of defense pla�orms and equipment.[35]
A signi�cant move in this direction is the recent announcement by German conglomerate
Thyssenkrupp of their plan to team up with India's Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders to build six
advanced conventional submarines for the Indian Navy.[35] Beyond defense, Germany is
India's prime trading partner within the European Union, making economic ties a crucial pillar
of their relationship.[37] The two countries also share a commitment to a rules-based
international order and work together in multilateral forums, including the Group of Four (G4),
advocating for reforms in the United Nations and striving for permanent seats on the Security
Council.[36, 37, 38] Agreements on triangular cooperation and on migration and mobility have
also taken Indo-German relations to a new level.[36, 38] Applied research and technology
partnerships have long been a cornerstone of their relations, formalized through
intergovernmental agreements and initiatives like the Indo-German Science and Technology
Centre (IGSTC) and the Indo-German Digital Dialogue, fostering collaboration in areas such
as advanced manufacturing, sustainable energy, cybersecurity, and arti�cial intelligence.[35]

* **4.6 India and the United Kingdom:** Towards a Comprehensive Strategic Partnership.
The relationship between India and the United Kingdom, while historically signi�cant, has
been on an upward trajectory in recent years, particularly following the UK's decision to leave
the European Union.[39, 40] Despite periods of political turbulence within the UK, ties with
India have been strengthening, culminating in the adoption of the "2030 Roadmap for
India-UK future relations" during a virtual summit in May 2021.[39, 40, 41] This roadmap
provides a comprehensive framework to steer cooperation over the next decade across �ve
key pillars: people-to-people ties, trade, defense and security, climate action, and health.[39,
42] Alongside this roadmap, both countries also elevated their relationship to a
Comprehensive Strategic Partnership.[39, 40, 41] A signi�cant aspect of this enhanced
partnership is the ongoing negotiations for a Free Trade Agreement (FTA), which began in
January 2022.[39, 42] While a substantial portion of the agreement covering goods, services,
and investments has been mutually agreed upon, some contentious demands from both sides
are still awaiting resolution, including India's pursuit of greater mobility and a liberalized visa
regime for its skilled professionals and students in the UK, and Britain's desire for reduced
tari�s on its exports of automobiles and alcohol, as well as greater access to the Indian
market for its services sector.[40] Despite these outstanding issues, the election of a Labour
government under PM Keir Starmer in the UK has brought renewed momentum and political
stability to the negotiations, increasing the likelihood of a mutually bene�cial FTA.[40, 42]
Defense and security cooperation between India and the UK have also been on a positive
trajectory. Recognizing the untapped potential in this area, the UK formally launched the
"Defence Partnership-India" in February 2025, a dedicated cell within the UK Ministry of
Defence aimed at deepening cooperation with India.[39, 43] Industry-to-industry engagement
has also received a boost, with collaborations in defense technology and manufacturing.[39,
43] Military cooperation has seen growth through joint exercises, with the Royal Air Force
participating in the Indian Air Force's �rst-ever multinational air exercise in August 2024.[39]
Both countries are also collaborating on technology and innovation, with the launch of the
UK-India Technology Security Initiative (TSI) in July 2024, prioritizing cooperation in critical
and emerging technologies like cybersecurity, AI, and digital infrastructure.[43]

* **4.7 India and France:** A Robust Strategic Alliance Across Domains.

India and France have traditionally enjoyed exceptionally close and friendly relations,
underpinned by a deep and enduring Strategic Partnership that encompasses all aspects of
bilateral cooperation, with a strong strategic component.[44, 45, 46] The core of this
long-standing partnership is built upon shared democratic values, a belief in multilateralism to
tackle global challenges, respect for international law, and strong economic, cultural,
academic, and people-to-people ties.[44] The year 2023 marked the 25th anniversary of the
India-France Strategic Partnership, highlighting its depth and maturity.[44] Defence
cooperation forms a cornerstone of the Indo-French relationship, characterized by increasing
"Atmanirbharata" (self-reliance).[44, 45, 46] This includes major ongoing projects such as
India's acquisition of Rafale �ghter aircra� and Scorpène-class submarines, as well as
potential new areas of collaboration like the co-development of next-generation engines for
�ghter planes.[44, 45, 46] Joint defense exercises between the two countries have grown in
scope and complexity over the years, involving all three branches of their armed forces.[44,
45] In the realm of civil nuclear cooperation, France has been a pivotal partner for India, with
collaboration on the Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project being a prime example.[46] Both nations
are also now working on a partnership for Small Modular Reactors (SMR) and Advanced
Modular Reactors (AMR).[45, 47] Space exploration is another frontier where India and France
have a rich history of cooperation, with ongoing joint missions and shared satellite data
between ISRO and the French space agency CNES.[45, 46, 47] In July 2023, during a visit by
Prime Minister Modi to France, both sides adopted a roadmap titled 'Horizon 2047', se�ing
the course for the next 25 years of their strategic partnership, coinciding with the centenaries
of India's independence and diplomatic relations between the two countries.[45] This
roadmap signi�es a commitment to deepening ties across trade, technological
advancements, energy security, and cultural exchanges for mutual economic growth and
global leadership.[45] While the strategic partnership is robust, there are some divergent
geopolitical stances, such as France's active support for Ukraine against Russia, while India
maintains a neutral position.[47]

5. India's Engagement with its South Asian Neighbors:

* 5.1 India and Pakistan: Managing Enduring Tensions and Exploring Dialogue.
The relationship between India and Pakistan stands as one of the most complex and
challenging in South Asia, marked by a history of animosity, territorial disputes, and
deep-seated mistrust, primarily stemming from the issue of Jammu and Kashmir.48 Despite a
fragile cease�re agreement along the Line of Control (LOC) that has been in place since
2003, regular exchanges of �re across the contested border persist, with both sides accusing
the other of violations.49 Cross-border terrorism emanating from Pakistan remains a core
concern and a signi�cant point of contention in bilateral relations, with India consistently
stressing the need for Pakistan to take credible, irreversible, and veri�able action to end such
activities.50 In recent years, particularly following India's revocation of Article 370 of its
constitution, which granted special status to Jammu and Kashmir, there has been no
signi�cant forward movement in bilateral ties.50 The prevailing atmosphere is one of deep
mistrust, especially concerning the Kashmir issue.50 Recent statements from both sides
re�ect the continued strain in the relationship, with some characterizing the current period as
one of the worst in history between the two countries, barring times of actual war.51 India has
strongly criticized Pakistan for its repeated "unjusti�ed" references to Jammu and Kashmir at
international forums like the UN General Assembly, asserting that such remarks will not
validate Pakistan's claims nor justify its practice of cross-border terrorism.51 India's External
A�airs Minister, S Jaishankar, has stated that the core issue of Kashmir will be resolved only
when Pakistan vacates Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK).51 While dialogue is widely
acknowledged as the only viable solution for both countries to resolve their outstanding
issues, including Kashmir, there has been a lack of meaningful engagement in recent years,
with the prospects for a signi�cant breakthrough remaining bleak.48
Key Treaties & Agreements Major Disputes & Points of Contention
(India-Pakistan) (India-Pakistan)
Agreement on Prohibition of A�ack Against Jammu and Kashmir
Nuclear Installations (1988)
Simla Agreement (1972) Cross-border terrorism
Indus Waters Treaty (1960) Border demarcation
Trade Agreement (1949) Water sharing

* **5.2 India and Bangladesh:** Fostering Connectivity and Addressing Bilateral Issues.
India and Bangladesh share historically close and cordial relations, rooted in their shared
history, language, and culture.[52, 53, 54] These ties �ourished particularly under the
leadership of former Bangladeshi Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina. However, the recent ouster of
Hasina in August 2024 and the subsequent formation of an interim government led by
Muhammad Yunus have introduced new complexities into the bilateral relationship.[55, 56, 57,
58] Despite these political shi�s, trade and economic partnership remain strong, with
Bangladesh being India's largest trade partner in South Asia and India being Bangladesh's
second-biggest trade partner in Asia.[52, 56] Bilateral trade reached USD 14.01 billion in FY
2023-24, re�ecting the signi�cant economic linkages between the two countries.[52, 56] A
key area of focus in their engagement is enhancing connectivity and infrastructure through
various projects, including railway links like the Agartala-Akhaura and Haldibari-Chilahati
lines, port connectivity with the operationalization of agreements for the usage of Chi�agong
and Mongla Ports in 2023, and energy cooperation such as the India-Bangladesh Friendship
Pipeline for diesel export.[52, 53, 56] Despite the strong cooperation in many areas, several
key concerns and challenges persist. Border security along the porous 4,096.7 km border
remains a hotspot for illegal crossings, smuggling, and tra�cking, with recent clashes
between border guards exacerbating tensions.[52] The long-standing dispute over the fair
sharing of the Teesta River's water also continues to be a point of contention.[52] India is
strategically concerned about China's growing in�uence in Bangladesh, particularly in
infrastructure and defense, perceiving it as a potential dilution of its strategic space.[52, 56]
Cross-border migration and the rights of minorities in Bangladesh, particularly the Hindu
community, are other sensitive issues that require careful management.[52, 56] In a
signi�cant development, Prime Minister Narendra Modi met with Bangladesh's Chief Adviser
Muhammad Yunus in Bangkok on the sidelines of the BIMSTEC Summit in April 2025, marking
their �rst o�cial interaction since the 2024 uprising. This meeting is seen as a positive step
towards potentially rebuilding some engagement between the two historically close
nations.[56, 58]

* **5.3 India and Nepal:** Balancing Traditional Ties with Evolving Geopolitical Dynamics.
India and Nepal share exceptionally close and friendly bilateral ties, deeply rooted in their
open border, extensive people-to-people connections, and commonality in religion, language,
and culture.[59, 60, 61] These bonds of friendship have historically de�ned the regular
high-level exchanges between the two countries, which have increased in frequency in recent
years.[59] However, Nepal has experienced a period of political instability, marked by frequent
changes in government. Most recently, in July 2024, K P Sharma Oli was appointed as the new
Prime Minister of a coalition government.[62, 63] Despite these domestic political shi�s,
economic cooperation, particularly in the mutually bene�cial hydropower sector, remains a
key pillar of the bilateral relationship.[63, 64, 65, 66, 67] India has agreed to import an
additional 251 megawa�s of electricity from Nepal, signifying the continued importance of
this sector.[63] However, a long-standing territorial dispute involving the territories of
Kalapani, Lipulek, and Limpiyadhura continues to be a sensitive point of contention between
the two countries.[63] Economically, India remains Nepal's largest trading partner and a
signi�cant source of foreign direct investment and tourism.[63] Given the close cultural and
economic bonds, tourism holds signi�cant potential for bolstering cooperation, and e�orts
are underway to enhance connectivity, including the opening of new air routes.[63] High-level
visits and exchanges continue to add momentum to the bilateral partnerships, with leaders
reviewing the entire gamut of their cooperation at regular intervals.[59]

Key Treaties & Agreements Major Disputes & Points of Key Collaborations
(India-Nepal) Contention (India-Nepal) (India-Nepal)
Treaty of Peace and Friendship Kalapani, Lipulek, Hydropower cooperation
(1950) Limpiyadhura territorial (Arun-3, Upper Karnali)
dispute
Treaty of Trade and Commerce Issue of Nepali citizens in India Connectivity projects
(1950) (Integrated Check Posts)
Separate Trade and Transit Concerns over India's Power sector cooperation
Treaties (1991) in�uence in Nepal (long-term power trade)
Agreement on Trade, Defence cooperation (training,
Commerce and Transit (revised Gorkha Regiment)
2016)
Development partnership
(infrastructure, health,
education)

* **5.4 India and Sri Lanka:** Strengthening Economic and Security Cooperation.
 India and Sri Lanka share a relationship that spans over 2,500 years, characterized by a
strong civilizational and historical connection.[68] Sri Lanka holds a central place in India's
'Neighbourhood First' policy and its vision for regional security and growth.[68] Following a
period of political and economic turmoil in Sri Lanka, which saw the election of Anura Kumara
Dissanayake as president in September 2024, India has stepped in as a crucial partner.[55, 69,
70] During Sri Lanka's unprecedented economic crisis in 2022, India provided substantial
�nancial and material assistance, totaling US$4.5 billion, demonstrating its commitment to
ensuring a secure and progressive neighborhood.[69, 70, 71, 72] A signi�cant development in
their bilateral ties is the strengthening of defense cooperation. In April 2025, India and Sri
Lanka signed a comprehensive defense cooperation agreement, marking a historic expansion
of their strategic ties and aiming to counter China's growing presence in the Indian Ocean.[71,
73, 74, 75] This pact builds upon existing annual defense dialogues, naval exchanges, and joint
exercises, and is expected to lead to more structured initiatives, enhanced maritime
surveillance, and counter-terrorism collaboration.[71, 75] Energy cooperation is another
cornerstone of their partnership, with plans to supply lique�ed natural gas to Sri Lanka and
connect their power grids. Prime Minister Modi and President Dissanayake virtually launched
a solar energy project in Sampur, underscoring their commitment to energy security and
renewable energy.[69, 70, 71, 73] Economically, India has emerged as Sri Lanka's largest trade
partner, and e�orts are underway to further enhance trade relations, with discussions on an
Economic and Technology Cooperation Agreement (ETCA) resuming a�er a pause.[70, 71]
Connectivity is also being improved with the resumption of ferry services between
Nagapa�inam and Kankesanthurai and enhanced �ight services.[70]

Key Treaties & Agreements Major Disputes & Points of Key Collaborations (India-Sri
(India-Sri Lanka) Contention (India-Sri Lanka) Lanka)
India-Lanka Free Trade Concerns over Chinese Economic cooperation (trade,
Agreement (FTA) (2000) in�uence in Sri Lanka investment, aid)
Defence Cooperation Fishermen issue Energy cooperation (solar,
Agreement (2025) LNG, grid connectivity)
Agreements on energy, digital Impact of climate policies on Infrastructure development
connectivity, health, trade economic growth (ports, railways)
(2025)
Concerns about Indian Defense cooperation (joint
�shermen in Sri Lankan waters exercises, equipment supply)

* **5.5 India and Bhutan:** A Unique Partnership Anchored in Trust and Development.
India and Bhutan share an exceptionally close and unique bilateral relationship,
characterized by mutual trust, goodwill, and understanding.[65, 66, 76] This "special
relationship" makes Bhutan a protected state of India, with India remaining in�uential over
Bhutan's foreign policy, defense, and commerce.[77] The cornerstone of this enduring
friendship is the Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation, initially signed in 1949 and
subsequently renewed in 2007, which forms the basis for their cooperation and bilateral
interactions.[65, 66, 76, 77] India has been the principal development partner of Bhutan since
the early 1960s, extending signi�cant economic assistance to support Bhutan's
socio-economic development through its Five Year Plans.[65, 67] For Bhutan's 12th Five Year
Plan, India contributed a substantial amount, and this commitment was further strengthened
with Prime Minister Modi doubling India's support for Bhutan's 13th Five Year Plan to Rs
10,000 crores.[76] A key pillar of their mutually bene�cial cooperation is in the hydropower
sector. Several hydro-electric projects (HEPs) totaling 2136 MW are already operational in
Bhutan with Indian assistance, supplying electricity to India, and additional projects like the
1020 MW Punatsangchhu-II HEP are under construction.[65, 66, 76] India and Bhutan have
also expanded their cooperation into new and emerging areas, including space, with the joint
development and launch of the 'India-Bhutan SAT' satellite, and digital connectivity, with India
supporting Bhutan's 'Digital Drukyul' initiative.[65, 66] While the relationship remains strong,
India has expressed concerns over the increasing proximity between China and Bhutan,
particularly regarding the ongoing Bhutan-China border disputes.[64, 67] India is wary that
China may pressure Bhutan to cede access or control over the Doklam plateau, which is
strategically important for India's Siliguri Corridor.[64, 67]

Key Treaties & Agreements Major Disputes & Points of Key Collaborations
(India-Bhutan) Contention (India-Bhutan) (India-Bhutan)
Treaty of Friendship and China-Bhutan border dispute Hydropower development
Cooperation (1949, renewed
2007)
Agreement on Trade, Presence of North-East Development assistance (Five
Commerce and Transit (revised militant groups in Bhutan Year Plans)
2016)
Bilateral agreement on Stalled BBIN Motor Vehicle Defense cooperation (IMTRAT)
hydropower cooperation Agreement
(2006)
Protocol on hydropower Space cooperation (joint
cooperation (2009) satellite)
Joint Vision Document on Digital connectivity (RuPay,
Energy Partnership (2024) BHIM, NKN integration)

* **5.6 India and Maldives:** Navigating Recent Diplomatic Fluctuations.

India and Maldives have historically maintained close and multi-faceted relations,
characterized by ethnic, linguistic, cultural, religious, and commercial links steeped in
antiquity.[68, 78, 79, 80] India has traditionally held a pre-eminent position in the Maldives,
being viewed as a net security provider in the Indian Ocean Region.[80] However, the election
of President Mohamed Muizzu in September 2023 marked a turning point in their bilateral ties,
as President Muizzu had vowed to shi� away from the 'India First' policy adopted by his
predecessor and to reduce India's military presence in the island nation.[78, 79] This led to a
period of diplomatic strain, highlighted by derogatory remarks made by Maldivian cabinet
ministers against India and Prime Minister Modi in January 2024, which triggered calls for a
boyco� of vacations to the Maldives in India.[79, 81] Subsequently, President Muizzu
requested India to withdraw its military personnel stationed in the Maldives by May 10, 2024,
linking the issue to the sovereignty of the Maldives.[79, 81] Following high-level discussions,
India agreed to replace its military personnel operating the aviation pla�orms provided by
India with competent Indian technical personnel, with the repatriation of some soldiers
completed by May 6, 2024.[81, 82] Despite these diplomatic challenges, economic
cooperation between the two countries has continued. India has extended substantial
economic support to the Maldives, including a $100 million subscription to Maldivian T-bills
and a ₹3,000 crore currency swap arrangement, crucial for stabilizing the Maldivian
economy.[79, 83, 84] In October 2024, during a visit by Maldivian President Muizzu to India,
the two countries adopted a comprehensive economic and maritime security partnership,
signifying a continued commitment to bilateral ties despite the recent turbulence.[82, 84]
Furthermore, in a signi�cant development, Prime Minister Narendra Modi met with Maldives'
interim leader Muhammad Yunus in Bangkok in April 2025, their �rst talks since the 2024
uprising in Bangladesh, indicating a potential e�ort to stabilize the relationship.[58]

Key Agreements Major Disputes Key Collaborations

(India-Maldives) (India-Maldives) (India-Maldives)
Maritime Boundary Treaty Election of President Muizzu Economic support (currency
(1976) and shi� in policy swaps, T-bill subscriptions)
Comprehensive Trade Demand for withdrawal of Infrastructure projects
Agreement (1981) Indian military personnel (Sinamalé Bridge, airport
expansion)
Framework Agreement on Derogatory remarks by Defense cooperation (training,
Cooperation for Peace and Maldivian ministers (2024) equipment)
Prosperity (2016)
Currency Swap Agreements Non-extension of joint Healthcare support (Indira
(2024) hydrographic agreement Gandhi Memorial Hospital)
(2024)

* **5.7 India and Afghanistan:** Evolving Relations in a Complex Regional Landscape.

India and Afghanistan share deep historical, cultural, and trade relations that span
centuries.[85, 86, 87] Following the Taliban's takeover of Afghanistan in 2021, India adopted a
cautious stance, pausing diplomatic ties with the new regime.[86, 88] However, India has
maintained channels for engagement and has continued to provide humanitarian assistance
to Afghanistan, including food and medicine supplies.[85, 88] In a signi�cant shi� in its
approach, India has begun re-engaging with the Taliban-backed Afghan government. A
high-level meeting between India's Foreign Secretary and Afghanistan's Acting Foreign
Minister took place in Dubai in January 2025, focusing on key issues such as trade, security,
and the use of the Chabahar Port.[88, 89] Earlier, in November 2024, the �rst o�cial meeting
between Indian diplomats and the Taliban's defense minister was held in Kabul.[89] India has
historically been a major provider of aid to Afghanistan, investing over $3 billion in various
reconstruction and development projects across the country, including infrastructure like the
Salma Dam and the Zaranj-Delaram Highway, as well as educational and institutional
support.[86, 87, 88, 89] Afghanistan is strategically important for India due to its geographical
location and its role in India's vision of regional leadership, particularly in countering Pakistani
in�uence and China's growing presence.[86] India is concerned about the potential for
Afghanistan to be used as a launchpad for terror groups and the rise of Chinese in�uence in
the region since the Taliban's return.[85, 89] Despite the complex geopolitical landscape,
India aims to strengthen political and economic ties with Afghanistan, recognizing it as a
signi�cant regional and economic partner.[85] India's strategy involves a pragmatic approach,
balancing its historical ties and investments with the new realities on the ground, while also
keeping in mind its security concerns and regional dynamics.[85, 88]

Key Agreements Major Concerns Key Collaborations

(India-Afghanistan) (India-Afghanistan) (India-Afghanistan)
Treaty of Friendship (1950) Terrorism and security Humanitarian assistance (food,
concerns medicine)
Air Services Agreement (1952) Drug tra�cking Infrastructure projects (Salma
Dam, Zaranj-Delaram Hwy)
Strategic Partnership Increasing presence of China Training and capacity building
Agreement (2011)
MoU on Cooperation in Outer Pakistan's role and in�uence Cultural and people-to-people
Space (2020) ties

6. Expanding Global Footprint: India's Relations with Other Regions:

* 6.1 India and Latin America: Building Bridges Across Continents.
India's relationship with the diverse nations of Latin America has historically been less
extensive compared to its engagements with other regions. However, in the 21st century,
there has been a signi�cant increase in the level of interaction and interest between India and
Latin American countries.90 Trade has emerged as the primary driver of this growing
relationship, with Latin America now being India's ��h-largest trading partner when
considered as a single entity.90 Recognizing the potential for mutually bene�cial
partnerships, India initiated a "Focus LAC" policy in 1996, aiming to liberalize economic ties
and strengthen overall relations with the region.90 Over the years, India has established
strategic partnerships with several Latin American nations, including Venezuela, Brazil, Cuba,
Peru, and Colombia, re�ecting a deepening political and economic engagement.91 To further
bolster its ties, India established the Forum for India-Latin America and the Caribbean
Cooperation (FILAC) in 2012, which serves as a key pla�orm for fostering collaboration in
areas such as trade, investment, energy, and culture.91 Key sectors that de�ne India's
engagement with Latin America include energy, with India importing crude oil from countries
like Venezuela, Brazil, and Mexico; agriculture, involving the import of soybean oil, wheat, and
sugar from Argentina and Brazil; and pharmaceuticals, where India's strong sector �nds a
signi�cant market in the region.92 India also exports a wide range of industrial manufactured
goods, such as engineering goods, pharmaceuticals, and textiles, to Latin America.91 To
facilitate trade, India has signed a Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA) with Mercosur in 2004
and with Chile in 2006, with ongoing negotiations for an FTA with Peru and further expansion
of the PTA with Mercosur.90 In a move to further strengthen ties, India's External A�airs
Minister Subrahmanyam Jaishankar undertook a multi-country tour of Latin America in April
2025, visiting Panama, Guyana, Colombia, and the Dominican Republic, with the aim of
increasing South-South cooperation and underscoring the growing political will to engage
with the region.94
India's Trade with Key Latin Major Exports from India Major Imports to India
American Partners
(2023-24)
Brazil: $6.02 billion Machinery and Vehicle Parts, Crude Oil, Soybean Oil, Wheat
Pharmaceuticals, Chemicals
Mexico: $5.32 billion Machinery and Vehicle Parts, Crude Oil, Electronic Goods,
Pharmaceuticals, Textiles Minerals
Colombia: $1.22 billion Machinery, Pharmaceuticals, Crude Oil, Coal, Co�ee
Chemicals

* **6.2 India and Africa:** A Historical Partnership for Mutual Growth and Development.
India and the African continent share a long and rich history of engagement, dating back to
ancient trade routes and cultural exchanges that pre-date the colonial era.[96, 97] India's �rst
Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, famously referred to Africa as India's "sister continent,"
highlighting the deep-rooted a�nity between the two regions.[98, 99] This historical bond
laid the groundwork for a dynamic and multifaceted economic partnership that continues to
evolve, with India becoming one of Africa's largest trading partners.[97] India-Africa trade
relations have seen substantial growth in recent years, reaching $83 billion in 2022.[96, 97]
The trade basket is diverse, including India's exports of machinery, chemicals, textiles, and
vehicles to Africa, while India imports minerals, oil, and agricultural products from the
continent.[97] Key trading partners for India in Africa include South Africa, Nigeria, Kenya, and
Egypt.[97] Beyond trade, Indian companies have made signi�cant investments in Africa across
various sectors, including energy, telecommunications, pharmaceuticals, and infrastructure,
with total investments amounting to $70 billion.[97, 99] India has also been a commi�ed
partner in Africa's development, extending development assistance through lines of credit,
technical assistance, and capacity-building projects.[97, 100] This includes supporting
projects in infrastructure, agriculture, and health through the India-Africa Development
Fund.[97] In a signi�cant move to enhance cooperation in higher education, India has
inaugurated o�shore campuses of its National Forensic Science University in Uganda and an
Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) in Tanzania, re�ecting its commitment to sharing expertise
in science and technology with African countries.[100] The India-Africa Forum Summits (IAFS)
have played a crucial role in facilitating trade and investments and strengthening the overall
partnership between the two regions.[98] India's approach to its engagement with Africa is
guided by principles of South-South cooperation, emphasizing partnership and mutual
bene�t rather than a donor-recipient relationship.[99]

India's Trade with Key Major Exports from India Major Imports to India
African Regions/Countries
(2022)
Total Trade: $93 billion Machinery, Chemicals, Textiles, Minerals, Oil, Agricultural
Vehicles, Pharmaceuticals Products, Diamonds, Copper
South Africa Minerals, Vehicles,
Pharmaceuticals
Nigeria Energy Resources (Oil)
Kenya Agricultural Products, Minerals
Egypt Crude Oil, Fertilizers

* **6.3 India and the Nordic Countries:** Exploring Synergies in Innovation and Sustainability.
India's engagement with the Nordic countries – Sweden, Finland, Norway, Denmark, and
Iceland – has been gaining momentum, marked by an increasing focus on strategic
coordination, innovation, and sustainability.[101] The India-Nordic summits held in 2018 and
2022 underscored the shared goal of expanding cooperation in areas such as clean and
green technologies, maritime security, digitalization, global health, infrastructure, and climate
action.[101] Sweden has emerged as a particularly vital partner, acting as a bridge and
mediator between India and the Nordic region, leveraging its strategic positioning, economic
in�uence, and diplomatic clout.[101] The partnership between India and the Nordics holds
immense potential for mutual growth and regional prosperity, with collaborations spanning
trade and technology, naval and maritime aspects, space and land technology, and energy
and electric aviation.[101] A key area of focus is renewable energy, where countries like
Norway, with its extensive experience in hydropower, solar, and wind energy, are collaborating
with India to support its transition towards sustainability and achieve its ambitious renewable
energy targets.[102, 103, 104] Digital transformation and smart cities are other promising
areas for cooperation, with Nordic countries sharing their expertise to complement India's
Smart Cities Mission.[103] The blue economy and ocean governance also present
opportunities for collaboration, focusing on sustainable �sheries, marine conservation, and
maritime infrastructure development.[103, 105] Bilateral trade and investment between India
and the Nordic countries have been on the rise, re�ecting a healthy economic engagement
and the potential for future growth.[101, 106] For instance, bilateral trade between India and
Sweden reached US$6.96 billion in 2024, with complementarities in cu�ing-edge
technologies creating good potential for collaboration in green technologies, renewable
energy, smart infrastructure, healthcare, and defense.[106]

India's Trade with Major Exports from Major Imports to Key Cooperation
Key Nordic Countries India India Areas
(2024)
Sweden: $6.96 billion Garments, Textiles, Communication Green Technologies,
Chemical Products, Equipment, Motor Renewable Energy,
Food Products Vehicles, Defense, Innovation
Pharmaceuticals
Finland: € 3.0 billion Paper, Machinery, Digitalization,
(2022) Equipment, Industry Education,
Services Sustainability,
Innovation
Norway: $1.2 billion Articles of Apparel, Nonferrous Metals, Blue Economy, Green
(2017-18) Textile Yarns, Gas Natural Shipping, Renewable
Manufactures of Manufactured, Plastics Energy
Metals
Denmark: USD 5.3 Textiles, Apparels, Medicinal/Pharmaceuti Green Shipping, Ports
billion (2023) Vehicles, Metal Goods cal Goods, Power Modernization,
Generating Machinery Renewable Energy
Iceland: $39.49 million Organic Chemicals, Cod-liver Oil & other Renewable Energy
(2018-19) Apparels & Fish Products, (Geothermal),
Accessories Medicines Fisheries, Arctic Issues

7. India's Role in Major Global Con�icts and International Diplomacy:

* 7.1 India's Stance on the Russia-Ukraine Con�ict:
India has adopted a notably neutral stance on the ongoing con�ict between Russia and
Ukraine, consistently emphasizing the need for dialogue and a peaceful resolution to the
crisis.6 Unlike many Western and European nations, India has refrained from directly
condemning Russia's actions and has abstained from voting on several United Nations
resolutions that denounced Russian aggression.107 External A�airs Minister S Jaishankar
underscored that India has approached the con�ict and its drivers in a very objective manner,
suggesting that many other nations were perhaps carried away by emotional responses.107
India stands as one of the few countries that maintains the ability to engage with both Russia
and Ukraine, highlighting its unique diplomatic position in the current geopolitical
landscape.107 Prime Minister Narendra Modi has articulated that India is "not neutral" in the
con�ict but �rmly stands "with peace," emphasizing that the resolution will only emerge when
both Ukraine and Russia come to the negotiating table.108 This stance has been praised by
some, including Congress MP Shashi Tharoor, who acknowledged that India's policy has
positioned the country to potentially make a di�erence for lasting peace by being able to
engage with both President Zelenskyy of Ukraine and President Putin of Russia.109 India's
approach re�ects its long-standing policy of strategic autonomy, allowing it to navigate
complex international issues based on its own national interests and without aligning itself
with any particular military bloc.110 This neutrality has enabled India to maintain its historical
relationship with Russia, particularly in areas like defense, while also fostering growing ties
with Western powers, creating a delicate balancing act in its foreign policy.110

* **7.2 India's Position on the Israel-Palestine Con�ict:**

India's policy towards the Israel-Palestine con�ict has been consistent and long-standing,
advocating for a negotiated two-state solution that would lead to the establishment of a
sovereign, independent, and viable State of Palestine living side by side in peace with Israel
within secure and recognized borders.[112] India has strongly condemned the terror a�acks
on Israel that occurred on October 7, 2023, and has also expressed its concern and
condemnation for the loss of civilian lives in the ensuing Israel-Hamas con�ict.[112] India has
consistently called for the immediate release of all hostages held captive, an immediate
cease�re in the �ghting, and a peaceful resolution of the con�ict through sustained dialogue
and diplomacy.[112] India welcomed the agreement reached in January 2025 for the release
of hostages and a temporary cease�re in Gaza, emphasizing the urgent need for the safe,
timely, and sustained delivery of humanitarian assistance to the a�ected civilian
population.[112] While India has expressed its support for the Palestinian cause and has
maintained diplomatic relations with Palestine, it has also developed closer ties with Israel in
recent years, leading to a more nuanced approach to the con�ict.[110] This balancing act was
evident when India chose to abstain from voting on certain resolutions related to the Gaza
con�ict at the United Nations General Assembly.[113] Despite the government's o�cial
stance, there have been expressions of solidarity with the Palestinian cause within India, with
youth organizations holding rallies in New Delhi to protest against Israeli actions and highlight
the humanitarian crisis in Palestine.[114] External A�airs Minister S. Jaishankar has rea�rmed
India's commitment to a two-state solution in Parliament, indicating the continued adherence
to this long-standing policy.[113]

* **7.3 India's Approach to International Diplomacy and Con�ict Resolution:**

India's approach to international diplomacy is deeply rooted in its long-standing
commitment to peace and its historical policy of non-alignment, now evolving into a strategy
of strategic autonomy.[115] Guided by the Nehruvian tradition, India's foreign policy prioritizes
peaceful coexistence and non-interference while �rmly asserting its sovereignty.[115, 116] In a
turbulent South Asian neighborhood and a rapidly changing global landscape, India employs
a strategy of cautious engagement, seeking to stabilize its bilateral relationships, even with
traditional adversaries like China and Pakistan.[116] A key aspect of India's diplomatic
approach is its focus on creating mutually bene�cial relationships, aiming to provide both
immediate and enduring bene�ts for the ruling elites and the broader populations of its
neighboring countries.[116] While India has historically relied on aligned political entities in its
neighborhood, it has increasingly shi�ed towards a more realist policy, broadening its
engagement to include a diverse range of leaders and regimes, balancing its core principles
with pragmatic considerations.[116] India seeks to position itself as a bridge between the
West and the rest of the world, leveraging its unique standing to foster dialogue and
understanding.[117] In addressing global challenges and con�icts, such as the situation in
Ukraine, India advocates for diplomacy and peaceful resolutions, emphasizing the importance
of dialogue over confrontation.[6, 107, 108, 110] India's diplomatic e�orts are also geared
towards providing solutions to global problems, including food security and climate change,
re�ecting its growing responsibility as a signi�cant global power.[115, 116] Ultimately, India's
approach to international diplomacy in 2025 is characterized by a blend of strategic
autonomy, pragmatic engagement, and a commitment to fostering a stable and peaceful
global order, all while �rmly prioritizing its own national interests.[110, 111]

8. India's Active Participation in International Organizations:

* 8.1 India at the United Nations: Championing Multilateralism and Seeking Reforms.
Since its inception in 1945, India has been an integral and active member of the United
Nations, consistently championing the principles of multilateralism and contributing
signi�cantly to global peace and security.118 As one of the founding members, India has
played a pivotal role in various UN initiatives, most notably as one of the largest contributors
to UN peacekeeping missions, with over 290,000 Indian peacekeepers having served in more
than 50 missions across the globe.118 India's commitment to maintaining global peace has
earned international recognition, with its troops deployed in numerous con�ict-ridden
regions, providing essential support in maintaining stability, protecting civilians, and rebuilding
communities.118 A long-standing priority for India at the UN has been its pursuit of a
permanent seat in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC).13 India argues that its status
as the world's largest democracy and its growing in�uence in global a�airs, coupled with its
signi�cant contributions to peace, security, and global stability, strengthen its claim for
permanent membership.118 India has actively engaged in bilateral and multilateral e�orts to
garner support for the expansion of the UNSC, participating in Inter-Governmental
Negotiations (IGN) and as a member of the G-4 and L69 Group to build global consensus.119
India is also deeply commi�ed to achieving the UN's Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
by 2030, implementing various initiatives to address poverty, hunger, and environmental
issues within the UN framework.118 Furthermore, India has been re-elected to the UN
Peacebuilding Commission (PBC) for the 2025-2026 term, rea�rming its commitment to
global peace e�orts and its role as a founding member and major contributor to UN
peacekeeping.119 As a member of the PBC, India actively contributes to the commission's
objectives of integrating peacebuilding with humanitarian, development, and security
initiatives, emphasizing inclusivity and supporting nationally-led strategies for rebuilding in
post-con�ict regions.122 India also ful�lls its �nancial obligations to the UN in a timely
manner, underscoring its commitment to the organization's work.119

* **8.2 India's Engagement with BRICS:** Fostering South-South Cooperation.

India plays a signi�cant and active role in the BRICS grouping, which brings together Brazil,
Russia, India, China, and South Africa, and has recently expanded to include Egypt, Ethiopia,
Iran, and the United Arab Emirates.[2, 123, 124, 125] BRICS serves as a crucial pla�orm for
India to foster South-South cooperation, strengthen its economic and political ties with other
major emerging economies, and collectively advocate for the interests of developing nations
on the global stage.[124, 125, 126] India actively participates in BRICS's two primary
mechanisms of cooperation: consultation on issues of mutual interest through meetings of
leaders and ministers, and practical cooperation through meetings of senior o�cials in
various areas, including trade, �nance, health, education, science & technology, and
agriculture.[123] India has previously held the BRICS Chairship, most recently in 2021, during
which it focused on priorities such as the reform of the multilateral system, counter-terrorism
cooperation, leveraging digital and technological tools for achieving SDGs, and enhancing
people-to-people exchanges.[123] A key objective of BRICS, which aligns with India's foreign
policy goals, is to strategically expand into an even larger pla�orm for the "Global South,"
aiming to increase the importance of these states' interests at the international level and
promote a more balanced multipolar world order.[13, 124, 125] While India seeks to play a
leadership role within BRICS, it also carefully balances this with its strategic interests in the
West and its concerns regarding China's growing in�uence.[124] During the 11th BRICS
Environment Ministers' Meeting in 2025, India urged BRICS nations to unite on the 'Baku to
Belem Roadmap' to mobilize signi�cant climate �nance and to strengthen climate �nancing
mechanisms to meet global sustainability commitments e�ectively.[127] India also reiterated
its leadership in conservation and sustainability through initiatives like the International Big
Cat Alliance, urging all BRICS nations to join global sustainability e�orts.[127]

* **8.3 India's Role in the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO):** Balancing Interests in
Eurasia.
India has been actively engaged with the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), a
Eurasian political, economic, and security alliance, since receiving observer status in 2005
and subsequently becoming a full member in 2017.[2, 128] The SCO provides India with a
signi�cant pla�orm to enhance regional trade, security, and infrastructure connectivity with
countries in Eurasia, including Central Asian republics.[2, 128, 129] India's engagement with
the SCO is rooted in its historical ties with the region and its willingness to play a proactive
role in the organization, focusing on initiating proposals for the mutual bene�t of SCO
member states, observers, and dialogue partners.[128] While some in India view the SCO as a
China-dominated forum, continued membership is seen as increasing India's policy space and
maximizing its options vis-à-vis China, allowing for constructive engagement and the pursuit
of its strategic interests in a complex geopolitical landscape.[129] During its chairmanship of
the SCO Council of Heads of Government in 2020, India undertook numerous initiatives
across a wide range of areas, including hosting seminars on start-ups, economic think-tanks,
traditional medicine, and young scientists.[128] At the SCO Summit in Samarkand in 2022,
India assumed the rotating presidency of the organization and was set to host the next
summit of the Council of Heads of State in 2023.[128] In February 2025, SCO
Secretary-General Nurlan Yermekbayev visited India, holding meetings with Indian o�cials to
discuss New Delhi's engagement priorities within the organization, encompassing areas such
as start-up and innovation development, digital technologies, traditional medicine, and
climate change.[130, 131] India has also assured China of its full support for China's
chairmanship of the SCO in 2025, indicating a commitment to continued engagement and
cooperation within the framework of the organization.[29, 130]

* **8.4 India's Leadership in the G20:** Shaping the Global Economic Agenda.
India plays a prominent role in the Group of Twenty (G20), the premier forum for
international economic cooperation, actively leading economic discussions and advocating
for reforms in global governance.[2, 132, 133] India held the Presidency of the G20 from
December 1, 2022, to November 30, 2023, a signi�cant period during which it convened the
G20 Leaders' Summit for the �rst time.[132, 133] Under its presidency, guided by the theme
"One Earth, One Family, One Future," India focused on a range of critical global issues,
including green development, climate �nance, inclusive growth, accelerating progress on
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), technological transformation, reforms of multilateral
institutions, and women-led development.[132] A landmark achievement of India's G20
presidency was its successful proposal for the African Union to become a permanent member
of the G20, a move that garnered unanimous support and signi�cantly ampli�ed the voice of
the Global South within the forum.[132, 134] India's approach to its G20 presidency was
characterized by a concerted e�ort to integrate the needs and priorities of the Global South
into the global dialogue, emphasizing holistic growth, innovation, and a renewed commitment
to multilateral cooperation.[134] India also launched key initiatives during its presidency, such
as the Global Digital Public Infrastructure Repository and a Social Impact Fund,
demonstrating its commitment to leveraging technology for development and addressing
global challenges.[126] Following its successful presidency, India continues to play an active
and in�uential role within the G20, with Brazil assuming the presidency in 2024 and aligning
its priorities with the foundational goals set by India, particularly in combating inequality and
enhancing global governance.[134] India's leadership in the G20 has signi�cantly
strengthened its global standing and its ability to shape the global economic agenda,
particularly in areas of importance to developing nations.[6]

9. Key Areas of Focus in India's Current Foreign Policy:

* 9.1 Counter-Terrorism: Strengthening Global and Regional E�orts.
Counter-terrorism remains a paramount area of focus in India's foreign policy, driven by the
persistent threat of terrorism emanating from the region and beyond.2 India actively
cooperates with key partners like the United States through mechanisms such as the Joint
Working Group on Counterterrorism, which facilitates information exchange, capacity
building, and operational cooperation.16 A core concern for India is the issue of cross-border
terrorism originating from territories under Pakistan's control, with India consistently
emphasizing the need for Islamabad to take credible and irreversible action to end such
activities.50 Recognizing the global nature of the threat, India is commi�ed to strengthening
the framework for global cooperation in combating terrorism, working closely with countries
like Germany to uphold international standards on anti-money laundering and countering the
�nancing of terrorism.38 India also emphasizes the importance of bringing the perpetrators of
terrorist acts to justice and rea�rms its commitment to hold regular consultations to
strengthen intelligence sharing and coordination of counter-terrorism e�orts.38
* 9.2 Energy Security: Diversifying Sources and Promoting Sustainable Alternatives.
Ensuring energy security is a critical priority for India, given its growing economy and
increasing energy demands.2 India pursues a multi-faceted strategy to achieve this, including
strengthening partnerships with energy-rich nations in the Gulf, Africa, and Latin America
under its "Think West" policy to secure reliable energy corridors.2 Despite geopolitical
complexities, India also maintains strong defense and energy partnerships with Russia,
recognizing its role as a signi�cant energy supplier.2 Simultaneously, India is making a
concerted e�ort to accelerate its transition to cleaner and more sustainable energy sources,
with a strong focus on expanding renewable energy projects such as solar and wind power.2
The nation has set ambitious net-zero commitments and is actively partnering with global
investors for green projects and promoting sustainable infrastructure development.2 India
also leverages initiatives like the International Solar Alliance (ISA) to further its energy security
goals and promote renewable energy adoption globally.7
* 9.3 Trade and Investment: Enhancing Economic Partnerships and Resilience.
Promoting economic growth through strategic global partnerships is a fundamental objective
of India's foreign policy.2 To achieve this, India is actively engaged in enhancing its trade and
investment relationships with various countries and regions. This includes expanding
cross-border technology partnerships through digital trade agreements and encouraging
technology-based international investment via start-up and innovation diplomacy.2 India aims
to strengthen its economic resilience by enhancing global trade participation amidst
prevailing uncertainties in the international economic environment.2 The nation is also
focused on developing robust global supply chains through initiatives like the AI and
Semiconductor Alliance, collaborating with countries like the US, Japan, and the EU.2
Furthermore, India is actively pursuing bilateral and multilateral trade agreements with key
partners and regions to boost its exports, enhance market access, and foster deeper
economic integration.2
* 9.4 Climate Change: Leading Global Initiatives and Pursuing Green Development.
Addressing the challenges of climate change and promoting green development is a
signi�cant area of focus for India's current foreign policy.2 India is commi�ed to achieving
net-zero emissions and is actively expanding its renewable energy por�olio, with a strong
emphasis on solar and wind power projects.2 The nation is taking a leadership role in global
climate initiatives under the frameworks of the Conference of the Parties (COP), advocating
for ambitious climate action and sustainable practices.2 India is also forging partnerships with
global investors to support green projects and the development of sustainable
infrastructure.2 Furthermore, India leverages initiatives such as the International Solar
Alliance (ISA) to promote the adoption of clean energy technologies worldwide and to
contribute to global e�orts in mitigating climate change.7
* 9.5 Diaspora Engagement: Leveraging Global Networks for National Development.
Protecting and empowering the Indian diaspora, which constitutes the largest diaspora
globally, is a key objective of India's foreign policy.2 Beyond ensuring their well-being in their
host countries, India actively seeks to leverage the vast networks and potential of its diaspora
for national development.2 The Indian diaspora is increasingly recognized as a strategic asset
in advancing India's global interests and in acting as cultural and economic ambassadors.142
The government engages with the diaspora through various initiatives, including the annual
Pravasi Bharatiya Divas (PBD), which serves as a pla�orm to recognize their contributions and
foster stronger connections.15 The theme for PBD 2025, "Diaspora's Contribution to a Viksit
Bharat," underscores the importance of the diaspora in India's journey towards becoming a
developed nation.143 The government also facilitates engagement through schemes like the
Overseas Citizenship of India (OCI) and programs like the "Know India Programme" for
diaspora youth.15
10. Economic Dimensions of India's Foreign Relations:
* 10.1 Analysis of Key Trade Agreements and Partnerships:
India's pursuit of economic growth is signi�cantly intertwined with its engagement in various
trade agreements and partnerships. The Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA) with Mercosur, a
trading bloc in Latin America, came into e�ect in 2009 with the aim of expanding and
strengthening existing relations and promoting trade through reciprocal tari� preferences.91
However, the impact on overall trade volumes has been limited, and there is ongoing
discussion about expanding the scope of the PTA to include more products and potentially
evolve into a Free Trade Agreement (FTA).146 Similarly, India has a PTA with Chile, which was
expanded in 2017 to cover a broader range of tari� lines, and negotiations are currently
underway for a more comprehensive Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement
(CEPA) that aims to boost trade, investment, and bilateral cooperation across multiple
sectors.91 India is also actively engaged in negotiations for a signi�cant FTA with the United
Kingdom, with multiple rounds of talks held and a substantial portion of the agreement
already agreed upon. Outstanding issues primarily revolve around mobility and visa rules for
Indian professionals and tari� reductions on certain UK exports.39 Another key trade
negotiation involves the European Union, where discussions for an FTA have seen periods of
progress and stagnation, with both sides expressing interest in reviving and concluding a
comprehensive agreement.136 Recognizing the immense potential of the US market, India has
set an ambitious goal under "Mission 500" to more than double bilateral trade to $500 billion
by 2030, with plans to negotiate the �rst tranche of a multi-sector Bilateral Trade Agreement
(BTA) by the fall of 2025.16 In April 2025, India and Thailand established a Strategic
Partnership, with a commitment to enhance sustainable bilateral trade and explore concrete
activities to implement the ASEAN-India Trade in Goods Agreement (AITIGA).152
* **10.2 Foreign Investment Policies and Sectoral Focus:**
India has established a foreign direct investment (FDI) policy framework that is
characterized by transparency, predictability, and ease of comprehension, with the majority of
sectors open for 100% FDI under the automatic route, requiring no prior government
approval.[153, 154, 155, 156, 157] To further stimulate economic growth and encourage foreign
capital in�ows, the government has undertaken a series of reforms in its FDI policy,
particularly in strategically important sectors such as Defence, Insurance, Telecom, and
Space.[155] In the defense sector, FDI is now permi�ed up to 74% through the automatic
route for companies seeking new industrial licenses.[155] The telecom sector also allows
100% FDI under the automatic route.[155] A notable reform in the insurance sector includes
the revision of the FDI sectoral cap from 49% to 74% under the automatic route, with a further
announcement in the Union Budget 2025 to increase this cap to 100% for companies that
invest the entire premium within India.[155, 157, 158] The government's focus is on boosting
manufacturing through initiatives like 'Make in India' and a�racting foreign investments in key
sectors, including electronics, pharmaceuticals, and infrastructure.[3, 153, 157] To promote its
vision of becoming a global hub for semiconductor design and manufacturing, a presumptive
tax regime has been proposed for non-residents providing services or technology to resident
companies se�ing up electronic manufacturing facilities in India.[153] The government is also
commi�ed to continuously improving the business environment by removing regulatory
barriers, streamlining processes, and enhancing the ease of doing business, including the
announcement of a High-Level Commi�ee for Regulatory Reforms in the Union Budget
2025.[155] To further foster a spirit of competitive cooperative federalism, an Investment
Friendliness Index of States is planned to be launched.[155, 157]

* **10.3 Economic Diplomacy as a Tool for Foreign Policy Objectives:**

India increasingly employs economic diplomacy as a strategic tool to achieve its broader
foreign policy objectives.[2] Promoting economic growth through the establishment of
strategic global partnerships is a primary aim of India's foreign policy, as a strong and growing
economy enhances its international standing and in�uence.[2, 7] India leverages its economic
growth to elevate its international pro�le by actively promoting trade, a�racting foreign
investment, and participating in key global economic forums.[7] Economic partnerships are
strategically utilized to secure vital energy and trade corridors, particularly through the "Think
West" policy, which focuses on strengthening ties with Gulf countries, Africa, and Latin
America, and the "Act East" policy, which aims to enhance trade and connectivity with ASEAN
countries.[2] Furthermore, economic diplomacy plays a crucial role in strengthening India's
relationships with its neighboring countries through initiatives like SAGAR (Security and
Growth for All in the Region) and the "Neighbourhood First" policy, prioritizing economic,
infrastructure, and security cooperation.[3] India's active participation in multilateral
economic pla�orms such as the G20 also serves as a key avenue for advancing its economic
interests and shaping the global economic agenda.[2]
11. Cultural and Diaspora Aspects of India's Foreign Relations:
* 11.1 The Role of Indian Culture and So� Power in Diplomacy:
India's rich and diverse cultural heritage serves as a signi�cant source of so� power, playing
an increasingly important role in its foreign relations and enhancing its global in�uence.3 The
philosophy of "Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam" itself embodies a cultural ethos that promotes
global cooperation and interconnectedness, contributing to India's image as a benign and
responsible global actor.3 India actively promotes its culture through various means, including
cultural exchanges, educational collaborations, and the promotion of tourism, which helps to
build positive perceptions and strengthen diplomatic ties with other nations.7 The global
popularity of Bollywood and the Indian entertainment industry acts as a powerful tool for
cultural diplomacy, reaching wide and diverse audiences across the world.135 Similarly, the
widespread adoption and recognition of Yoga internationally showcases the e�ectiveness of
India's cultural outreach in fostering well-being and cross-cultural understanding.135
However, some argue that India needs to adopt a more systematic and be�er-funded
approach to its cultural diplomacy to fully leverage its potential in shaping global narratives
and strengthening geopolitical ties.159
* 11.2 The Indian Diaspora as a Strategic Asset and Bridge to Nations:
With a global presence estimated at over 32 million people, the Indian diaspora represents a
signi�cant strategic asset for India, acting as a vital bridge to nations across the world.3 This
vast and diverse community not only contributes signi�cantly to the economies of their host
countries but also plays a crucial role in fostering India's economic and cultural outreach.3
Remi�ances sent back to India by the diaspora constitute a substantial contribution to the
Indian economy, making India one of the top recipients of remi�ances globally.142 Beyond
economic contributions, the Indian diaspora is increasingly wielding political in�uence in their
adopted countries, with individuals of Indian origin holding prominent positions in
governments and actively advocating for India's interests.142 This growing political clout has
been instrumental in strengthening bilateral relationships and advancing India's foreign policy
objectives.161 Furthermore, the diaspora serves as a vital channel for investment, knowledge
transfer, and the promotion of cultural exchange, fostering innovation and strengthening
India's connections with global networks.142
* 11.3 Government Strategies and Initiatives for Diaspora Engagement:
The Indian government has implemented a comprehensive strategy to engage with its vast
global diaspora, recognizing their immense potential and contributions to India's development
and its foreign relations.15 A key initiative in this regard is the annual Pravasi Bharatiya Divas
(PBD), or Non-Resident Indian Day, celebrated on January 9th to acknowledge the
contributions of NRIs and Persons of Indian Origin (PIOs) and to strengthen ties with the
diaspora.15 The theme for PBD 2025, "Diaspora's Contribution to a Viksit Bharat,"
underscores the critical role of the diaspora in shaping India's journey towards becoming a
developed nation.143 The government also facilitates engagement through schemes like the
Overseas Citizen of India (OCI), which provides many bene�ts of Indian citizenship (excluding
voting rights and holding public o�ce) to people of Indian origin and their spouses.142
Programs like the "Know India Programme" are speci�cally designed to connect with second
and third-generation diaspora youth, educating them about their Indian heritage and
fostering a sense of pride in their roots.15 The government actively encourages the diaspora
to leverage their expertise in various �elds such as technology, education, and innovation for
India's growth and development.143 Furthermore, the Global Diaspora Alliance (GDA) has
been launched by the Indian Economic Trade Organization as an inclusive pla�orm to
leverage the knowledge, innovation, and resources of diaspora communities for addressing
global challenges and fostering sustainable development.162
12. Conclusion: India's Foreign Policy in 2025 and Beyond:
India's foreign policy in 2025 operates within a dynamic and complex global landscape,
characterized by shi�ing power balances and persistent geopolitical tensions. The core
principles of strategic autonomy and non-alignment, adapted to the contemporary world,
continue to guide India's approach as it navigates its relationships with major global powers
and its South Asian neighbors. A key focus remains on fostering robust strategic partnerships,
particularly with the United States, while also maintaining its long-standing ties with Russia
and cautiously managing its intricate relationship with China. India's engagement with its
South Asian neighbors is marked by a commitment to the 'Neighbourhood First' policy,
although recent political developments in countries like Bangladesh and the Maldives present
new challenges. Expanding its global footprint, India is increasingly engaging with regions like
Latin America, Africa, and the Nordic countries, seeking to diversify its partnerships and tap
into new avenues for economic and technological cooperation. India's active role in major
multilateral forums such as the United Nations, BRICS, the SCO, and the G20 underscores its
ambition to be a leading global power, advocating for multilateralism and reforms in global
governance. Key areas of focus in India's foreign policy include counter-terrorism, energy
security through diversi�cation and sustainability, enhanced trade and investment, leadership
in climate change initiatives, and leveraging the strength of its global diaspora. Economic
diplomacy has become an increasingly vital tool in achieving India's foreign policy objectives,
with a strong emphasis on forging bene�cial trade agreements and a�racting foreign
investment. The nation's rich cultural heritage and its in�uential diaspora serve as signi�cant
assets in its diplomatic outreach, fostering goodwill and strengthening international ties.
Looking ahead, India's foreign policy in 2025 and beyond will likely continue to prioritize
balancing its strategic autonomy with the necessity of building strong and diverse
partnerships, all while striving to safeguard its national interests and contribute to a stable
and prosperous global order.

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