Assignment 5

Academic skills: Research Design

Cornelius Czech

S3912280

Workgroup 111

Instructor: Eldad Vainstoc

Wordcount: 1562

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Intercommunal violence

The occurrence of intercommunal violence is more of a relic of the past, for example the
Protestant-Catholic divide in Europe during the 16th century, but there are still regions in the
world where it is present, like in India between Hindus and Muslims, or in the Darfur region
in Sudan. But even in Europe, there are repeatedly reports of violence within communes,
mostly involving the Muslim communities. Intercommunal violence refers to conflicts
between different religious or ethnic communities, whereby the perpetrators as well as the
targets are non-state actors (Kalyvas, 2019, p.20). The type of religious or ethnic community
and the socio-political dynamics surrounding it play a key role in determining the levels and
patterns of such violence. The importance of the topic is significant in the sense that such
violence not only undermines community relations but also hampers economic growth and
exacerbates humanitarian crises (Kalyvas, 2006, p.). On top of that, the ongoing outbreak of
intercommunal violence shows that there is still deep-seated grievances and competition over
resources in our society, which are so strong that they even lead to violence. Therefore,
addressing the root causes of intercommunal violence and raising awareness about this topic,
is vital for fostering resilient and harmonious communities in a world of ever more ethnical
mixed societies.

Religion and Violence

A factor that often leads to violence within communities, is religion. In the past, conflicts
between different religious communities weren’t a rarity. The book chapter “Intercommunal
Violence in Europe” by Penny Roberts (2020) particularly focuses on religious, ethnic, and
social conflicts during the period 1500 - 1800, analysing how violence between groups was
often triggered by religious differences, such as the Protestant-Catholic divide, and other
societal tensions. Today, these violent conflicts between Protestants and Catholics are no
longer present, which is why this book chapter offers a good historical perspective for
understanding intercommunal violence but won't cover the impact of recent migration
patterns or modern political structures on religious diversity and intercommunal relations.

A recent outlook on the relation between religion and violence offers a case study in Nigeria,
which shows that differences in religion can trigger violence when combined with ethnic
identity and political competition. When religious identity overlaps with ethnic identity,
conflicts can be not only about religious beliefs but also about group status, access to
resources, and political representation. For instance, the Muslim-majority Nigeria’s northern

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regions and the Christian-majority in the southern regions have historically experienced
tensions, which have been deepened by economic disparities and competition for political
power (Tuki, 2024, p. 2).

Religion's influence on violence becomes more evident when it intersects with other social
factors, such as ethnic identity, socio-economic status, and political power. According to
Nilay Saiya et al. (2024), religious discrimination can indeed exacerbate violence,
particularly when the habits of certain minorities might conflict with cultural behaviours or
even the law in other countries, like wearing the Burqa in Germany (Saiya, et al., 2024, p.
1114).

The debate is further complicated by the fact that religion may not necessarily be the primary
cause of violence but can act as a powerful mobilizing force, intensifying group identity and
fostering divisions between “us” and “them.” This perspective is echoed by Delphine Alles
(2016), who notes that ethnic and religious identities often intertwine, with religious
affiliations becoming more pronounced in conflict scenarios where group boundaries are
already sharply defined (Alles, 2016, p. 195). This theoretical groundwork lays the
foundation for understanding how religious identities can escalate tensions between
communities.

Religious Communities and Violence

Moving from a general discussion of religion and violence, this section delves into how
specific religious communities experience or contribute to violence, focusing particularly on
minority groups. It is widely documented that religious minorities often face discrimination
and hostility, making them more susceptible to acts of violence. For example, Saiya's (2024)
study provides insights into how religious minorities, depending on their cultural habits, can
provoke different societal reactions. The study's global scope illustrates a variety of
outcomes, showing that certain practices associated with religious minorities can intensify
social tensions.

Ruud Koopmans’ (2023) article "Religious Diversity, Islam, and Integration in Western
Europe" focuses specifically on Western Europe and addresses how the growing presence of
Islam has challenged the social fabric of many countries. Koopmans (2023) points out that
Islam, as the largest and fastest-growing religious minority, often becomes a focal point for
intercommunal tensions, especially in societies grappling with integration issues (p. 127). The
presence of Islam has been met with varying degrees of resistance, often manifesting in social

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conflicts, anti-immigration sentiment, and even violence (Koopmans, 2023, p. 128). While
Koopmans does not provide concrete statistics linking religious diversity directly to violent
incidents, his work emphasizes that the lack of social integration can cause tensions, thereby
increasing the risk of intercommunal violence.

The above insights can be linked to Norris and Inglehart’s (2012) research, which discusses
the cultural integration of Muslim communities into Western societies. While their study does
not directly address intercommunal violence, it provides valuable context on how cultural
differences between Muslim immigrants and host societies can be a source of tension. For
instance, differing cultural values concerning secularism, gender roles, and public religious
expression can create friction, potentially escalating into conflict (Ingelhart, Norris, 2012, p.
239). Although the study is slightly dated, its findings remain relevant for understanding the
background against which more recent trends in Muslim integration and intercommunal
relations have unfolded.

Religious Communities and Intercommunal Violence

This section dives deeper into the relationship between different religious communities and
intercommunal violence. Intercommunal violence is not only about the presence of religious
differences but also about how these differences interact with other societal factors such as
ethnic identity, political power, and socio-economic disparities. For instance, Daniel
Christopher Watson's (2023) study on "Rethinking Inter-communal Violence in Africa"
argues that conflicts between communities are not merely local or spontaneous; rather, they
often reflect broader political and economic struggles where elites exploit religious or ethnic
differences for their own agendas (p. 14). This understanding of intercommunal violence in
Africa can provide a useful comparative perspective, highlighting similarities or differences
in intercommunal dynamics across different regions.

Jocelyne Cesari’s (2013) book "Why the West Fears Islam" offers a more focused analysis on
how Western perceptions of Islam contribute to intercommunal tensions. Cesari explores the
symbolic role of Islam in Western societies, often perceived as incompatible with democratic
values, secularism, and gender equality. Such perceptions can fuel a sense of threat among
the majority population, creating a hostile environment where cultural differences are viewed
as insurmountable barriers to social cohesion. This can be particularly problematic in cases
where Islamic practices are perceived to challenge secular laws, as in the case of the
headscarf ban in France.

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In Relation to that, John R. Bowen's (2006) chapter "Why the French Don’t Like
Headscarves" explores the tensions surrounding Muslim religious expression in France.
Bowen discusses how the headscarf has become a symbol of broader anxieties about Muslim
integration and cultural differences. The ban on headscarves in public schools, which was
instituted in 2004, reflects an attempt to enforce a version of secularism that excludes visible
religious symbols. This has not only affected Muslim women but has also contributed to a
sense of marginalization among Muslim communities. The controversy over headscarves
serves as a clear illustration of how specific religious practices can become flashpoints for
intercommunal violence, as it exposes the struggle between maintaining religious identity and
conforming to the expectations of a secular society.

Further supporting these points, Delphine Alles (2016) describes how ethnic and religious
identities can lead to violence, particularly in urban settings where diverse groups often live
in proximity. This aligns with Liam O'Dowd and Martina McKnight’s (2015) study "Urban
Intersections: Religion and Violence in Belfast," which examines the role of religious
identities in shaping the city’s landscape of conflict. The historical tension between
Protestants and Catholics in Belfast serves as an example of how religious and ethnic
identities can become entangled, leading to cycles of violence that are difficult to break
(McKnight, O’Dowd, 2015, p. 363). Although this context differs from Western Europe's
experience with religious diversity, it offers valuable insights into the dynamics of urban
intercommunal violence.

In addition, Ruud Koopmans (2015) analyses the commonness of religious fundamentalism

and its connection to out-group hostility among Muslim and Christian communities in
Western Europe. The study uses survey data to show that religious fundamentalism is more
common among Muslims than Christians in Western Europe. It also finds that this
fundamentalism is linked to greater hostility toward out-groups, such as people from other
religions or non-religious individuals (Koopmans, 2015, p. 37). This hostility against out-
groups provides insights into potential sources of intercommunal tensions.

These sources collectively show that while religion itself may not be the sole cause of
violence, it can exacerbate existing divisions, particularly in environments where religious
and cultural differences are politicized.

In the course of my research, it becomes evident that the relationship between religious
communities and intercommunal violence is multifaceted, often involving a combination of

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cultural, political, and socio-economic factors. While some literature emphasizes the role of
religious practices in provoking social tensions, others highlight how religious identities are
exploited for political gain or are intertwined with ethnic identities, creating fertile ground for
conflict. This literature review thus leads to the following research question: What is the
effect of types of religious communities on levels of intercommunal violence?

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 Reference list

Alles, D. (2016). Ethnic and Religious Violence. Routledge Handbook of Security Studies.

Bowen, John R. (2006). Why the French Don't Like Headscarves: Islam, the State, and Public
Space, Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Cesari, J. (2013). Why the West Fears Islam: An Exploration of Muslims in Liberal
Democracies. New York City, NY, USA: Palgrave Macmillan.

Kalyvas, S. N. (2019). The Landscape of Political Violence. In The Oxford Handbook of

Terrorism. Oxford University Press.

Kalyvas, S. N. (2006). The Logic of Violence in Civil War. Cambridge University Press.

Koopmans, R. (2023). Religious Diversity, Islam, and Integration in Western Europe. Kölner
Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie.

Koopmans, R. (2015). Religious Fundamentalism and Hostility against Out-groups: A

Comparison of Muslims and Christians in Western Europe. Journal of Ethnic and Migration
Studies, 41(1), 33–57.

Norris, P., Inglehart, R. F. (2012). Muslim Integration into Western Cultures: Between
Origins and Destinations. Political Studies, 60(2), 228-251.

O’Dowd, L., & McKnight, M. (2013). Urban Intersections: Religion and Violence in
Belfast. Space & Polity, 17(3), 357–376.

Roberts, P. (2020). Intercommunal Violence in Europe. In R. Antony, S. Carroll, & C. D.

Pennock (Eds.), The Cambridge World History of Violence (pp. 531–552). chapter,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Saiya, N., Manchanda, S., & Wadidi, R. (2024). Faith-Based Discrimination and Violent
Religious Hostilities: A Global Analysis. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 68(6), 1109-1138.

Tuki, D. (2024). Violent Conflict and Hostility Towards Ethnoreligious Outgroups in

Nigeria. Terrorism and Political Violence, 1–23.

Watson, D. C. (2023). Rethinking Inter-Communal Violence in Africa. Civil Wars, ahead-of-

print(ahead-of-print), 1–30.