Jasper Place High School

BIOLOGY 30

Unit 4

Nervous System
Notes, Workbook and Supplemental
Diagrams
Mr. Hillaby
 Name: ___________________________

BIOLOGY 30 SUPPLEMENTARY DIAGRAMS

NERVOUS SYSTEM
Diagram 2: General Neural Pathway of the Nervous System

Diagram 1: Neuron Anatomy

Diagram 3: Reflex arc

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 Diagram 4: Wave of Depolarization Diagram 6: The Synapse

Diagram 5: Action Potential

Diagram 7: Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex

Each hemisphere has 4 lobes (named after the cranial bones which lie
over them); these lobes are associated with specific functions.

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 Frontal lobe – intellectual activity, personality, voluntary muscle control, motor area for speech
 Parietal lobe – interpretation of speech, reading, sensory awareness
 Temporal lobe – olfactory area, auditory area, memory
 Occipital lobe – visual area

Diagram 8: Sagittal View of the Brain

1.
2. Cerebrum - lobe
3. Cerebrum - lobe
4.
5. Cerebrum - lobe
6. Cerebrum - lobe
7.
8. Midbrain (FYI only)
9.
10.
11.
12.

Diagram 9: Additional Diagram of the Brain Diagram 10: Dorsal view of the Brain

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Diagram 11: Neural Input and transmission in the Brain Diagram 12: Chart Summarizing Key
Structures and Functions in the Brain

(FYI only)

(FYI only)

Diagram 13: Parasympathetic vs. Sympathetic Nervous System

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 Name: ____________________

Biology 30 Lab Investigation

Investigating Sensory Nerve Ending, Reflex Arcs, and Reaction Rates

Background: Have you ever had to react to a situation where something was flying at your face? If so, you probably
used two of our body’s most important – as well as fastest – mechanisms for protecting your eyes: reflexes and reactions.
You automatically closed your eyes as the object approached and you may have ducked your head out of the way.

Closing your eyes automatically is a reflex. A reflex is an autonomic (or involuntary) response to a stimulus that helps to
protect the body from injury. Reflexes are very rapid and of short duration since they do not rely upon the brain for
“decision making”. This entire “decision” to react occurs in the spinal cord or brain stem.

Other types of reflexes happen all the time. In fact, your last visit to the doctor probably involved one. When struck just
below the knee with a small hammer, your lower leg “kicks” up to protect the ligaments inside the knee capsule and to
keep your quadriceps from being stretched too far. If you pick up something very hot, you may drop it to prevent a serious
burn. All of these are examples of reflexes.

Ducking your head out of the way is a reaction. A reaction is a somatic (voluntary) response to a stimulus. This decision
involves the brain and requires the brain to make a decision about what your response will be. A reaction is the deliberate
or voluntary changing of the body’s position to respond to the stimulus. Reactions may also be very quick and of short
duration, but they aren’t always.

Purpose: the purpose of this laboratory experience is:

 to understand the difference between a reflex and a reaction
 to demonstrate some human reflexes
 to be able to calculate your reaction time

Procedure:
Patellar or Knee Jerk Reflex
1. The subject is to sit on the edge of the lab table with the legs able to swing freely.
(One partner will be the subject first and the other partner the tester, then you’ll
switch.)
2. Once the legs are relaxed and swing freely, the tester should use the side of their
hand to “tap” the subject just below the kneecap. What happened? Record your
results in the data table.
3. Now have the person sit with their leg straight out. Tap the knee in the same
place. Observe and record your results.
4. Switch places with your partner and repeat steps 1-3. Record the data for both
partners in your data table.

Papillary Reflex
5. Have the subject close his or her eyes for one minute (no peeking). After one minute, stare into the subject’s eyes
and tell him/her to open his/her eyes. Observe and record what happens to the pupils.
6. After the subject has been tested switch places and repeat with the partner.

Babinski’s Response
7. Have the subject remove one shoe and sock. Have the subject sit on the lab table with his/her foot extending just
over the edge. Using a pen cap or fingernail, the experimenter is to scratch the subject’s foot in one smooth stroke
motion from toe to heel.
8. Describe the response in the toes in your data table.
9. After the subject has been tested switch places and repeat with the partner.

Blink Reflex
10. Have the subject hold a sheet of clear plastic (transparency) in front of their face. Crumple up a small piece of
paper and toss it toward their eyes. Observe what happens and record your data.
11. After the subject has been tested switch places and repeat with the partner.

Table 1. Data for Reflex Testing:

Stimulus My Response Partner’s Response

Knee Tap
(bent leg)

Knee Tap
(straight leg)

Pupil Response to Light

Touching toe to heel

Object thrown towards

face

Procedure for Reaction Time:

1. Have the subject sit comfortably with their forearm resting on a desk. With their index finger and thumb about two
inches apart. Hold a ruler at the 30 cm end and have the “zero” (0 cm) mark lined up between your partner’s finger
and thumb.
2. Without warning, release the ruler and have them grasp it as quickly as they can. Record the distance the meter
stick traveled to where the thumb meets the stick. Repeat the trial three more times and record your data.
3. Switch roles and repeat steps 1 and 2.
4. Determine the average distance that the meter stick fell for all of the trials. Using that average, calculate the TIME
it took for you to react and grab the ruler using the equation on the next page.

Table 2. Data for Reaction Time:

Distance (cm) of fall

Trial
Mine Partner
Calculation of Reaction Time
1
t=(2d/a)

Where…
2 t = reaction time
d = average distance of fall
a = acceleration due to gravity = 980 cm/s2
3

Average

Conclusion:

1. In the space below calculate your reaction time and your partner’s reaction time. Show your work for each.

Mine:

Partner’s:

2. Why doesn’t the patellar reflex happen when your leg is straight?
3. How does the patellar reflex protect us? How does the papillary response prevent injury? What would happen
without it?

4. Why is the blinking response effective? What kind of job would you have where you used this reflex quite often?

5. What kind of job would you have where you would want to stop the blinking response?

6. Name three sports or occupations where having a fast reaction time is important.

7. Give three examples of things that could slow down your reaction time or reflexes.

8. Say that a person catches a meter stick very slowly when their hands are cold. If that person was able to average
catching the meter stick at 93 cm, what is their reaction time? Show your work below.

APPENDIX #1
SECTION 1: REFLEXES AND REFLEX ARCS
Nerve impulses follow routes through the nervous system called nerve pathways. Some of the simplest nerve pathways
consist of little more than two neurons that communicate across a single synapse.
Reflexes are rapid, involuntary responses to stimuli, which are mediated over simple nerve pathways called reflex arcs.
Involuntary reflexes are very fast, traveling in milliseconds. The fastest impulses can reach 320 miles per hour.

Reflex arcs have five essential components:

1. The receptor at the end of a sensory neuron reacts to a stimulus.
2. The sensory neuron conducts nerve impulses along an afferent pathway towards the CNS.
3. The integration center consists of one or more synapses in the CNS.
4. A motor neuron conducts a nerve impulse along an efferent pathway from the integration center to an effector.
5. An effector responds to the efferent impulses by contracting (if the effector is a muscle fiber) or secreting a product (if
the effector is a gland).
Reflexes can be categorized as either autonomic or somatic. Autonomic reflexes are not subject to conscious control,
are mediated by the autonomic division of the nervous system, and usually involve the activation of smooth muscle,
cardiac muscle, and glands. Somatic reflexes involve stimulation of skeletal muscles by the somatic division of the
nervous system.
Most reflexes are polysynaptic (involving more than two neurons) and involve the activity of interneurons (or
association neurons) in the integration center. Some reflexes; however, are monosynaptic ("one synapse") and only
involve two neurons, one sensory and one motor. Since there is some delay in neural transmission at the synapses, the
more synapses that are encountered in a reflex pathway, the more time that is required to effect the reflex.

SECTION 2: THE IMPORTANCE OF REFLEX TESTING

Reflex testing is an important diagnostic tool for assessing the condition of the nervous system. Distorted, exaggerated, or
absent reflex responses may indicate degeneration or pathology of portions of the nervous system, often before other
signs are apparent.
If the spinal cord is damaged, then reflex tests can help determine the area of injury. For example, motor nerves above an
injured area may be unaffected, whereas motor nerves at or below the damaged area may be unable to perform the usual
reflex activities.
Closed head injuries, such as bleeding in or around the brain, may be diagnosed by reflex testing. Remember that the
oculomotor nerve stimulates the muscles in and around the eyes. If pressure increases in the cranium (such as from an
increase in blood volume due to brain bleeding), then the pressure exerted on CN III may cause variations in the eye
reflex responses.

SECTION 3: SPINAL REFLEXES

The spinal cord provides a major pathway for ascending and descending neural tracts. In addition to this function, the
spinal cord functions as the integration center for many reflexes. These are called spinal reflexes because their arcs
pass through the spinal cord.

The Nervous System Additional Exercises

The Brain
Exercise # 1: Write the name of the part or division of the nervous system that goes with the phrases below. Use the
following choices: central nervous system (CNS), peripheral nervous system (PNS), autonomic nervous system (ANS), or
somatic nervous system.

_______ 1. Brain and spinal cord.

_______ 2. All nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.
_______ 3. Division of the PNS under voluntary control.
_______ 4. Division of the PNS under involuntary control.
_______ 5. Delivers information via sensory neurons.
_______ 6. Delivers information via motor neurons.
_______ 7. Two main division of the nervous system.

Exercise # 2: Complete the following flow chart that outlines the divisions of the human nervous system.

Exercise # 3
1. The superior most portion of the brain, the ________________, is divided into two anatomically opposite halves.
a.) What are they?
b.) Name the tissue that bridges the two halves.
2. What is the name given to the outer gray matter region of the cerebrum?
3. Which hemisphere of the brain receives sensory information from your left arm?
4. Which hemisphere of the brain controls the movement of the right leg?
5. Which hemisphere usually has association areas for speech?
Exercise # 4
Function of the cerebral lobes: provide the name of the lobe in which function describes.

Lobe Function
1. _______ Voluntary muscular movements
2. _______ Interprets sensations from skin
3. _______ Interprets auditory sensations
4. _______ Intellectual processes
5. _______ Speech interpretation
6. _______ Interprets visual sensations
7. _______ Interprets olfactory sensations
8. _______ Interprets taste sensations

Label the lobes of the following lateral view of the cerebrum.

Exercise # 5
For each of the following bodily functions, state the association area(s) of the brain involved in its control.
a.) posture and balance
b.) visual processing and perception of an image
c.) this motor speech area is concerned with speech production
d.) receives sensations from receptors in the skin, muscles, and viscera
e.) controls muscle movement
f.) interprets sensations related to taste
g.) interprets the basic characteristic and meaning of sounds
h.) memory, emotion, language, reasoning

Exercise # 6
1. Name each structure identify by the numbers on the human brain diagram below. Then, identify the brain structures
best described by each statement:
a.) region of brain stem that is mostly fibre tracts; shuttles impulses
b.) when it is damaged, movements become clumsy and disorganized
c.) it regulates the pituitary gland
d.) it regulates hunger, sleep, thirst, pain, body temperature, and metabolic rate
e.) it is a sorting station for incoming impulses; relays these impulses to the proper location
f.) it secretes many hormones; “master gland”
g.) it regulates heart and breathing rate
2. Identify the collective name of the three layers of membrane surrounding the CNS.
3. Give the full name of CSF.
4. Name three functions of CSF.

Neurological Disorders

Exercise # 7

Use the list of disorders that apply to the statements: Parkinson’s, Huntington’s, Mutiple Sclerosis, Alzheimer’s, and
Meningitis.

_______ a.) dopamine is the neurotransmitter that is lacking

_______ b.) sufferers are helped by drugs that block dopamine’s effects
_______ c.) the myelin is destroyed
_______ d.) a bacterial, viral, or fungal infection of the meninges, causing swelling
_______ e.) abnormal protein deposits and twisted fibers appear within the neurons
_______ f.) lack of dopamine causes hand tremors
_______ g.) three possible treatments are: fetal brain cell transplants, dopamine
replacement drugs, and grafting cells from the patient’s adrenal glands into the
patient’s brain
_______ h.) memory loss, irritability, and confusion are symptoms
_______ i.) a genetic disease in which the individuals is unable to control muscles and
exhibits abrupt, jerky, and almost continuous movements

The Autonomic Nervous System

Exercise # 8
1. Describe a structural difference between a motor and sensory neuron.

2. Describe a functional difference between a motor and sensory neuron.

3. Explain why higher reasoning or conscious thought are not necessary or desirable features of reflexes.

4. Explain when it might be adaptive for conscious thought to intervene and modify reflex action.

5. What encloses the spinal cord?

6. Which forms the outer portion of the spinal cord: white or gray matter?
7. Into which side of the spinal cord, dorsal or ventral, do axons of sensory neurons enter?

8. From which side of the spinal cord, dorsal or ventral, do axons of motor neurons exit?

9. What are the two major functions of the spinal cord?

Practicing directing words: Compare, Trace

10. Compare the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system. Compare means to provide both similarities and
differences.

11. Compare the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

12. Someone pinches the skin on your hand while you are not looking.

a.) Trace the movement of nervous impulses that direct the unconscious movement to pull your hand away.

b.) If you watch the person pinch your hand, trace the movement of nerve impulses that could allow you to over ride
the reflex arc, which would cause you to pull your hand away automatically.

13. State whether each statement applies to motor neurons of the sympathetic nervous system or to motor neurons of the
parasympathetic nervous system.

a.) At the target organ, the neurotransmitter is norepinephrine.

b.) Nerves originate from the brain and lower spinal cord.
c.) One example of motor neurons are those that make up the vagus nerve.
d.) Neurons stimulate the “fight – or – flight” response in target organs.
e.) Neurons are most active when the body is at rest.

14. State whether each physiological response is a result of stimulation by a sympathetic motor neuron or a
parasympathetic motor neuron.
a.) The liver converts glycogen to glucose to be released into the bloodstream
b.) Constriction of pupils
c.) Decreased heart rate
d.) Decreases activity of the digestive system
e.) Dilated bronchioles
f.) Adrenal gland releases epinephrine into the bloodstream
g.) An erection
h.) Ejaculation
i.) Decreased blood flow to “non – important” areas, such as the skin

15. Identify five organs served by the vagus nerve.

Neuron Anatomy and Physiology

Exercise # 9
1. Name the part of a neuron described by each statement.

a.) Outer portion of surrounding sheath that promotes regeneration of a

neuron
b.) Conveys electrical signals towards the cell body
c.) Cells that support neurons
d.) Speeds up neural transmission

2. In the central nervous system (CNS), myelinated neurons are white or gray matter? White

3. There are three types of neurons based on function. Identify the type of neuron described by each statement.

a.) A neuron that carries impulses from the CNS to muscles and glands.

b.) A neuron that connects motor and sensory neurons in neuron

pathways; shuttles signals within CNS.
c.) A neuron that has dendrite endings which are specialized receptors
for specific changes occurring nearby; carries impulses to the CNS

4. A resting neuron is said to be ___________________________. This means it has a resting membrane potential that
is not zero. Actually, the resting potential of most human neurons is - ________________ mV. The minus symbol
means that the ____________________ of the neuron is relatively negative.

5. What is the chief:

a.) Intracellular ion in a resting (inactive) neuron?

b.) Extracellular ion in the ECF surrounding a resting (inactive) neuron?

6. The establishment of a resting membrane potential requires which membrane protein that uses ATP as an energy
source?

7. Provide two reasons why a resting neuron membrane is polarized.

8. Which gates in a neuron’s membrane are opened by an excitatory stimulus?

9. Explain why sodium rushes into a neuron when sodium gates open?

10. Fill in the blanks to describe the process of local DEPOLARIZATION of the input region of a neuron.

a.) A stimulus results in _______________ gates opening.

b.) _______________________ ions rush into the ____________________ because the concentration of these ions in
the ECF is ________________________________ [choose high or low].
c.) This movement of ions results in the neuron cytoplasm becoming relatively more
______________________________________.

11. Sometimes, a stimulus may prevent a neuron from becoming “excited”. Fill in the blanks to describe the process of
local HYPERPOLARIZATION of the input region of a neuron.

a.) A stimulus results in __________________ gates opening.

b.) _____________________ ions rush into the ____________________ because the concentration of these ions in
the ECF is ____________________________ [choose high or low].
 c.) This movement of ions results in the neuron cytoplasm becoming relatively more
________________________________.

12. The sum of all of the inputs (local depolarizations and hyperpolarizations) may result in depolarization of the axon
hillock beyond a certain potential that will cause many sodium gates in this region to open and a flood of sodium ions to
enter the neuron cytoplasm. This certain potential created in the axon hillock region is called the
___________________________________ potential and is usually about - __________ mV. After a brief flood of Na+
ions has occurred, the inside of the neuron is now relatively _______________________________ and has a
membrane potential of about + __________ mV. This brief reversal of membrane potential is called an
_______________________ potential.

13. The sequence of events in the formation of an action potential can be summarized as follows:
a.) Above threshold, stimulation causes __________ gates to open briefly so that _______________ ions can enter
the neuron cytoplasm. This flow occurs because: the cytoplasm concentration of these ions is _____________
[choose high or low]; the ions are attracted to the relative (negative / positive) cytoplasm [choose one]. The
membrane potential is now + __________ mV.
b.) The gates just mentioned close, and now ________________ gates open, so that ______________ ions can leave
the neuron cytoplasm. This flow occurs because: the cytoplasm concentration of these ions is _____________
(high / low) ECF [choose one]; the ions are attracted to the now relatively ___________________ (negative /
positive) [choose one]. This process is called ______________________________________, and the membrane
potential returns to - ____________________ mV.
c.) The ____________________________ pump then restores resting ion concentration by pumping ______________
ions into the cytoplasm and __________________ ions into the ECF.

14. The time it takes to restore resting ion conditions is called the ________________________ period.

15. The propagation of an action potential toward the axon terminals relies on _______________________ ion diffusion
depolarizing successive local regions of the axon membrane. As the ions diffuse, local ___________________ gates
open, beginning the process of forming a local __________________ potential.

16. An area that has just generated an action potential cannot generate another one until the ________________________
period has been completed.

17. The fact that any above threshold stimulus will cause an impulse and that a subthreshold stimulus will not is called:

18. A stronger (e.g., more painful, hotter, etc.) stimulus is felt not because a neuron can send stronger impulses, because
this is not possible. All action potentials are alike. Describe two ways that the nervous system relays the message of a
stronger stimulus to the brain.

19. What is the more rapid conduction of impulses by myelinated axons called?

20. Explain how each factor affects the generation of an action potential in a neuron.

a.) Alcohol or sedatives

b.) Continuous pressure or cold

21. Identify each structure.

a.) The space between the axon terminal of _____________________________________
one neuron and the dendrite of the next
neuron (or a muscle cell).
b.) The neuron which contributes an axon _____________________________________
terminal to the synapse.
c.) The neuron which contributes a dendrite _____________________________________
to the synapse.
d.) The name for the synapse when the _____________________________________
postsynaptic cell is a muscle cell.

22. The axon terminals of neurons are packed with special vacuoles called _____________________ that contain
thousands of special molecules called _______________________.

23. When an impulse reaches an axon terminal, __________________________ migrate to the axon terminal membrane
and spill their _________________ into the synaptic gap. These chemicals then diffuse across the gap and lock into
_________________________ that only fit the particular shapes of these diffusing chemicals. These “docking regions”
are linked to ion gates that will open when the docking regions receive their “cargo”.

If these gates are sodium gates, then a local ____________________________ occurs and the chemical released by
the presynaptic neuron is an __________________________ neurotransmitter.

If these gates are potassium gates, then a local ________________________ occurs and the chemical released by the
presynaptic neuron is an _____________________________ neurotransmitter.

24. Neurotransmitters that in most cases cause depolarizations are said to be:
25. Neurotransmitters that in most causes cause hypoerpolarizations are said to be:
26. Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter of all _____________________________ junctions.
27. Name the enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine.

28. Explain the events in the diagram as they occur from A to E.

A B C
D E

Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances

Spinal Cord Injury
The spinal cord may be damaged by a tumor either within or adjacent to the spinal cord, herniated intevertebral discs, blood clots, or penetrating wounds caused by
projectile fragments, or other trauma. In many cases, of traumatic injury of the spinal cord, the patient has an improved outcome if any anti – inflammatory
corticosteroid drug called methylprednisolone is given within 8 hours of the injury.

Depending on the location and extent of the spinal cord damage, paralysis may occur.
Question: Identify a life style behaviour that would reduce the incidence of spinal cord injury.

Cerebral Palsy (CP)

Cerebral Palsy is a group of motor disorders that cause loss of muscle control and coordination. It is due to damage of the motor areas of the brain during fetal life,
birth, or infancy and occurs in about 2 of every 1 000 children. One cause is infection of the mother by German measles (Rubella) virus during her first 3 months of
pregnancy. Radiation during fetal life, temporary lack of oxygen during birth, and hydrocephalus during infancy may also cause CP. CP is not a progressive disease;
it does not worsen as time elapses. Once the damage is done, however, it is irreversible.

Parkinson’s Disease (PD)

Parkinson’s disease is a progressive disorder of the CNS that typically affects its victims around age 60. The cause is unknown, but toxic environmental factors are
suspected, in part because only 5 % of patients have a family history of the disease. Neurons that extend from the substantia nigra to the basal ganglia, where they
release the neurotransmitter dopamine, degenerated in PD. Also, in the basal ganglia – in the caudal nucleus – are neurons that liberate the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine (Ach). Although the level of Ach does not change as the level of dopamine declines, the imbalance of neurotransmitter activity – too little dopamine and
too much Ach – is thought to bring about most of the symptoms.

In PD patients, involuntary skeletal muscle contractions often interfere with voluntary movement. For instance, the muscles of the upper limb may alternately contract
and relax, causing the hand to shake. This shaking, called a tremor, is the most common symptom of PD. Also, muscle tone may increase greatly, causing rigidity of
the involved body part. Rigidity of the facial muscles give the face a mask – like appearance. The expression is characterized by a wide – eyed, unblinking stare and
a slightly open mouth with uncontrolled drooling.

Motor performance is also impaired by bradykinesia, in which activities such as shaving, cutting food, and buttoning a blouse take longer and become increasingly
more difficult as the disease progresses. Muscular movements are performed not only slowly but with decreasing range of motion, or hypokinesia. For example,
handwritten letters get smaller, become poorly formed and eventually become illegible. Often, walking is impaired; steps become shorter and shuffled; and arm
swing diminishes; even speech may be affected.

Treatment of PD is directed toward increasing levels of dopamine and decreasing levels of Ach. Although people with PD do not manufacture enough dopamine,
taking it orally is useless because dopamine cannot cross the blood – brain barrier. Even though symptoms are particularly relieved by a drug developed in the
1960s called levodopa (l – lopa), a precursor of dopamine, the drug does not slow the progression of the disease. As more and more affected brain cells die, the
drug becomes useless. In an alternative approach, a drug called selegiline (deprenyl) inhibits monoazmine oxidase, which is one of the enzymes that degrades
dopamine. This drug slows progression of PD and may be used together with levodopa.

For more than a decade, surgeons have sought to reserve the effects of Parkinson’s disease by transplanting dopamine – rich fetal nerve tissue into the basal
ganglia of patients with severe PD. Only a few postsurgical patients have shown any degree of improvement, such as less rigidity and improved quickness of motion.
A more recent surgical technique that has produced improvement for some patients is pallidotomy, in which a part of the globus pallidus that generates tremors and
produces muscle rigidity is destroyed.

Question: Identify two societal issues concerning the use of fetal tissue to treat patients with PD.

Alzheimer Disease
Alzheimer Disease or AD is a disabling senile dementia – the loss of reason and ability to care for oneself – that afflicts about 11 % of the population over the age of
65. In North America, AD is the fourth leading cause of death among the elderly, after heart disease, cancer, and stroke.

Individuals with AD initially have trouble remembering recent events. They then become confused and forgetful, often repeating questions or getting lost while
traveling to previously familiar places. Disorientation grows and memories of past events disappear, and episodes of paranoia, hallucinations, or violent changes in
mood may occur. As their minds continue to deteriorate, they lose their ability to read, write, talk, eat, and walk. The disease ultimately culminates in dementia. A
person with AD usually dies of some complications that afflicts bedridden patients, such as pneumonia. At autopsy, brain of AD victims show three distinct structural
abnormalities:

1. Loss of neurons that liberate acetylcholine. A major center of neurons that liberate ACh is the nucleus basalis, which is inferior to the globus pallidus. Axons of
these neurons project widely throughout the cerebral cortex and limbic system. Their destruction is a hallmark of Alzheimer disease.
2. Beta – amyloid plaques, clusters of abnormal proteins deposited outside neurons.
3. Neurofibrillary tangles, abnormal bundles of protein filaments inside neurons in affected brain regions.

A variety of risk factors for AD have been identified, although the causes of AD are still not clear. One risk factor for developing AD is history of head injury. A similar
dementia occurs in boxers, probably caused by repeated blows to the head.

Hereditary factors also increase one’s AD risk. In a small number of patients, AD is associated with mutations on chromosomes 14 and 21. Genetic flaws do not
explain all causes. Even in identical twins, one may have AD while the other does not. One study of the blood of a small number of Alzheimer patients revealed
defects in certain types of plasma membrane K+ channels in their platelets. A similar abnormality of neuronal ion channels could cause brain dysfunction. Drugs
that inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE), the enzymes that inactivate Ach, improve alterness and behavior in about 5 % of AD patients.

Although more studies are needed, some evidence suggests that vitamine E (antioxidant), estrogen, ibuprofin, and ginko biloba extract may have slight beneficial
effects.

Huntington’s Chorea
A heredity disorder of the basal nuclei, in which a person has purposeless and involuntary jerky contractions of skeletal muscles and progressive mental
deterioration. Symptoms often do not appear until age 30 or 40.

Multiple Sclerosis
Multiple Sclerosis or MS is a progressive destruction of myelin sheaths of neurons in the CNS that afflicts about half a million peoples in the United States, and 2
million people worldwide. It usually appears in people between the ages of 20 and 40, afflicting females twice as often as males. Like rheumatoid arthritis, MS is an
autoimmune disease – the body’s own immune system spearheads the attack. The condition’s name describes the anatomical pathology; myelin sheaths deteriorate
to scleroses, which are hardened scars or plaques, in multiple regions. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies reveal numerous plaques in the white matter of
the brain and spinal cord. The destruction of myelin sheaths slows and then short – circuits conduction of nerve impulses.
The most common form of the condition is called relapsing remitting MS. Usually, the first symptoms, including a feeling of heaviness or weakness in the muscles,
abnormal sensations or double vision, occur in early adult life. An attack is followed by a period of remission during which the symptoms temporarily disappear.
Sometime later, a new series of plaques develop, and the person suffers a second attack. One attack follows another over the years, usually every year or two. The
result is a progressive loss of function interspersed with remission periods, during which symptoms abate. Although the cause of MS is unclear, both genetic
susceptibility and exposure to the environment factor (perhaps a herpes virus) appear to contribute. Since 1993, many patients with relapsing – remitting MS have
been treated with injections of interferon beta, which lengthens the time between relapses, decreases the severity of relapses and slows formation of new lesions in
some cases. Unfortunately, not all MS patients can tolerate interferon beta, and therapy becomes less effective as the disease progresses.

Question: Provide a suggestion that would reduce the impact of MS upon the individual or family.

Epilepsy
The second most common neurological disorder after stroke (rupture or blockage of a brain vessel) is epilepsy, which afflicts about 1 % of the world’s population.
Epilepsy is characterized by short, recurrent, periodic attacks of motor, sensory, or psychological malfunction. The attacks, called epileptic seizures, are initiated by
abnormal, synchronous electrical discharges from millions of neurons in the brain, perhaps resulting from abnormal reverberating circuits. The discharge stimulates
many of the neurons to send nerve impulses over their conduction pathways; as a result, lights, noise, or smells may be sensed when the eyes, ears, and nose have
not been stimulated. Moreover, the skeletal muscles of a person undergoing an attack may contract involuntarily. Partial seizures begin in a small focus on one side
of the brain and produce milder symptoms, whereas generalized seizures involve large areas on both sides of the brain and loss of consciousness.

Epilepsy has many causes, including brain damage at birth (the most common cause); metabolic disturbances (hypoglycemia, hypocalcemia, uremia, hypoxia);
infections (encephalitis or meningitis); toxins (alcohol, tranquilizers, hallucinogens); vascular disturbances (hemorrhage, hypotension); head injuries; and tumors and
abscesses of the brain. Epilepsy almost never affects intelligence.

Epileptic seizures often can be eliminated or alleviated by anti – epileptic drugs, such as phenytoin, carbamazepine, and valproate sodium. An implantable device
that stimulates the vagus nerve (cranial nerve X) also has produced dramatic results in reducing seizures in some patients whose epilepsy was not well controlled by
drugs.

ALS
ALS is a fatal neuromuscular disease characterized by progressive muscle weakness resulting in paralysis. ALS stands for Amyotrohic Lateral Sclerosis (commonly
known as Lou Gerhig’s Disease).

ALS symptoms may include tripping, stumbling and falling, loss of muscle control and strength in hands and arms, difficulty speaking, swallowing and / or breathing,
chronic fatigue, and muscle twitching and / or cramping. ALS is characterized by both upper and lower motor neuron damage. Symptoms of upper motor neuron
damage include stiffness (spasticity), muscle twitching (fasciculations), and muscle shaking (clonus). Symptoms of lower motor neuron damage include muscle
weakness and muscle shrinking (atrophy).

At least 10 % of ALS cases are hereditary. This is called familial ALS. Generally, familial ALS is defined as two or more cases in the same bloodline. In familial
ALS, the disease is autosomal dominant, meaning that if a parent has ALS, their children have a 50 % chance of inheriting the defective gene.

An excess of a neurotransmitter called glutamate clogs the synapse of the nerve cell preventing transmission of neural impulses. The cause of this neurotransmitter
problem remains a mystery.

Men are much more likely to get ALS than women. Older people are more likely to get ALS than younger people. ALS does not affect the mind. Mental acuity
remains sharp. Early ALS symptoms may be similar to a number of other neuromuscular diseases. Diagnostic tests include MRI (magnetic resonance imaging),
EMG (electromyogram), muscle biopsy, and blood tests. In order for a definitive diagnosis of ALS to be made, damage must be evident in both upper and lower
motor neurons. FDA approved drug, Rilutek, which slows progression of the disease. There are a number of other medications to help relieve symptoms of ALS.
Therapies, supplements, and proper nutrition can be part of a treatment plan. ALS is almost always fatal.

The most famous person living with ALS is noted British physicist Stephen Hawking. He has been living with ALS for more than 35 years. He is able to move only
two fingers. Other notable people who have had ALS are actor David Niven, and baseball player, Lou Gerhig.

Question: Identify 2 issues that family members of ALS relatives, would face?

Stroke
Blood clot blocks an artery in the brain, and a small portion of the brain is starved of oxygen and dies. Very specific memory or ability losses often result from a
stroke.

Hydrocephalus
Caused by an over production of cerebral spinal fluid or a blockage that prevents proper drainage. Fluid collects in the brain and causes pressure to build up
between the skull and the brain tissue. The fluid must be drained.

Encephalitis
Encephalitis is caused by inflammation of the brain due to a bacterial or viral infection. The disease affects personality, results in double vision, and extreme
weakness.