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Tushar Kanjwani
Fused Deposition Modeling 3D Printing System
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Contents
1. Introduction: System Overview .............................................................................................. 1
2. Actuators ................................................................................................................................. 2
2.1 Primary Main Motion Actuators ..................................................................................... 2
2.1.1 Stepper Motors (Bed and Nozzle Movement): ....................................................... 3
2.1.2 Extruder Motor (Pushing Filament):....................................................................... 3
2.1.3 Servo Motors (For Industrial FDM): ...................................................................... 3
2.2 Auxiliary Actuators: Servo Motors (For Industrial-Grade FDM)................................... 3
2.2.1 Cooling Fans (Part Cooling, Board Cooling, Chamber Ventilation): ..................... 3
2.2.2 Heaters (Cartridge Heater and Bed Heater): ........................................................... 4
2.3 Control Techniques & Distinctive Features (Cross-Component) ................................... 4
2.3.1 Control Techniques ................................................................................................. 4
2.3.2 Safety Features & Notable Features ....................................................................... 4
3. Sensors .................................................................................................................................... 5
3.1 Types of Sensors ................................................................................................................. 5
3.1.1 Thermistors or Thermocouples: .............................................................................. 5
3.1.2 Optical End-Stops or Hall-Effect Sensors: ............................................................. 5
3.1.3 Load Cells or Strain Gauges: .................................................................................. 5
3.2 Parameters Affecting Sensor Performance ..................................................................... 5
3.2.1 Temperature: ........................................................................................................... 5
3.2.4 Layer Height (Indirectly): ....................................................................................... 6
3.3 Feedback Importance and Research Insights .................................................................. 6
4. Controller types and control strategies ................................................................................... 7
4.1 Types of Controllers & Control Strategies...................................................................... 7
4.1.1 Embedded Microcontrollers.................................................................................... 7
4.1.2 PID Controllers ....................................................................................................... 7
4.2 System Integration: Mechanical & Electrical ................................................................. 8
4.2.1 Mechanical Integration ........................................................................................... 8
4.2.2 Electrical Integration ............................................................................................... 9
5. Market Challenges & Future Improvements........................................................................... 9
I
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5.1 Market Adoption of FDM (Fused Deposition Modeling) 3D Printing ........................... 9
5.2 Challenges ....................................................................................................................... 9
5.2.1 Material Limitations................................................................................................ 9
5.2.2 Printer Calibration and Maintenance ...................................................................... 9
5.2.3 Warping & Adhesion Issues .................................................................................. 10
5.2.4 Post-Processing Needs .......................................................................................... 10
5.3 Advances in 3D Printing in the Future ......................................................................... 10
5.3.1 Predictive Maintenance ......................................................................................... 10
5.3.2 High-Level Automation ........................................................................................ 10
5.3.3 Multi-Material Printing ......................................................................................... 10
5.3.4 Sustainability......................................................................................................... 10
References ..................................................................................................................................... 10
II
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Table of Figures
Figure 1: Schematic of FDM 3D Printing....................................................................................... 2
Figure 2: Block Diagram of Control Structure ............................................................................... 7
Figure 3: System Integration Schematic ......................................................................................... 8
III
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Fused Deposition Modeling 3D Printing System
1. Introduction: System Overview
5 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) or Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) is one of the most
widespread and ubiquitous additive manufacturing methods worldwide. It works by the controlled
extrusion of thermoplastic filament from a heated nozzle, depositing the sequential layers that
solidify into a three-dimensional form. This layer-by-layer method provides unmatched versatility
in creating intricate geometries, varying from rapid prototypes to functional end-use parts, at
markedly lower costs than other additive manufacturing methods like selective laser sintering or
stereolithography. In fact, FDM's dominance in industrial use as well as consumer-level
applications stems from its simplicity of operation, material flexibility, and affordability. (Cano-
Vicent, 2021)
The fundamental process of an FDM system starts with a 3D CAD model, which is
computationally "sliced" into discrete laminar paths (G-code). The printer's mechatronic
infrastructure, consisting of mechanical motion axes, thermal actuation, sensing, and embedded
control, propels the accurate deposition process. Mechanical modules move the extruder along
orthogonal axes by means of stepper motors and belts or lead screws for movement translation. At
the same time, the heating module holds the extruder and build platform at tightly controlled
temperatures to provide maximum adhesion and material flow. Sensor subsystems offer vital
feedback, like thermal measurements and positional limits, while on-board controllers carry out
closed-loop temperature control (through PID algorithms) and coordinate motion paths based on
G-code in real-time.
In combination, these combined components; the mechanics, electronics, actuation, and control
architecture, embodies the spirit of mechatronic design in FDM systems, supporting high-precision
manufacturing with solid repeatability.
2 The schematic of FDM 3D printing is shown below in figure 1:
1
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Figure 1: Schematic of FDM 3D Printing
2. Actuators
Actuators in an FDM (Fused Deposition Modeling) 3D printer are the electromechanical devices
that convert electrical energy into controlled mechanical and thermal movements necessary for
accurate fabrication. They consist of stepper motors, which move the print head and build platform
along the X, Y, and Z axes with high positional accuracy and repeatability in micro-step
increments. (Dwamena, 2021) .The extruder motor setup in either direct-drive or Bowden
configuration pumps filament through the hot end, balancing torque delivery against mass
reduction considerations. Heating cartridges and hot bed heaters also serve as thermal actuators,
controlled through PID feedback loops from temperature sensors to maintain even material melting
and bed adhesion. Lastly, cooling fans governed through PWM are auxiliary actuators that blow
air to quickly solidify extruded layers or to regulate hot-end temperatures, thus improving build
quality and avoiding filament jams. (Acciyo, n.d.)
2.1 Primary Main Motion Actuators
Primary motion actuators within FDM 3D printers are the electromechanical components that
provide the controlled motion required for precise filament deposition. They are the driving force
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behind positioning the print head and build platform to replicate accurate geometries layer by layer.
Stepper Motors, Extruder Motors, and Servo Motors are common types.
2.1.1 Stepper Motors (Bed and Nozzle Movement):
These are the most common actuators used in FDM systems. Stepper motors operate in open-loop
mode, moving in discrete micro steps, usually driven by stepper drivers such as A4988 or Trinamic;
offering high positional accuracy without the use of feedback sensors. They have high torque at
low speed and are known for being reliable and economical, making them suitable for printer axes'
dynamic motions.
2.1.2 Extruder Motor (Pushing Filament):
The extruder motor is essential for feeding filament into the hot end for extrusion and melting.
Depending on construction, it can be in a direct-drive mounting attached to the print head for low
filament path and high-precision retractions or through a Bowden setup, in which the motor is
positioned off the print head and pushes filament through a PTFE tube, cutting moving mass and
increasing speed but at the cost of higher filament friction.
2.1.3 Servo Motors (For Industrial FDM):
While less common in consumer printers, servo motors are increasingly used in industrial-grade
FDM setups. These actuators offer closed-loop control through integrated encoders, providing
higher precision, consistent torque at variable speeds, and rapid dynamic response under heavy
loads features critical in advanced manufacturing environments where accuracy and reliability are
paramount.
2.2 Auxiliary Actuators: Servo Motors (For Industrial-Grade FDM)
Auxiliary actuators in Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) 3D printers are auxiliary devices to
complement thermal management and processing of the filament, in addition to the main motion
actuators.
2.2.1 Cooling Fans (Part Cooling, Board Cooling, Chamber Ventilation):
Cooling fans regulate thermal dissipation throughout key areas. Part cooling fans (radial or blower
types) are used to provide targeted airflow to quickly solidify newly extruded material, enhancing
overhang performance and print resolution. At the same time, axial fans are generally used to cool
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electronics (mainboard, stepper drivers) and control enclosed chamber temperatures. Designers
trade air velocity and exposure time ("zone of influence") to maximize cooling efficacy during
high-speed head motion.
2.2.2 Heaters (Cartridge Heater and Bed Heater):
Cartridge heaters perform the thermal actuation, small resistive components tightly inserted into
the hot-end block, transforming electrical power into intense heat for melting and extruding the
filament. These cartridges allow quick heating and accurate temperature regulation, which is
critical for uniform material flow and preventing extrusion problems. At the same time, the hot
bed keeps the build surface just below the glass-transition point of the filament to minimize thermal
contraction and prevent warping in the initial layers of a print.
2.3 Control Techniques & Distinctive Features (Cross-Component)
2.3.1 Control Techniques
• Stepper Motors utilize open-loop positioning, adequate for high repeatability in short backlog
environments.
• Servo Motors offer closed-loop control with encoder feedback, especially in industrial
applications.
• Heaters are controlled by PID controllers based on thermistor- or thermocouple-type
thermometry.
• Fans are PWM-controlled, allowing for dynamic cooling profiles that synchronize with print
phases.
2.3.2 Safety Features & Notable Features
• Torque Limiting: Built into stepper drivers to prevent grinding or mechanical overload.
• Jerk Control: Software-controlled acceleration profiles reduce vibrations and enhance
smoothness of motion.
• Thermal Runaway Protection: Firmware protection that turns off heaters when temperature
sensors fail—avoids possible fire risks (Reddit, n.d.)
• Adaptive PID & Smart Control: Pre-emptive approaches like fuzzy PID or AI-based tuning
optimize thermal control in dynamic scenarios. (Long, 2023)
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3. Sensors
Sensors within a Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) 3D-printing system are the vital link between
the physical printing process and the control architecture embedded. They translate real-world
variables (temperature, position, and mechanical load) into the accurate electrical signals necessary
to allow the printer's controller to survey, manage, and adjust the deposition process in real time.
Without sensors, the system would run entirely in open loop, with the potential for inaccuracies,
defects, or mechanical failure.
3.1 Types of Sensors
3.1.1 Thermistors or Thermocouples:
These temperature sensors are incorporated into the hot-end and heated bed to detect temperature
with fine resolution. Thermistors are widely utilized for their sensitivity and affordability, while
thermocouples are used when wider temperature ranges or more robustness are needed.
3.1.2 Optical End-Stops or Hall-Effect Sensors:
These are used to sense the position limits of all axes (X, Y, Z). Basic optical switches or infrared
interrupters alert when the print head or bed is in a home or limit position. More advanced or
industrial installations can utilize Hall-effect sensors for contactless magnetic sensing, which
provides better robustness and lifespan.
3.1.3 Load Cells or Strain Gauges:
Less common in typical FDM design, these force sensors can quantify applied mechanical loads
or filament tension. Strain gauges alter electrical resistance due to deformation; when embedded
in a load cell, they can sense filament feed pressure or nozzle contact in high-end applications.
3.2 Parameters Affecting Sensor Performance
3.2.1 Temperature:
Influences thermistor reliability through sensor drift and response time. Oscillations will result in
extrusion inhomogeneity or thermal runaway if not tightly controlled.
3.2.2 Position:
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Dependent on end-stop resolution; alignment errors result in calibration errors and layer
misregistration.
3.2.3 Load and Filament Force:
In strain-based sensors, viscoelasticity of materials can introduce hysteresis or non-linearity
neither of which affects measurement fidelity in the extrusion or probing routines.
3.2.4 Layer Height (Indirectly):
Although not directly measured by sensors, the system's sensitivity to position and thermal
feedback is influenced by variations in layer height, tighter control and higher-speed feedback
loops are required with lower heights to preserve part quality.
3.3 Feedback Importance and Research Insights
Successful sensor feedback converts the FDM process from open-loop to closed-loop control,
improving accuracy, stability, and robustness against disturbance. A clear illustration is given by
Faes et al., who coupled a 2D laser triangulation scanner with an FDM system to observe layer
geometries in real time. This allowed for timely detection and possible correction of dimensional
errors, an ideal application of in-situ feedback enhancing quality control. (Faes, 2006)
Furthermore, a paper by Tamir et al. presented a feedback-driven error compensation technique
integrating fuzzy inference systems with grey wolf optimization. The technique analyzed error-
inducing parameters throughout phases of the printing process and varied control inputs adaptively
to reduce print errors. It shows significant gains possible when sensory information drives adaptive
control algorithms. (Tamir, 2021)
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4. Controller types and control strategies
4.1 Types of Controllers & Control Strategies
Figure 2: Block Diagram of Control Structure
The block diagram provided is a pictorial decomposition of the control structure. It shows how the
microcontroller acts as a central processor, communicates with different subsystems: temperature
sensing, motor drivers, and heating elements. The bidirectional arrows show the closed-loop
feedback in which sensor inputs control output, causing corrections to keep the system stable.
4.1.1 Embedded Microcontrollers
FDM 3D printers generally depend on integrated microcontroller boards usually of ARM or AVR
architecture (e.g., Arduino Mega2560), with open-source firmware like Marlin or Sprinter. These
microcontrollers execute G-code instructions, manage motor actuation, control temperatures, and
monitor sensor feedback in real-time. Such platforms are modular, accessible, and provide
adequate computing power for simultaneously controlling multiple control loops.
4.1.2 PID Controllers
One of the core control tactics in FDM processes is the application of PID (Proportional–Integral–
Derivative) controllers for managing thermal components such as the hot-end and heated bed. In
a demonstration of temperature control research, PID extensively boosted the thermal stability: it
7
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reduced stabilization time and improved temperature accuracy, having a direct effect on the
improvement of surface quality on printed parts. (Long, Research gate, 2023)
In addition to nominal PID, adaptive versions have been used: Aytaç Altan and Hacıoğlu built an
adaptive PID scheme to control stepper motors as well as heating and cooling within the extruder.
Their results showed a dramatic decrease in surface deformations from ~28% under classical PID
to ~1.5% using the adaptive controller, emphasizing better error correction and surface accuracy.
(ALTAN, 2017)
4.2 System Integration: Mechanical & Electrical
Figure 3: System Integration Schematic
4.2.1 Mechanical Integration
Mechanically, FDM printers combine parts such as motion axes (belts and lead screws), the
extruder assembly, and structural frames into a unified platform. Accuracy and stiffness are
realized through heavy materials (e.g., aluminum extrusions) and kinematic linkages that provide
movement repeatability. This mechanical base enables accurate follow-through of commanded
paths and maintains dimension integrity.
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4.2.2 Electrical Integration
Electrically, the printer integrates power supply, wiring, control boards, heaters, and sensors as an
operational mechatronic system. The microcontroller interfaces to stepper drivers, MOSFET-
heated heaters, thermistors, fans, and limit switches. Components are structured through wiring
harnesses and terminal blocks, frequently augmented by fuses or thermal switches to guarantee
safety and reliability.
5. Market Challenges & Future Improvements
5.1 Market Adoption of FDM (Fused Deposition Modeling) 3D Printing
FDM technologies have seen significant adoption in several high-impact sectors. In the aerospace
industry, companies such as Airbus and Boeing use 3D printing for light, complex structural parts
and tooling; obtaining weight savings of up to 50%, which greatly improves fuel efficiency and
reduces operating costs (Sharma, n.d.). The automotive industry utilizes FDM for prototyping,
one-of-a-kind fixtures, and even low-volume functional components with the ability for rapid
design cycles and minimizing waste. In the health sector, FDM's ability to provide patient-specific
customization has rendered it essential for anatomical models, surgical instruments, and
prosthetics, enhancing surgical planning and patient outcomes. (BDL.3D, n.d.)
5.2 Challenges
Even with its benefits, FDM has several major challenges:
5.2.1 Material Limitations
FDM materials tend to be plagued with anisotropic mechanical properties and layer adhesion
flaws. High-performance thermoplastics such as PEEK provide improved mechanical performance
but require printers that can achieve high extruder and bed temperatures, greatly elevating system
cost and complexity. (Kwon, 2025)
5.2.2 Printer Calibration and Maintenance
Accuracy in bed leveling, nozzle alignment, and extruder calibration is crucial. Small
misalignments can cause print errors. Research indicates that regular maintenance can minimize
print failures by as much as 60%. (LeadsInfra, n.d.)
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5.2.3 Warping & Adhesion Issues
Warping is usually brought about by non-uniform cooling and thermal stress buildup. Techniques
such as heated beds, enclosures, and enhanced adhesion surfaces assist in reducing this, but are
still not flawless solutions. (Hwang, 2025)
5.2.4 Post-Processing Needs
Post-print finishing such as support removal, sanding, and vapor smoothing is frequently necessary
to meet specified surface finish and dimensional tolerances, adding production time and labor.
5.3 Advances in 3D Printing in the Future
5.3.1 Predictive Maintenance
Machine learning systems with real-time sensor data and reinforcement learning can anticipate and
prevent faults without failure happening. A model, known as Continual G-learning, is successful
at adapting in real-time during FDM processes to minimize defects dynamically. (Jihoon Chung,
2022)
5.3.2 High-Level Automation
The integration of robotics into the FDM process allows for automated operations like removal of
parts, post-processing, and quality inspection, improving throughput and efficiency of operation.
5.3.3 Multi-Material Printing
Multi-material abilities make possible simultaneous printing of metals, polymers, and composites;
allowing parts with embedded mechanical and functional layers, decreasing assembly time and
improving utility.
5.3.4 Sustainability
Initiatives in recycling filament, developing green feedstocks, and energy-efficient printing
processes are leading to sustainable FDM. Decentralized on-demand manufacturing also cuts
down overall material waste and carbon emissions.
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References
1 1. Acciyo. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.acciyo.com/fdm-3d-printers-explained/
3 2. ALTAN, A. (2017, August 7). Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322999280_The_algorithm_development_and_i
mplementation_for_3D_printers_based_on_adaptive_PID_controller
3. BDL.3D. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://bdl3d.co.nz/what-industries-use-3d-printing/
3 4. Cano-Vicent, A. (2021, November). Science Direct. Retrieved from
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2214860421005327
10 5. Dwamena, M. (2021, August 8). Printerly. Retrieved from https://3dprinterly.com/what-
are-the-parts-of-a-filament-3d-printer
6. Faes, M. (2006, December 7). arxiv. Retrieved from https://arxiv.org/abs/1612.02219
4 7. Hwang, D. (2025, June). MDPI. Retrieved from https://www.mdpi.com/2227-
9717/13/6/1772
8. Jihoon Chung, B. S. (2022, October 28). Arxiv. Retrieved from
https://arxiv.org/abs/2210.17272
4 9. Kwon, S. (2025, June 2). MDPI. Retrieved from https://www.mdpi.com/2227-
9717/13/6/1772
1
6 10. LeadsInfra. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.leadsinfra.com/blog-details/26/3d-
printing-additive-manufacturing-through-advanced-manufacturing-techniques-
technology-in-the-manufacturing-industry
8 11. Long, K. (2023, December 20). Retrieved from
https://www.ewadirect.com/proceedings/ace/article/view/8773
7 Long, K. (2023, December). Research gate. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/376674684_FDM_3D_printer_temperature_con
trol_system_based_on_PID_control
1 12. Reddit. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.reddit.com/r/3Dprinting/comments/1asvqv9
10
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13. Sharma, R. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://dataintelo.com/report/industrial-fdm-3d-printer-
market
9 14. Tamir, T. S. (2021, July). Retrieved from Research gate:
2 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353201551_A_Feedback-
based_Print_Quality_Improving_Strategy_for_FDM_3D_Printing_An_Optimal_Design_
Approach
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