EARTH & LIFE REVIEWER

ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE

1. **Big Bang Theory**
Overview: Suggests the universe began expanding approximately 13.8 billion years ago from a
singularity, an extremely dense and hot point
*Evidence Supporting the Big Bang Theory
 Expansion of the Universe:
 Galaxies are receding, indicating ongoing expansion.
 Light Elements: Elements like hydrogen and helium were formed through
nucleosynthesis shortly after the Big Bang.
 Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB): The residual heat from the Big Bang.
Proponents:
 Georges Henri Joseph Lemaître
 Edwin Powell Hubble
 Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson
Drawbacks:
 Does not explain the creation of the universe.
 Fails to explain the formation of galaxies.

**Steady State Theory**

Overview: Proposes the universe has always been expanding, with constant average density
despite this expansion.
Proponents:
Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, Fred Hoyle
Drawbacks:
 Contradicts the law of conservation of energy and mass.
 Discovery of Cosmic Microwave Background radiation contradicts this theory.
Oscillating Universe Theory
Overview: Suggests the universe expands and contracts in cycles. After the Big Bang, the
universe will eventually collapse.
Proponent: Richard Tolman
Drawbacks:
 The idea of a collapsing universe contradicts current laws of physics, particularly with the
existence of dark energy.
 Modern theories suggest the end of the universe will be due to a "Big Freeze" or heat
death.
NEBULAR THEORY
The Nebular Theory is the widely accepted model explaining the origin and formation of our
solar system. It suggests that the solar system formed approximately 4.5 billion years ago from a
nebula—a giant cloud of gas and dust. This theory unfolds in three major steps:

1. Cloud Collapse
 Initiation of Collapse: A shockwave from a supernova or the influence of a passing star
causes the gas and dust cloud (nebula) to collapse.
 Conservation of Angular Momentum: As the cloud collapses, it spins faster, and the
material gathers at the center, beginning the formation of the Sun.
 Result: The collapse leads to the formation of a rotating disk of gas and dust.
2. Formation of Protoplanetary Disk
 Protoplanetary Disk: The collapsing cloud forms a disk of gas and dust surrounding the
newly forming Sun. This disk is where planets will later form.
 Thermal Differentiation: Due to temperature differences, metal and silicate materials
condense closer to the Sun, forming terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars).
 Gas Condensation: Further away from the Sun, gas (such as hydrogen and helium)
condenses into larger, gas-giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn.
3. Growth of Planets
 Planetesimals Formation: Small celestial bodies called planetesimals form as dust
particles collide and stick together.
  Accretion Process: These planetesimals collide and merge, gradually growing into full-
fledged planets.
 Planetary Differentiation: As planets grow, their internal structures develop, with
heavier elements sinking to the core and lighter elements forming outer layers.

Proponents of the Nebular Theory

 Emanuel Swedenborg
 Immanuel Kant
 Pierre-Simon Laplace
 These scientists contributed to the early development of the theory, suggesting the idea
that the solar system formed from a rotating nebula.

Drawbacks of the Nebular Theory

 Saturn's Rings: The theory doesn’t fully explain the behavior of particles surrounding
Saturn, which repel each other instead of sticking together to form a planet.
 Angular Momentum: If the nebular theory were correct, the Sun should be spinning
faster than it does, as the collapse would increase rotational speed.
 Planetary Rotation: The theory doesn't account for the unusual rotation of planets like
Uranus and Venus, which rotate clockwise compared to other planets' counterclockwise
rotations.

Key Points to Remember

1. Nebula: A giant cloud of gas and dust in space from which the solar system originated.
2. Three Major Steps:
o Cloud Collapse

o Formation of Protoplanetary Disk

o Growth of Planets

3. Planetesimals: Small celestial bodies that eventually merged to form the planets.
4. Types of Planets:
 o Terrestrial Planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars—closer to the Sun with higher
melting points.
o Jovian Planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune—further from the Sun with
cooler temperatures allowing gas condensation.
5. Theoretical Contributions: Proposed by Swedenborg, Kant, and Laplace, who laid the
foundation for this model of solar system formation.

Understanding the Composition of Planets

Based on the Nebular Theory, the composition of materials in the core, mantle, and crust of
planets depends on their distance from the Sun:
 Core: Typically composed of heavier elements like iron and nickel.
 Mantle: Silicate-rich minerals.
 Crust: Lighter, silicate compounds.

4 SUBSYSTEMS OF THE EARTH

Earth is composed of four major subsystems that interact with each other to sustain life and the
planet’s environment. These subsystems are:
1. The Atmosphere
 Composition: The atmosphere consists of all the gases surrounding Earth. It is composed
primarily of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and trace gases.
 Layers: The atmosphere has five distinct layers:
o Troposphere: The lowest layer, where weather occurs.

o Stratosphere: Contains the ozone layer, which protects Earth from harmful UV
rays.
o Mesosphere: The layer where meteoroids burn up.

o Thermosphere: Known for high temperatures and the presence of ionized

particles.
o Exosphere: The outermost layer, where atmospheric particles are very sparse.
2. The Geosphere
 Definition: The geosphere includes all of Earth’s solid materials, from the crust to the
core.
 Layers:
o Crust: The outermost solid layer of the Earth.

o Mantle: The middle layer, consisting of both solid and semi-liquid rock.

o Core: The innermost layer, made up of a solid inner core and a liquid outer core.

3. The Hydrosphere
 Definition: The hydrosphere includes all forms of water on Earth—liquid, ice, and water
vapor.
 Composition:
o 97.5% Saltwater (oceans)

o 2.5% Freshwater (lakes, rivers, glaciers, etc.)

 Key Processes: Includes the water cycle, where water moves through processes like
evaporation, condensation, and precipitation.
4. The Biosphere
 Definition: The biosphere includes all living organisms on Earth, from microscopic
bacteria to plants and animals.
 Interaction with Other Subsystems: The biosphere interacts with the atmosphere
(oxygen), geosphere (nutrients from the ground), and hydrosphere (water for survival).

LAYERS OF THE EARTH

Compositional Layers of Earth
1. Crust:
o Description: The outermost layer of Earth.

o Thickness: Ranges from 5 to 80 km.

o Composition: Made primarily of granites (continental crust) and basalts (oceanic

crust).
2. Mantle:
 o Description: The thickest layer, constituting about 84% of Earth’s volume.

o Thickness: Extends to 2,900 km.

o Composition: Composed of ultramafic silicates (mainly silicon and oxygen

atoms).
3. Core:
o Description: The innermost layer of Earth.

o Thickness: Around 3,480 km.

o Composition: Primarily iron (85%), nickel (5%), with traces of sulfur and
oxygen.

Mechanical Layers of Earth

1. Lithosphere:
o Description: The rigid outer layer, comprising the crust and the uppermost
mantle.
o Thickness: Extends from 70 to 150 km.

2. Asthenosphere:
o Description: The plastic layer beneath the lithosphere, capable of flowing slowly.

o Depth: Lies between 70 to 660 km below Earth’s surface.

3. Mesosphere:
o Description: The semi-solid layer beneath the asthenosphere, with high
temperatures and pressures.
o Thickness: Extends to about 2,900 km.

4. Outer Core:
o Description: A liquid layer made of molten iron and nickel.

o Thickness: About 2,300 km.

o Temperature: Extremely high, enough to melt iron and nickel.

5. Inner Core:
 o Description: The solid innermost layer, where pressure is so high that it remains
solid despite extreme temperatures.
o Thickness: Around 1,200 km.

Key Points to Remember

1. Compositional Layers: Crust, mantle, and core—classified based on material
composition.
2. Mechanical Layers: Lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesosphere, outer core, and inner core
—classified based on physical properties (rigid, plastic, or liquid).
3. Internal Structure: Earth's layers work together, with each serving distinct roles in
Earth's dynamics, from tectonic movements to heat distribution.

Rock-Forming Minerals
What is a Mineral?
 A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a definite chemical composition
and an ordered crystalline structure.

Physical Properties of Minerals

 Color: The visible color of a mineral, caused by the wavelengths of light it reflects.
 Streak: The color of a mineral's powdered form.
 Luster: The way a mineral's surface reflects light (e.g., metallic or non-metallic).
 Crystal Habit: The characteristic shape in which a mineral grows.
 Cleavage: The tendency of a mineral to break along flat surfaces.
 Fracture: The way a mineral breaks if it doesn't have cleavage.
 Hardness: The resistance of a mineral to scratching (measured on the Mohs scale).
 Specific Gravity: The ratio of a mineral’s weight compared to the weight of an equal
volume of water.
  Solubility & Melting Point: Chemical properties describing how a mineral dissolves in a
solvent and the temperature at which it melts.

Chemical Properties of Minerals

 Elements: Minerals made of one element, such as copper or gold.
 Sulfides: Minerals with a metal combined with sulfur (e.g., pyrite).
 Halides: Nonmetals combined with chlorine, fluorine, or other halogens (e.g., halite).
 Oxides & Hydroxides: Composed of metals with oxygen or water (e.g., hematite).
 Sulfates: Minerals with a metal combined with a sulfate group (e.g., anhydrite).
 Phosphates, Arsenates: Contain metals combined with phosphate, arsenate, or vanadate
groups (e.g., apatite).
 Silicates: The largest group, composed of silicon and oxygen (e.g., quartz, feldspar).

Common Rock-Forming Minerals

 Quartz: Known for its hardness and abundance in Earth's crust.
 Feldspar: A major mineral in the Earth's crust.
 Mica: A mineral known for its thin, flexible sheets.

Methods of Analyzing Mineral Composition

 Wet Chemical Analysis: Involves dissolving a mineral in acid and analyzing the
solution.
 Spectroscopic Techniques: Quantitative analysis based on light absorption, often using a
spectrophotometer.

Key Points
1. Minerals are naturally occurring solids with a specific chemical composition and
crystalline structure.
2. Physical properties include color, hardness, luster, cleavage, and streak, which help
identify minerals.
 3. Chemical properties such as solubility, melting point, and specific gravity further
describe minerals.
4. Mineral groups are classified by chemical composition, including silicates, sulfides,
halides, and more.
5. Common rock-forming minerals include quartz, feldspar, and mica, which play vital
roles in Earth’s geology.

Rock Cycle
The rock cycle is a continuous process through which rocks are created, destroyed, and
transformed into different types. This cycle involves various geological processes and forces that
act on rocks, changing them over time.

Key Stages of the Rock Cycle

1. Formation of Igneous Rocks
o Origin: Igneous rocks form from the cooling and solidification of molten rock
(magma or lava).
o Process: When magma cools slowly below Earth's surface, it forms intrusive
igneous rocks (e.g., granite). If it cools quickly at the surface, it forms extrusive
igneous rocks (e.g., basalt).
2. Formation of Sedimentary Rocks
o Origin: Sedimentary rocks are formed from the accumulation and compaction of
sediments (small particles, organic matter).
o Process: Layers of sediments build up and, over time, become compacted to form
rocks like sandstone or limestone.
3. Formation of Metamorphic Rocks
o Origin: Metamorphic rocks are created when existing rocks (igneous,
sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks) undergo changes due to heat, pressure,
and chemical reactions.
o Process: This transformation results in rocks like schist, marble, or gneiss.

4. Destruction of Rocks
 Learn about it!
o Erosion: Rocks are worn down by weathering and erosion caused by wind, water,
and other environmental factors.
o Sediment Transport: Broken-down materials are transported and eventually
deposited in new locations, continuing the cycle.

PLATE BOUNDARIES AND GEOLOGIC LANDFORMS

 Divergent boundaries are formed when two plates move away from each other, and may
form continental rifts.
 Convergent boundaries are formed when two plates move toward each other.
 oceanic-continental convergence, the continental crust remains buoyant while the
oceanic crust starts to sink into the mantle.
 Oceanic-oceanic convergence happens when two oceanic crusts converge and the denser
oceanic crust sinks beneath the other oceanic crust.
 Continental-Continental convergence happens when a continental crust moves toward
another landmass
 Transform plate boundaries (also transform fault boundaries) happen when two plates
simply slide horizontally past each other.
THE CONTINENTAL DRIFT HYPOTHESIS
 Proposed by Alfred Wegener
 States that the universe was once a supercontinent called Pangea
EVIDENCES
Continental Fit- -the shapes of continents fit each other.
Fossil Evidence: Similar fossils found across continents
Similarities in rocks and mountains across continents.
Glacial evidence: Similarities in possible conditions
PLATE TECTONICS THEORY
According to plate tectonics theory, the lithosphere behaves as a strong, rigid layer which is
broken into segments known as plates.
Evidence of Tectonic Plate Theory
Hotspots - radioactive dating of hotspots show age differences based on plate movements.
 Learn about it!
Paleomagnetism: The Earth’s magnetic pole has an influence of patterns in rocks.
Apparent Polar Wandering: Traced through the change in magnetic poles