transpitatsta!

0l6 What is
VIVA VoCE Ohe loss of water in vapour forrn frorm aeriai parts fleave urfacey f plants t4 caled ranagiraier
tepulator lhat
OU Name a giowth
stomatal ou
a) USeS
(ABA) (b) Cytrikinins
Q1. What are stomata? Ans. (a) Abscisic acid
Ans. These are minute openings present
in the epidermis of the leat. OI8. Give full form for AM
Centt
monocot leaves? tachi
Q2. HoW do stomata ditfer
in their location in dicot and the lower epidermis whereas in leaves of monocos
in Ans. Crassulaeeen cit metatbolism. A mid
plants the stomata are present upper and lower epidermis. plants?
Ans. In leaves of most dicot almost in equal number both in O19. WVhat are CAM
plants the stomata are present Such plants in which stomata remain closed during day and open during night sre callecd CAM pas
Q3. What are guard cells? Examples: Pineapple and Agave.
known as guard cells.
by to kidnev-shaped cells o0 abilat of the plant is corelated with the number and rvpestom ats procen'
Ans. The stomata is surrounded epidermal cells?
ifferent trom the rest ot the guard cell by giving examples,
Q4. How are guard cells
chloroplast. Thev are much smaller
than epidermal cells. The wall ofhave wall of Aoe The number and type of stomata in the leaves of a plant are closely related with the habtat pants
Ans. Guard cells contain their outer wall is thin whereas
rest of the epidermal cells Examples are:
adjacent to opening is thick and (a) Hydrophytes (aquatic plants) do not have stomata.
uniform thickness.
(b) Mesophytes (land plants) have stomata on both sides of leaves.
dicot and in monocot leaves?
Q5. What is the shape ot guard cells in leaves are kidnev-shaped and guard cells in the stomata of monocot
Define turgor pressure
Ans. Guard cells in the stomata of dicot O21.
leaves are dumbell-shaped. Ans. The pressure which develops in a plant cell due to endosmosis is called turgor pressure
O6. What are the functions of stomata?
Ans. The functions of stomata are:
respiration and photosynthesis.
* Excharnge of gases during the processes of stomata during the process of transpiration. Other mportant Questions
* Extra water is lost in vapour form through
Q7. How is the opening and closing
of stomata controlled?
change in the turgidity of guardcells. When the guard O1. What is the function of guard cells in stomato? NCERT Lab Manua
Ans. Opening and closing of stomata is controlled br a pore becomes open. When the turgor pressure Ans. Guard cells control the opening and closing of stomata.
cells become turgid the outer walls are pulled apart and the original shape. The guard cells become
of guard ell decreases due to water loss, the outer valls regain their o2. Why is the number of stonmata greater on the loer surtare ot a leaf (NCERT Lab Maual
flaccid and the stomata closes. Ans. To avoid water loss through transpiration, more stomata are present on lower surtace than the upper surtace
lower surface of the leaf?
Q8. Why do we generally take epidermal peel from the epidermal peel
of a leaf.
Ans. Most dicot plants have stomata restricted to lower surface of leaves hence we generally take Q3. Why are stomata absent in roots? [NCERT Lab Manua
from the lower surface of the leaf. (In monocot plants stomata are equally present both in upper and lower Ans. Stomata are present on the aerialparts ofa plant for transpiration and gaseous exchange Roots are present
epidermis hence peel can be taken from anv surface for preparing temporary mount of stomata.) in soil which can block stomata, if present.
09. Name the stain used to stain the leaf peel in order to observe stomata. Q4. What is the shape of guard cells in a grass leat? (NCERT Lab Manua
Ans. Safranin. Ans. In grass leaf (monocot leaf), stomata are dumb-bell shaped.
o10. Why do we use glycerine for mounting material during slide preparation? O5. Do guard cells have rigid or elasticcell walls? Justify vour answer [NCERT Lab Manuaf
ns. (a) Glvcerine keeps the material moist. Ans. Guard cells have elastic cell wall. When water enters guard cells, they become turgid. This results in opening
b) Its refrective index is the same as that of the glass slide. of stomata and when guard cells lose water, they become flaccid. This results in closing of stomata
11. What is epidermis? O6. Why is itpreferred to take an epidernmal peel trom lower suttave ot a leai
ns. Epidermis is the outermost layer in the leaves, stem and roots. It is made up polygonal or irregular cells. Ans, In monocot plants, the leaves are isobilateral, i.e., number of stomata are almost similar on upper and lower
12. What are subsidiary cells? surfaces. But in dicot plants, leaves are dorsiventral. The stomata are more on lower surtace than upper
ns. Subsidiary cells are the epidermal cells surrounding the stomata. They have no intercellular spaces. They surface. Hence, it is preferred to take epidermal peel from lower surface of a leat
may be polygenal or iregular in shape. 07. How are guard cells different trom rest of the epidermal ells
13. Mention two precautions which should be taken during the preparation of leaf epidermal peel in Ans. Guard cells are nucleated and have several chloroplasts. They have a peculiar shape. ie, kidney shaped
to study stomata. order
Ans. la) Take the peel in dicot leaves and dumb-bell shaped in monocot leaves. Rest of the epidermal cells lack chloroplasts and
from the freshlv plucked leaf and place the peel in the centre of the slide. are irregular in shape.
b) Noextra stain or glvcerine should
come out of the coverslip. O8. Namne the instruments used to measure (a) rate ot transpratton and tb)sot stomata.
Q14. \ame a plant in which
stomata are absent? Ans. (a) Potometer (b) Porometer
Ans. Aquatic plant - Hydrilla.
15. Name aplant in which stomata open during 09. In respect of cell wall, how are guard cells ditterent trom rest ot the cprdermal cells"
1s Ine suculent plants like opunita -a xerophvte, night and close during day time. Ans. In guard cells, cellwall is thick towards inner side and comparatively thin towards outer side but in rest
stomata open during night and get closed during of the epidermal cells, cell wall has uniform thickness.
day time.
68 Simple Science Lab
Skils-10
Stomata 59
 epidermnis?
Ans. What
Q10. of of
is the role
The function cuticle
cuticle purelvtheprotevtive in nature. It protects the inner tissues against evaporation
is over

bacterial infection and evcessive heat and cold.

on'y on the aerial parts of the plants?

Q11. Why do vou think that stomata are present
Ans. Two main funcions of stomata are:
(i) Exchange of gases during respiration and photosvnthesis.
(ii) Loss

of plants.
in vapour
waterproesses
Sinceofthese ocur during transpiration.
formmostlv in the aerial parts of plants, stomata are present only on aerial parts Respiration in Plants 8
Q12. What causes opening of stomata?
pressure in them increases and
Ans. When water flows from surrounding cells to guard cells, the turgor BASIC CONCEPTS
expand, resulting in the opening of stomatal aperture.
Q13. What causes closing of stomata? process that generally involve
catabol1c
beo is a biochemical
Ans. When water moves from guard cells to surrounding cells, their turgor pressure decreases and they 0xygen from the
environment
Respiration

o
flaccid, resulting in the closure of stonmatal aperture. intake of molecular with incoming Oxygen
o x i d a t i o n of food

Q14. Tradescantia leaf is usuallv taken for preparing temporary mount of leaf peel to observe
stomata. Wh "
stepwise
produced during oxIdation
elimination of carbon dioxide
Name any two other leaves that can be used for this experiment.
due to oxidation of food
release of energy
Ans. Tradescantia leaf provides good leaf peel which can be easily separated out. Therefore, it is commonly used involved in respiration
is
for this experiment. o The reaction 6CO, + 6H.0 + Energy (stored as TP
Leaves of Bruophulum and lily can also be used for this experiment. C,H,,0, + 60,
Q15. Why do guard cells bend when they become turgid? EXPERIMENT 8
Ans. The guard cells bend when thev become turgid because of the differential thickening of their inner and
outer walis. The wall on inner side of guard cells is thicker and less stretchable as compared to the wall on Objective
outer side. during respiration
Toshow that carbon dioxide is produced
Materials Required
Germinating seeds, Caustic potash (KOH)
Apparatus Required
Rubber cork with a hole. Beake Specmen rube
Conical flask, Delivery tube bent twice at right angles,
String
Basic Principles
the time
o Each and every living cell of the organism respires all
o Respiration is the process of oxidation or breaking down
of tood (glucose) in the lving cells with the
release of energy.
C,H,,0,+ 60, Enzymes, 6CO. + Energy
6HO -

compounds which are oxidised during respiration are called as respiratory substrate.
¢ The organic
" All the reactions that are involved in the
oxidation of food inside the cell, i.e., Deirvery tube
glycolysis (breaking down of glucose
food into pyruvic acid) and Krebs cycle
(breaking down of pyruvic acid into CO, Specmen tube Final level
and H,0) constitute cellular respiration. KOH pellets
initsal evei

Procedure Concai 5ask Water

" Put some germinating seeds in a conical Beaker
Germinating
flask. seeds (Wet)

" Suspend a specimen tube containing Fig. 8.1 To show that carbon dioxide gas is
60 Simple Science Lab Skills-10 KOH pellets with the help of a string in released during respiration
the conical flask.
 * Close the mouth of the lask with a cork having a hole in it.
of the cork.
* Now insert one end of the twice-hent deliverr tube into the hole
* Make the connections artight with the help of wax. u0 Why should we take germirnating aeods
as In germinating seeds, metabolic rate snd osg thern oa
Dip the free-end of the delivev tube into the beaker containing water. Lont moist because in absence of is 7ery high and hence, resptatirr
ae ree stunsi be
* Keep the apparatus und1sturbed for 68 hours. moisture seeds will dry and rate cÁ tacgrr
The orocess of respiratinn 1s 1ust sr w
Mark the inital and final position of the water level in the delivery tube. Ans In respiration glucose and oxygen
opprstte ho the prrne eas tphethath
H,0, and 0) are the reactarts whera
Observations the end products phstsstee
The level of water in the bent tube rises up. Respiration is a catabolic process where as
Germinating seeds consunme oxvgen during respiration and give out carbon dioxide Hence we can say that the above staternent photosynthesis
is correct
is an anabee pere
Carbon dioxde is absorbed by KOH pellets and a partial vacuum is created in the flask. o2 How does the use of KOH helps to
ahw ha 3elaased atnz
To fll up this vacuum air from the bent tube iS pulled up and the water level rises in the bent tuho Ans KOH solution absorbs CO, released by
germinating segds, which in turn rreates a parska
conical flask, this causes the rise of water he
This rise in water level is proportional to the amount of carbon dioxide produced by the germinating seed. level in Ushaped delivery tube t shevws t 0ed
during respiration.
inference
013. What will happen if in a small tube aOH (sodium
Carbon dioxide gas is produced during respiration. Ans. The carbon dioxide produced by germinating seeds willhydrnxide) is takan in plac f KLStt
level will not rise in delivery tube and purpose of not be absorbed by Naf sovuton,, hr ghrt
Precautions experiment wil be lost
The apparatus should be airtight. 014. What will happen if we take boiled seeds in pia*
oi tetmsnating seeds
Ans. Boiled seeds will not respire, hence experiment will fail.
* The initial level in the delivery tube should be tken after sonme time, so that whatever carbon dioxid
gas is present in the flask is absorbed bv KOH. 015, Why should the experimental set-up be made airtight?
Ans. The experiment set up should be made airtight so that no air entres
insde and CO
respiration does not escapes.
VIVA VOCE 016. Can we substitute germinating seeds with some other material
Ans. Yes, we can use floral buds in place of germinating seeds.
o17, Can we substitute germinating seeds with some animal materal
O1. Detine respitalion Ans. Yes, we can take living earthworms or insects in place of germinatng
seeds
Ans. Respiration is a biochemical catabolic process of oxidation or breaking down of food (glucose) in the livine 018. When oil slick spreads on the surface of seawater how it
cells with the release of energv. attests the ott An thunt
Ans. When oil layer spreads on seawater, it cuts the supplv of air. Aquatic
Q2. Listihe prucesse's iniolved in the respiration. an1mals and plants i da as they
will not be able to respire.
Ans. Respiration involves the following processes:
intake of molecular oxvgen from the environment
stepwise oxidation of food with incoming oxvgen
o elimination of CO, produced during oxidation Other Important Questions
* release of energv due to oxidation of food. O1. What is the role of KOH in this experiment?
03. In which forn is energy stored in cells? NCERT Lab Manual)
Ans. ATP (adenosine triphosphate). Ans. KOH absorbs CO, released by germinating seeds leading to creation ot partial Cuum
02. When we say that plants and animals respire, vhere exacths the poess urg NCERT Lab Manual]
04. Define breathing.
Ans. Breathing is a physical process. It involves inspiration of fresh air Ans. Mitochondria of the cell.
air (deoxvgenated air) without involving anv enzyme. Energy is not(oxygenated air) and expiration of foul Q3. Why do we use germinating seeds in this evperiment [NCERT Lab Manual)
05. Name two steps involved in breathing. released during breathing. Ans. Germinating seeds respire actively at a faster rate.
Ans. The two steps involved in breathing are inhalation 04. Give chemical equations of aerobic and anaerobic respiratton
and exhalation. Ans. Aerobic respiration:
Q6. Name the process in which food is oxidised
Ans. Anaerobic respiration. without using molecular oxvgen. CH,,0, +60, 6CO, + oH,0 +Energy (38 ATP)
(Glucose)
07. Name the end-products formed Anaerobic respiration:
during anaerobic respiration.
Ans. End-products formed during anaerobic Yeast
like yeast and few bacteria or lactic respiration are ethyl alcohol and CO, as formed in C,H0, > 2CHOH +2C0, + Energy (2 AIP)
acid as formed in striated muscles micro-organis1s
and parasitic worms. Muscle cell
Q8. Name the process which is C,H,0, 2CH0, +200, Energy (2 ATP)
Ans. Glycolysis. common both in aerobic and anaerobic
respiration. Q5. Why is more amount of energy produced during aerobic respiration in comparison to anaerobi
Q9. Name the two steps of respiration?
Ans. The two steps of cellularcellular respiration.
respiration are Glycolysis and Krebs cycle. Ans. Complete oxicdatiom ot tood takes place durng aerobie respration whereas incomplete ovdation of tood
takes place during anaerobic respiration Hence, in comparison to anaerobic respiration, more amount of
62 Simple Science Lab Skills-10 energy is produced during aerobic respiration
Respiration in Plants 63
 h Out of respiration and photosvnthesis, which process is calledanabolic and which is called (alst
process and whv?
Ans. Thetosnthesis is an anabol« pross as It intolves the synthesis ot big molecules from smaler moleru
1e.c0, and H,O react in presence of sunl1ght and chlorophyl to form glucose and oxygen gas is reea
Nespiration is acatabolic process as it involves the breakdown of big molecules of carbohydrate or fat
smaller molecules
Q7. What is compensalion pont?
Ans. INhen the intensitv of lhght is low (during moning and evening hours), the amount of CO, released duric
the prooess of re_piration is just sutticient to its consumption bv photosvnthetic process. So there is no
gaseous evchange. This state is called compensation point.
Q5. How is respiration ditterent Irom breathing? Give any four points.
Ans.
Respiration Breathing
Ethanoic Acid

BASI ONCEPTS
9
1. It is cellular and biochemical process. 1. It is an extracellular and mechanical process.
2. EnergY :S released during respiration. 2. It does not release energy. Ethanoic acid belongs to the group of carboxylc acids The chemcai
Its common name is
acetic acid. It has feemia d etanoK sCá
vinegar-ltke snell The strotarai
3. It involves acthon of enzymes 3. It does not involve action of enzymes. fla of (HCOOH
as follows:
4. Respiration occurs both in plants and animals 4. Breathing occurs only in animals, not in plants
HO
Q9. Write down differences betwcen acrobic and anaerobic respiration.
Ans. HCC OH
Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration
1. It takes place in absence of O,. H
1. It takes place in presence of 0,
2. Complete oxidation of food takes place. 2. Incomplete oxidation of food takes place. Properties of Ethanoic Acid
3. 38 ATPs are produced by oxidation of one gram 3. 2 ATPs are produced by oxidation of one gram mol ..ie soluble in water in all proportions. The
of glucose.
melting pornt of pure ethanoC C 2%K
mole of glucose. Ethanoic acid is a weak acid.
4. End products are CO, and H,0 4. End products are ethyl alcohol and CO, or lactic acid o It turns blue litmus paper to red.
O cooling. pure ethanoic acid freezes to torm
Q10. Whv are germinating seeds taken in the above experiment? What would happen if boiled seeds are taken ice-iike tlakes at 100 K kc a tacet Puce hanos acd
in place of germinating seeds? is. therefore, also known as glacial acetic acid or glacial ethanoic acid.
Ans. Gernminating seeds respire actively at a faster rate, hence they are taken in the above experiment.
Reactions of Ethanoic Acid
Boiled seeds are dead and therefore, they do not respire. If boiled seeds are taken, the very purpose of
eNperiment will be lost. Erhanoic acid reacts with a base such as sodium hydroxide to
gve a salt sodun ethaoate (ot comonly
Q11. What would happen if known as sodium acetate) and water. The reaction can be represented as foliows
(at Instead of KOH solution, NaOH solution is hung in conical flask during experiment? CH,COOH NaOH
(b} Seeds are not kept moist during experiment? ethanoC sodium
CH.COONa HO
Ans. (a) Carhon dioxide released by germinating seeds during respiration will not be absorbed by NaOH acid hydroxide ethan4te
solution Hence, partialvacuum will not be created and thus, there will be no rise in the level of watr Ethanoic acid reacts with metal carbonates and metal bIcarbonates to gve a salt w
in deliver tube. It will lead to failure of experiment. ater ad carbon
dioxide gas. The reactions can be represented as:
(b) lf seeds in the experimental set-up are not kept moist, they willdry up and willnot respire. Hence
they will not produce carbon dioxide and the purpose of experiment will be lost. 2CH,COOH + Na,CO, 2CH. COONa - CO.
ethanoC sodtum soxum
Q12. List any two major differences between respiration and combustion. ac1t carbonate cthancate e
Ans. (1) Respiration is a slow metabolic process,controlled by enzymes whereas combustion is a nonmetabolie
process not influenced by enzymes. CH,COOH + NaHCO, > CHCOONa - C0. HO
ethano:C soium
(2) in respiration, energy is evolved step by step in the form of ATP. Energy can be stored also, In bwartonale cthancace
combustion, energy is evolved at once and this energy cannot be stored.
Q13. Justify the statement that ceilular respiration is just opposite to the process of photosynthesis. Ethanoic acid reacts with alcohols n the presence ot concentrated suiphurc acid to give an ester
Ans. During respiration, glucose reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water with the release of For example, on warming with ethanol. it gves ethyl ethanoate The reaction is called esterification
energy. Hence in it, glucose and oxvgen are reactants and carbon dioxide and water are the end products. reaction.
In photosynthesis, it is just opposite. Carbon dioxide and water are reactants, they combine in heat, cos ~i30,
sunlight and chlorophvll to produce glucoSe and oxygen as end products. presence of CH,COOH CH,CHOH CHCOOCHCH, H,0
ethano ethanot cthvl cthatsate

(alcoho)

64 Simple Science Lab Skils-10

 EXPERIMENT 9
Conclusion
| Ethanoic actd has Vinegarltke pungent amell
CH,COOH)
Objective of ethanoic acid (acetic acid, , Rthanoic acId is soltunle in wAter in ail prooortans
following properties
To study the 1 Ethanotc acd Is acidic in nature
(a) odour , Erhanoc acd reacts with sodum bcarhonate o groduee arbn futte
b) solubility in water
(c) cffet on litmus Precautions
sodium bicarbonate
(d) reaction with I Ethanoic ac1d should he handied with care
linnewater. a
Appatatuses Required bicarbonate, The vapour of ethanoC acid should he inbaled from
Materials and water, sodium watch glass, fistance
acd. distulled
naners. ethanoc acid vapour
Blue and red litmus mcasuring vlindet
tuhes and a 3 Use freshly prepared limewater to test carbon diox:de gas
a droppeT test
A Donot touch any solid chemical with hands Instead ase spatula
Theorn Vinegar.
water is known as
Ssolution of acetic acid in vinegar-like smell.
a sour taste and
distinctive
Ethanoc acid has
it :s solublc in water VIVA VOCE
ethanoate, carbon
It tums blue itmus to red. called sodium dioxide gas
sodium bicarbonate to give a salt
Ethanoic acid reats with
arnd water
+ CO,(9) + H,O() O1. What is the ommon n t e E a t
CH.COONa(a) carbon dioxide water
CH.COOH) - NaHCOAao) sodium cthanoate Ans. Acetic acid
hanot acid soaium bicarhonate
02. Name the group oba t t
Procedure the obseryati Ans. Carboxylic acid.
cthanojc acid. perform the following experiments and note 03. What happens whn drop ot th sha
In order to study the propertes of Ans. The blue litmus paper turns red
as shown in the given tablc.
Inference 04. What is th chemical formula t pr ar
Observations Ans. CH.COOH.
Experiment
No.
05. What is the colour of ethanon h
1. Odour & Ethanoic acid has vinegar-like Ans. Ethanoic acid is a colourless liquid
Take a cean watch glass and add 2 It has vinegar-like pungent pungent smell. O6. What is vinegar
ml of ehanoic acId to it smell.
Ans. 5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is known as vinegar
Sme the acId
Q7. Witat happens when a pinh
2. Solubility in Water Fthanoic acid is solubie in water in Ans. Carbon dioxide gas is produced.
ake 10 m of distilieo water in a A homogeneous solution is
all proportions. O8. What is the melting pont ot pur cth
clean test tube formed.
Ans. The melting point of pure ethanoic acid ts 90 K
Add a few drops of ethanoic acid
to t Shake it well
Ans. Yes, ethanoic acid is soluble in water in all proportons
3 Effect on Litmus O10. hat is also knowt as lasttt Aci
Blue litmus paper turns red
Fthanoic acid is acidic in nature
Pour one drop of ethanorc acid on Ans. Pure acetic acid is also known as glactal acetts dd.
a blue itmus paper.
There is no change in the Ethanoic acid has no effect on red
Pour one drop of ethanoic acid on Ans. It is used as a condiment and for pekling
a red litmus paper colour of red litmus paper. litmus paper.
O? What is the odourtothu
Reaction with Sodium Bicarbonate Ans. It has vinegar like snell
e Take 2 mt of ethanor acid in a Ethanoic acid reacts with
clean test tube sodium bicarbonate to liberate a Ans. Ethanoic acid is a weak acil
Add a p1nch of sodium bicarbonate Effervescence is produced with colourless gas.
to the test fube OTL Wlat happt en ethas
the telease of colourless gas
Pass the gas evolved through Ans. Fthanoic acid rea ts with ethanol in the presieernce ot concentralee sulphurk t to forn ethvi ethaoate
Limewater turns nilky Carbon dioxide gas is produced. (an ester) and water The reactton called esteritication teac tk
limewater
66 Simple Science Lab Skils- 10
Ethanosc Acid 67
 Q15. What is the role of concentrated sulphuric acid in the esteritication of ethanoic acid?
Ans. It acts as a dehvdrating agent.
Q16. What are esters?
Ans. Esters are organic compounds formed by the reaction between acids and alcohols. They are
compounds. Thev are used in making perfumes and as flavouring agents.
sweet-smelling
Other Important Questions
Q1. List two observations which vou make when you add a pinch of sodium hydrogen carbonate to aco:
Soaps
acid in a test tube. Write chemical equations for the reaction that occurs.
[2015)
Ans. (1) Acolourless gas is produced with effervescence, and a hissing sound is produced.
(2) On passing the colourless gas through lime water, we observe that lime water turns milky. BASIC CONCEPTS
10
Q2. Give two phvsical properties of ethanoic acid. potassium salts
Ans. (1) Ethanoic acid has a distinctive sour taste. [2015] o Soaps are sodium or
of long chain carboxylic acids. They
water. cannot lathet in hart wee
(2) It is soluble in water in all properties. but can lather in soft
or
Q3. When vou add sodium hvdrogen carbonate to acetic acid in a test tube, a gas liberates o Detergents are generally ammonium sulphonate salts of long chain carboxyl1c ac:ds Trey ae
immediately witl, in both hard water and soft water. iiectve
a brisk effenescence. Name this gas. Describe the method of testing this gas.
.The water which lathers readily with soap 1S called soft water. Some exarnples of soft wates *
that
Ans. Carbon dioxide gas is produced. On passing carbon dioxide gas through lime water, it is observed [2015])
lime water turns milkv. water, tap water, etc.
Ca(OH) CO. CaCO, H,O .The water which does not lather with soap 1s called hard water. Some examples of hard wt
Lime water Carbon Calcium (Water) water, well water, etc.
dioxide carbonate
(White insoluble) " The hardness of water due the presence of dissolved sulphate, bicarbonate or chiorde aits
alcium and magnesium. These are calcium sulphate (CaSO). of
Q4. Why is ethanoic acid also known as glacial acetic acid or glacial ethanoic acid? sulphate (MgsO). magnestum
Ans. On cooling. pure ethanoic acid freezes to form ice-flakes at 100 Klike a glacier. Pure ethanoic acid ix hicarbonate [Mg(HCO;)>], calcium bicarbonate [Ca(HCO,)al. magnesium
calcium chloride (CaCl) and magnes:u
therefore, also known as glacial acetic acid or glacial ethanoic acid. chloride (MgCl,).
A Water is a very good solvent. When natural water flows in rivers, seas and also under the
Q5. Name the products formed when ethanoic acid react with sodium carbonate. Write the chemical rescti.. gzound hkr
involved. in wells. it dissolves the salts of calcium and magnesium presernt in rocks and soil.
These dissolved as
are responsible for the hardness of well, sea and river water.
Ans. Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium carbonate to produce a salt called sodium ethanoate, carbon dioxide os
and water Types of Hardness
Na,CO, + CH,COOH CH,COONa + CO, + H,O
Sodium Carbon Water The hardness of water is of the following types:
ethanoate dioxide Temporary Hardness
Q6. Is the mixture of ethanoic acid and water homogeneous or heterogeneous? What do
water to ethanoic acid?
you infer if you add The hardness of water which is caused due to the presence of dissolved calcium and magnesium bicarbonates
Ans. The mixture of ethanoic acid and water is homogeneous. This shows that [NCERT Lab Manual) in it is called temporary hardness.
ethanoic acid dissolves in water Permanent Hardness
in all proportions.
Q7. In an experiment to study the properties of acid, answer the following questions: The hardness of water which is caused due to the presence of dissolved calcium and magnesium chlorides
(a)Name the substance which on addition to acetic acid [2015] and sulphates in it is called permanent hardness.
(b) How carbon dioxide gas is tested in the laboratory? produces carbon dioxide gas.
Ans. (a) The substance is sodium carbonate (Na.CO) (or, sodium Removai of Hardness of Water
(b) Carbon dioxide is tested by passing the gas through lime bicarbonate, NaHCO,) The hardness of water can be removed by following methods:
water. Lime water turns milky.
Ca(OH), CO, CaCO, + H,O Removal of Temporary Hardness
Lime water Carbon White (gives Water
dioxide milky appearance) By Boiling
Temporary hardness can be removed by boiling. On boiling. soluble calcium bicarbonate and magnesium
bicarbonate salts present in water decompose to form calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate
respectively. These remain insoluble in water and are then separated by fltration.
Following reactions take place:
heat
Ca(HCO,) boil CaCO, CO, + H,0
calcium caleium cartonate carbon water
bicarbonate (unsoluble) dyoxide
68 Simple Science Lab Skills-10
 + H,O
CO. of Soap
hest Cteaning Acion
MgCO: Carbon the hydrocarhenhan stacheseit
Mg(HC0), /hen the soap molecules come in contact with water
magnesium e we
maguesSum arbonatc ee or dirt as the hydrocarbon chain is miscible in if The ionic part rernains n
bcarbonate 2soublc) micelles.
molecules thus form structures called
magncsium form
Soda (Na CO) of calcium and
By Using Washing carbonate rcacts
with bicarbonates filtration.
called sodium by
Washing soda, also magncsiumwhich are removed
2NaHCO, Na,
of calcium and CaCO,
insoluble carbonates sodiunm
calcum
Ca(HCO,). + Na-CO. bicarbonate
sodrum carhonate
alcum carbonate
hartOnate
iinsoluble)
2NaHCO
MgHCO,). + Na-CO,
MgCO. sodium
Naó
SIum Na
Sodrum
magneSu bcarbonate
agrnesum caro
carbonate (:nsoluble)
hcaronate
Carbonate
Soda or Sodium Na
Permanent Hardness
by sing inashing calcium and magnesium
to form their Formation of micelles
Removal of and chlorides of
Sodium carbonate reacts
with dissolved sulphates dissolving greae
carbonates as tollows:
This leads to the formation of an emulsion in water. The micelle helps in
+ Na,SO
Na-CO, CaCO; sodium
water. Thus, the cloth gets thoroughly cleaned after being rinsed properly
CaSO. calcium wter
sodiunm sulphate Soaps form lather with soft water. Distilled water and tap water are examples of soft
calcium carbonate
carponato of hard wte
sulphate Na,SO4 Soaps do not form lather with hard water. Sea water, well water, etc are examples
+ Na-CO, MgCO; sodium the soap hch
MgSO magnesium When clothes are washed in hard water, the calcium and magnesIum salts react with
sodum sulphate
magnestum carbonate
sulphate carbonate results in the formation of acurdy precipitate called scum which makes washing difficuit
CaCO; 2NaCI
CaCl Na-CO; calcium sodium Procedure
calcium sodium chlonde
carbonate
chlonde carbonate 1 Take two clean test tubes and label them as A and B. Place them in a test-tube stand
+ Na-CO, MgCO; 2NaCl
MgCI; sodium 2. Pour 10 mL of distilled water into test tube A.
sodium magnesium
magnesium carbonate chloride 3. Pour 10 mL of hard water into test tube B.
chioride carbonate
4 Add 5 drops of the soap solution to each test tube.
5. Place your thumb on the mouth of each test tube and shake vigorously for some time
EXPERIMENT 1O 6. Note your observations.
Objective Observations
sample of a soap in soft and hard water 1. Arich lather is formed in test tube A which contains soft water
To study the comparative cleaning capacity of a
Materials and Apparatuses Required 2. No lather is formed in test tube B which contains hard water. Instead, an insolubie curdy precipitate
measuring cylinder is formed.
Distilled water, hard water, soap solution, test tubes, a test-tube stand and a
Conclusion
Theory 1. Soft water is suitable for washing clothes as it produces rich lather with the soap
* Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acids.
2. Hard water is not suitable for washing clothes as an insoluble substance (scum) remains atter washing
Asoap molecule has two ends:
6an ionic (CO0 Na) head "a long hydrocarbon tail Precautions
Ai soap molecule is symbolically represented as a zig-zag line which represents the long hydrocarbon 1. Use clean test tubes.
chain and a dark dot which represents a sodium ion. 2. Shake the test tubes well for equal number of times
Long hydrocarbon chain 3. Use only distilled water as soft water. Tap water may contain dissolved salts of calcum and magnesumn
Sodium or potassium ion
o The short ionic end is hydrophilic (water-ioving) and are attracted by the water
molecules.
The long hydrocarbon chain is hydrophobic (water-fearing) and is repelled by water
molecules.
70 Simple Science Lab Skills-10
Soaps 71
 t
O18. What is temporary hardness of water?
VIVA VOCE Anc The hardness of water which is caused due to the presence of dissotved calciurn or hagresture b
in it is called temporary hardness.
O19. What is permanent bardness magnesiurn chiee
Ans The hardness of water which is caused due to the presenc of dissolved calcium or
andsulphates in it is called permanent hardness.
Soap carboxvlic acids.
soaps? long chain 020. How can temporary hardness be removed?
Q1. What are potassium salts of soda to the hard watet
sodium or Ans. Temporary hardness can be removed by simply boiling or adding washing
Ans. Soaps are saponification?
by saponification. 021. How can permanent hardness be removed?
vou understand
Q2. What do hydrolysis of an ester is called
Ans. Alkaline prepare soaps.
Ans. Permanent hardness can be removed by adding washing soda to it
which can be used to
03. Name some oils linseed oil. 022. How do salts of calcium and magnesium enter water and cause hardness?
caster oil and in wells, it dissolves the saits of
rice bran oil, Ans. WVhen natural water flows in rivers, seas and also under the ground like
Ans. Coconut oil, soaps-acidic or basic?
harúrese
nature of calciumn and magnesium present in rockS and soil. These dissolved salts are responsible for the
Q4. What is the of well, sea and river water.
in nature. preparalion of the
s0ap.
Ans. Soaps are basic
used in the 023. What are the two parts of a soap molecule?
alkali which can be
Q5. Name an potassium hydroxide. Ans. The ionic end and the long hydrocarbon chain.
Ans. Sodium hydroxide or ammonium
structure? Detergents are or sulphonate
to detergents in their carboxvlic acids. 024. How is a soap molecule symbolically represented?
Q6. Are soaps similar potassium salts of long chain Ans. Asoap molecule issymbolically represented as azig-zag line which represents the long hydrocarbon chair
Ans. Soaps are sodium or acids. and a dark dot which represents a sodium ion.
salts of long chain carboxvlic endothermic?
reaction an exothermicor 025. Which part of the soap molecule is hydrophobic?
Q7. Is saponification reaction.
reaction is exothermic preparing a s0ap.? Ans. The long hydrocarbon chain of the soap molecule is hydrophobic.
Ans. Saponification reaction mixture while
chloride added to the aqueous solution. 026. Which part of the soap molecule is hydrophilic?
Q8. Why is sodium from the
added to precipitate soap Ans. The short ionic end of the soap molecule is hydrophilic.
Ans. Sodium chloride is (CsHsjCOONa"). Q27. What are micelles?
Q9. Give two examples
of soaps, sodium palmitate
(CH:COONa) and Ans. The radial structures formed by the soap molecules in which hydrocarbon chain attaches itselí to the grease
Ans. Sodium stearate preparation of the soap. or dirt and the ionic part remains in water are called micelles.
by-product formed in the
Q10. Name the O28. What is meant by lather?
Ans. Glycerol.
glycerol? Ans. The foam produced by a soap in water is called lather.
Q11. What is the structure of
Ans. CH, OH 029. Why does a soap not work effectively in hard water?
Ans. When clothes are washed in hard water, the calcium and magnesium salts react with the soap which result
CHOH in the formation ofa curdy precipitate called scum which makes washing difficult.
030. What is the advantage of over detergents?
CH,OH Ans. Soaps are biodegradable whereas detergents are nonbiodegradable.
031. What is the advantage of detergents over soaps?
Cleaning Capacity Ans. Detergents have a stronger cleaning action than soaps.
Q12. What is soft water? e Detergents can be used in hard water also.
Ans. The water which lathers readily with a soap is called soft water.
Q13. What is hard water?
hard water.
Ans. The water which does not lather with a soap is called Other Important Questions
Q14. What causes hardness of water?
bicarbonates, sulphates and chlorides of calcium
Ans. The hardness of water is due to the presence of dissolved
and magnesium in water. Q1. When soap is added to hard water, it reacts with the salts to form a scun hy does this scum tom
O15. Name the salts of calcium which can cause hardness of water. Ans. When soap is added to hard water, the calcium and magnesium salts present in hard water, react with soap
which results in the formation of a curdy precipitate called scum, which makes washing ditficult
Ans. Calcium sulphate (CaSO,), calcium bicarbonate [Ca(HCO,),l and calcium chloride (CaCl,).
16. Name the salts of magnesium which can cause hardness of water. Q2. In which of the foilowing will the cleansing action ot soap be nost etiective? Why?
(a) Tap (b) Rain c) Well (d) Hand punnp
s. Magnesium sulphate (MgsO), magnesium bicarbonate [Mg(HCO))] and magnesium chloride (MgCl,). Ans. Rain water is distilled water. So, in rain water the cleansing action of soap will be mumum
7. What are the different types of hardness of water? (NCERT Lab Manual])
. Temporary hardness and permanent hardness. Q3. Can we test hard water by using a detergent? Give reason,
Ans. No, we cannot test hard water using detergent because detergents torm lather both with sott water and
hard water. Soap solution should be used to test hard water.
Simple SCience Lab Skills-10 Soaps 73
 (v) Aperture: The diameter of aspherical mirtere 8 cailed he
ertsr f the artyr Ey
the aperture of the given concave mirroe
Reflection of Light (vi) Principal Focus: The principal focus
irom
11 aSpherical M
Mirror
(F) of a spherical mirror is a potnt
where light rayS, coming parailel
to its principal axis after reflection
actually converge to (in case of a
concave mirror) or appear to drverge
from (in case of a convex rmirror)
BASIC CONCEPIS
(vii) Focal Length: Distance between the ai
principal focus and pole of a spherical Fig. 11.3 Princigal focus E and oea angrA
Reflection of Light tal ttor
mirror is called its focal length (f)
Refiextion of light is the phenomenon of houncing back of light to the same medium after striking a surf
light is known
Thus, f= PF
and pretferably asmooth and polished surface Anv surface which reflects the as a The focal length of a spherical mirror is half of its radus of curvature
Polished metal surfaces and silvered mirorS are very good reflectors of light. reflector. R
The refiection of light from a surtace follows the following two laws of reflection. These are: Thus, f= or R- 2f
1. The incident ray, reflected rav and normal to the reflecting surface at the point of incidence lix . Image
the same plane.
2. The angle of incidence is equal to the angie of When light rays starting from a point after reflection/refraction from a surface sctaalky vegr
reflection. appear to diverge from a second point, this second point is said to be the image of the irst port
Mirror Silvered reflection/refraction the light rays actually converge at a point, the mage formed is sasd to e s real imag
Amirror is a polished smooth surface surface However, if after reflection/refraction the light rays appear to diverge irom a pont, then the age irted
such that most of the is called virtual image. A real image can be obtained on a screen but a virtuai age carc be taineá
light incident on it is reflected back obeving the
reflection. Two common tvpes of mirrors two laws of Refiecting on a screen.
Surface
are: Image Formation by a Spherical Mirror
(i) plane miror. and (ü) spherical
mirror. The position of the image formed by a spherical mirror can be found by consderng the olerwg ays
A spherical miror is a transparent
of a hollow sphere. One face of thecurved surface forming apart M () An incident ray parallel to the principal axis of mirror, after relecton. pases through the prnc:pal
that light is reflected from the other surface is highlv silvered so M focus ofa concave mirror or appears to pass through its princ1pal focus
A spherical mirror is further
surface. (a) Concave mirror
(b) Convex mirror (ii) A ray passing through the principal focus of a concave mn1rror or a tav directed rowatds the grncspal
of two types:
(i) Concave mirror: If refiection takes These are:
Fig. 11.1 Spherical mirrors focus of a conveX mirror, after retlection, travels parallel to the principal axiS of the mutor
is called concave place from the inner (depressed) surface (iii) A ray passing through the centre of curvature of a concave m1rror or rav directed towards the centre
mirror. of the mirror, the mirror
(ü) Convex mirror: If reflection of curvature of a convex miror, after reflection, retraces its path.
is called convex takes place from the outer (bulged (iv) A ray incident obliquely to the principal axis at the pole is retlected orizquely so that angies subtended
mirror. out) surface of the mirror, the mirror
by the two rays from the principal axis are equal and in mutually opposite directons
Important Terms related to A concave mirror may form either a real or a virtual mage depend1ng on the positon ot the obyect The
Some important terms related to Spherical Mirrors different possibilities are given in the following table
(i) Pole: The mid-point (P) spherical mirrors are defined as given
of a below: Position of the Object Position of the image Size of the mage
(ii) Centre of Curvature: The spherical mirror is called its pole.
Neture of the image

mirror forms apart is centre of a hollow sphere of which the (0) At infinity At principal focus F Highiy dimnished (pont Real and inverted
centre of curvature. called its centre of curvature. In Fig. 11.2, point spherical
SIzed)
M
C is the (i) Beyond the centre of Between F and C Dminished Real and inverted
(üi) Radius of Curvature: curvature C
The radius of a hollow
mirror forms a part is called its sphere of which the spherical (ii) At centre of curvature C At centre of curvature C Same sized Reai and inverted
between the pole and centre radius of C
of curvature is curvature. Alternately, the distance
called the radius of (iv) BetweenC and F BeyondC Eniarged Real and inverted
Thus, radius of curvature, R= PC curvature. (v) At principal focus F At infinity Highiy enlarged Real and inverted
(iv) Principal Axis:
The straight line passing Virtual and erect
curvature of the spherical mirror is through the M (vi) Between pole P and focus F Behind the mirror Eniarged
called its principal axis. pole and centre of Fig. 11.2 Spherical
mirror is a part of a Aconvex mirror always torms a vistual, erect and dimuashed image of a real obyect The image s formed
hollow sphere behind the mirror between its pole P and tocus point F
Reffection of Light from a Sphericat Mirror 75
 Sign Convention for Mirrors
she situations, the distance
According to the new Cartesian sign convention tollowed nowadavs: between the piie Pand the to s
ae mirror. Thus, the focal iength of a e the ha e e
(i) The object is taken on the left of the mirror so that the incident ray strikes the mirror f concave rirrer can he otinated gen
atid 1 sh4:T Atted
left-hand side.
image of a distant object at its focus/ focal plane
Procedure
(11) All distances parallel to the principal axis are measured from the pole of the mirror.
1 Take a concave mirrOr. Using a piece of dry ght ras roa
(iüi) Distances measured along the direction of incident ray are taken positive and distanCes mos cloth or cotton or tissue paper, clean the distant oec ra
against the direction of inadent rav as negative. In eftect, it means that the distance of an object
or reflecting surface of the concave mirror
image situated on the let si£e of pole is taken to be negative and the distance measured on the anan 2 Fix the concave mirror in the mirror holder
side of pole is taken positive. On this bas1s, focal length and radius of curvature of a concave m:
are taken negative and thev are taken positive for a convex miror.
and place it on the table near an open
window such that the mirror holder is in
(iv) Height measured perpendicular to principal axis in upward direction is taken positive but bott stable equilibrium on the table
measured in downward direction is taken negative.
3. Turn the face of the concave mirror
Mirror Formula and Magnification of Image towards a distant object (a distant tree or an Stand
Mirror fomula is a relation between the object distance (u), the 1mage distance (v) and the focal lenoth (o electric/ telephone pole or a distant building)
[or the radius of currature (R)] of the miror. 4. Take a white screen (card sheet or wooden
2 screen)) fitted to a stand and place it in front of
According to the mirror formula. we have = R the concave mirror as shown in Fig. I1.5. The
top end of a screen should be slightly below Fig. 11.5 Determining the toca ength s : oncue rror by
The above formula is true for concave as well as Convex mirTOrs for all types of images. the principal axis of the concave mirror. obtaining the mage of a distant coer cet
Linear magnification
of an image formed bv a spherical miro 1S defined as the ratio of the height of the 5 Move the screen back and forth till a sharp, clear and inverted tmage
image (h') to the height oe the dastant ooet s formed
of the object (). on it. As the distant object is illuminated with sunlight and the screen s placed
a the aDotatory in
shade, the image obtained on the screen is clear and bright one and is eas1ly vsbie
For a spherncal miror. linear magnification, m = 6. When you get sharp and bright image of distant object on the screen mark the positions
of the
centre points of the mirror holder as well as the screen stand Using a measung scale measure the
horizontal distance between the pole of the concave mirror and screen Record vour observaton in
EXPERIMENT 11 the observation table.
Objective 7. Repeat the steps 2-6 at least three or four times and record vour observat:ons
To determine the focal length of a concave 8. Find the mean value of the focal length of the given concave mirror
mirror by obtaining the image of a distant object
Materials Required In different sets of observations, you may obtain sharp images of different distant obyects
A concave miror, a miror holder. a small Note: If direct sunlight is entering the laboratory through a window. students mav obtain the bright inage
[Alternately, a student may have an optical screen fixed on a stand, a measuring scale, etc. of the sun on the screen. However, in that case, the screen should not be a wooden or a card sheet
bench with two uprights for mirror and
Theory screen.] sCreen because due to focussing of sun rays by the mirror at a point on the screen. intense heat may
be produced and screen may start burning.
The rays of Iight coming from
distant object (like a distant the sun or a Observations and Calculations
tree., a distant
electric/telephone pole or a distant building) can M S. Name of the Position of Pole Position of Principai Focal Length Mean Focal
be considered parallel to each other. No. Distant Object P (cm) (MiddBe Focus F (cm) (Middle of the Concave Length of the
When parallel rays are Point of Mirror Point of Sereen Stand) Mirror Concave Mirror
incident on a concave
mirror along its Holder) f= PF {cm)
1 An electric pole 28.0 12.4 15.6 Cm
Fig. 11.4(a), the raysprincipal axis as shown in
the principal focus F ofafter reflection converge at
the 2
image formed is a point-sizedconcave mirror. The M
However, image. M' 3
the parallel (a)
4
istant object rays coming from a (b)
are incident obliquely Fig. 11.4 Light rays
airror as shown in
on a concave from a distant are 5.
Fig. 11.4(b), then the rays always parallel: (a) Lightfalling
rays falling parallel source
rm areal, inverted and axis converge at principal to principal
Bin the focal very small-sized image rays falling obliquely focus F, and (b) Result
plane of the mirror. on a concave mirror Parallel light
the focal plane converge in The estimated value of focal lengtth ot the given concave mrror = . m
6 Simple science Lab Skills-1O
Reftection of Light from a Sphericat Mirror 77
 ,rd
totea
or a wet O3 What do you mean bV prim ipal fociJS of a
be cleaned but never
uSe water cloth for cinal focus of a concave mnirror is the point situated on its prinipal axis, where a beam of ight travelling
Precautions concave
mirror
should Ans. parallel to principal axis actually converges after reflection from the mirror
surface of the
The
reflecting
O3 hat is the focal length of a mirrtur2
1. cleaning the miror.
should be stable on
the table
through
which
sufficient sunlight enters. OB The distance between the principal focus and the pole is called the fxal length f) of that rnirror
mirror holder window
open
2. The
concave
be placed near an face the distant
object.
object OM What is the relationship betwecn focal length snd Tadius af
should mirTOr should and Anc For amirror of small aperture, the focal length is half of its radius of curvature
3. The
concave miror
Moreover. the
reflecting surface
of the
in the path of light rays
coming from
the distant
fal ing R
any obstacle
should not be
object should be well. Thus, or R= 2f
4. There ensure that the 2
mirror. distant object coming from the
on the concave
order to obtain aa sharp
and clear
image of the
This ensures
that amount
of light image on
clear bright
distant
the screen,
O ls the same relation lrue fora convex murror loo?
e Yes, same relation is true for a convex mirror too.
5. In situated in shade produce a
and is not sufficient to tabletop.
illuminated miror is parallel to the 016 Define image of a point object.
the concave should be
object and falling on is refraction tron a lers).
Ans. When light rays starting from apoint object, after reflection from a mirror (or after called the inage of the
holder and the
screen stand
vertical plane,
which
perpendicular to is
0. The base of
the mirror be kept in
exactly
actually meet at a point or appear to diverge from apoint, this (second) point
and the mirror should point object.
7. The miror holder
the measuring scale. is a real image?
O17. What converge at a
Ans. An image is said to be real if it is formed when light rays after reflection/ refraction actuallv
point.
VIVA VOCE O18. What is a virtual image?
converge but
Ans, An image is said to be virtual if it is formed when light rays after reflection/refraction do not
appear to diverge from a point.
it is reflected back obeyving laws
lightincident on O19. Can yougive any other difference between a real image anda virtual image?
01. What is a mirror? that most of the
smooth surface so Ans. A real image can be obtained on a screen but avirtual image cannot be obtained on a screen.
Moreover,
Ans. mirror is a polished
of reflection. the real image is an inverted one but the virtual image is always erect.
mirrors?
different types of mirror. 020. Which mirror forms a virtual image and which one forms a real image?
Q2. 1What are and (iü) spherical
tvpes: (i) plane mirror,
Ans. Mirrors are of two Ans. An image formed by aplane mirror and a convex mirror is alwavs virtual. However, a concave mirror mav
03. What is a plane mirror: perfectly plane. form areal or avirtual image depending on the position of the object in front of the mirror
whose reflecting surface is
Ans. A plane mirror is that formed by a plane
mirror? 021. When does a concave mirror form a virtual image and à real image of an obiect?
characteristics of image object. Theims
Q4. What are the erect, laterally
virtual, inverted and of same size as the Ans, Aconcavemirror forms a virtual image of an object if it is placed between the pole (P) and principal ius
mirror is
Ans. Image formed by a plane mirror as an object is placed in front
of it. (E) of the mirror. For allother positions of the object, the image formed is real.
is formed as much behind the
022. Is the image formed by a concave mirror enlarged or diminished in size
Q5. What is a spherical mirror? silvered so that reflection takes nlaos Ans. It can be of either type. If an object is placed beyond the centre of curvature, the image formed is dimin1shed
hollow sphere. One of its surface is
Ans. A spherical nmirror is a part of a in size. However, if the object is placed between the centre of curvature and pole, then the image formed
from the other curved surface.
these?
mirrors are also of two types. What are is enlarged one.
Q6. I have come to know that spherical
namely concave and convex mirrors. O23. What happens if the object is situated at the centre of curv ature of a concase thtsur
Ans. Yes, spherical mirrors are of two types,
Q7.What is the difference between concave and convex mirrors? Ans. A real and inverted image is formed at the centre of curvature itself whose size is same as that of object
(depressed) surface but in a convex mirror
Ans. In a concave mirror, reflection takes place from the inner O24. What is the principle of your experiment?
reflection takes place from the outer (bulged out) surface. Ans. For an object situated at infinite distance form a concave mirror, its point-sized image is tormed at the
Q8. What is the pole of a spherical mirror? principal focus of the mirror.
Ans. The mid-point of a spherical mirror is called its pole. Q25. Is the object selected by you not situated at infinith ? Whv?
09. What is the significance of pole? Ans. Yes, the object is not situated at infinity. But, it is a distant object whose distance from the mirror is very
Ans. Distances of objects and images are measured from the pole of a mirror. large as compared to the focal length (or radius of curvature) of the mirror. Hence, ettectively, we may
Q10. What is the centre of curvature of a splherical miror? consider the object to be situated at infinity.
Ans. The centre of curvature of a spherical mirror is the centre of hollow sphere of which the given mirror forms Q26. Can youestimate the focal length of a convev mirror also by this method?
a part. Ans. No, because image formed by a convex mirror is a virtual image which cannot be obtained on the screen.
011. What is the radius of curvature of a spherical mirror?
Q27. What are the uses of concave mirrors?
Ans. The distance between the centre of curvature and the pole of aspherical mirror is called its radius of Ans. Concave mirrors are used as reflectors in car headlights, searchlights, torches, etc. Thev are used as shaving,
curvature. Alternately, it is the radius of that hollow sphere of which the given mirror
forms a part. make-up mirrors and in solar cookers. Dentists, ENT surgeons and eve specialists also use concave mirrors.

78 Simple Science Lab Skitls-10 Reflection of Light from a Spherical Mirror 79

 Ans. What
Q28. A convex
is themirror
main isusenainlv used asmirror?
of d convex a driver's mirror in automobiles sO as to enable him to see the traffic

coming from behind and thus enhances his tield of

view.
029, What is the mirror tormula!
mirror. -
from the pole of
111
= distance of object distance
12
Ans. As per mirror formula Where of
length of mirror.
image from the pole of mirror and f= focal
and convex miriorS
Q30. What is the sign of tocal length of concave sign but that of aa convex mirror Lenses
mirror has a negative
Ans. As per sign convention, the focal length of a concave
has a positive sign.
Q31. What is the focal length of a piane mirror BASIC CONCIPIS
Ans. Infinite.

Lens
AOther Importat Questions A lens is a part of a transparent refractive medium
hounded by two nonparallel curved surfaces or one
urvedand another plane surface. Generally, spherical
actually touchine aL
concave mirror and a convex miirOr without lenses are used in school laboratories. Spherical lenses
Q1. How will vou distinguish between a formed in the mirror is erect and diminished. then it is a
face near the miror. If the image are of two types:
Ans. First, bring vour and endarged image of your face, the mirror is
a ca
concave miror. Howerer, if vou observe an erect 1. Convex (Converging) Lens (b)Planoconvex
mirror. (a) Double convex
by obtaining image of adistant objiect2 C: A Convex lens is thick at the centre and thin at the lens lens
Q2. Can you determine the focal length of a conver niror edges. As a convex lens converges the incident light Fig. 12.1 Three kinds of convex enses
reason.

Ans. No, we cannot determine the focal length of a convex mirror by

obtaining image of a distant obiet T. beam, it is also known as a converging lens.
cannot be obtained on tho c A Convex lens can be of three kinds, namely:
because convex mirror forms a virtual image of the distant object which
Q3. In reflector-tvpe solar cockers, special concave fparabolic) mirrors are used. In such cookers, what
shos.t (a) double convexx lens, (b) planoconvex lens, and (c) concavoconvex lens as shown in Fig 12 1
be the preferable position of food vessel for cooking? However, generally, a convex lens means a double convex lens
Ans. maximum
The preferred position of food vessel for cooking is at the focus point of concave parabolic mirror because
amount of solar radiation incident on mirror are focussed there. 2. Concave (Diverging) Lens
04. Is the method of determination of focal length of a concave mirror by forming image of a distant obioc A concave lens is thin in the middle and thick at the
an accurate method? Do you know anv other method? edges. As a concave lens diverges the incident light
Ans. No, it is not an accurate method and it gives only an approximate value of the focal length of the given beam, it is also known as a diverging lens.
concave mirror. A concave lens can also be of three kinds, namely: (a) Double concave (b) Planoconcave (c}Covexoconcae
Aprecise method for determination of the focal length of aconcave mirror is u -v method. In this method lens lens lens

an object is placed in front of the concave mirror at a distance u(where u >f) and a (a) double concave lens, (b) planoconcave lens, and Fig. 12.2 Three kinds of concave lenses
sharp inverted image of
the object is obtained on a screen. If distance of screen from the mirror is v, then focal (c) a convexoconcave lens as shown in Fig. 12.2.
length of the mirror Generally, a concave lens means a double concave lens.
is given by mirror formula:
1
1,1 Important Terms related to Spherical Lenses
05. To determine the focal length of a concave mirror, a Some important terms related tospherical lenses are defined as below:
and the sun on the screen with the help of a student focuses a class room window, a distant tree () Optical Centre: It is a point situated at the principal axis of a 2nd surface lst surface

accurate value of focal length? concave mirror. In which case will the
Ans. The student gets more accurate
student get more lens such that a light ray passing through itgoes straight without Principal axis
value of focal length when he focuses any deviation. For a thin biconvex or biconcave lens, the optical
of a concave mirror. It is so the sun on the screen with the help
because distance of sun from the centre O lies at the centre ofa lens.
06. What fvpe of mirror is mirror is infinity.
Ans. A concave mirror of used as shaving mirror or in vanity boxes? (ii) Centre of Curvature: A spherical lens has two surfaces and each
large aperture is used as surface forms a part of a sphere. The centres of curvature C, and Fig. 12.3 Light ray passes undeviated
07. What will be the
nature of image formed by a
shaving mirror or in vanity boxes.
Ans. For a distant object, the concave mirror for a distant C, are the centre points of the two spheres whose part the two lens through the optical centre
image formed by a concave
mirror is real, inverted andobject? surfaces are.
highly diminished in size. (ii) Radii of Curvature: The distances between centres of curvature oe a lens and its optical centre are
80 Simple Science Lab skills- 10
termed as its radii of curvature. Thus, as shown in Fig 123, OC = R, and oc, =R, are the radit of
curvature of the given lens.
(iv) Principal Axis: The principal axis of alens is the straight line
curvature and the optical centre of the lens. In Fig 12.3, the line passing through
lens. C,OC, is the
(v) Aperture of the lens: The diameter of
the circular outline of a lens is called its
aperture.
rincipa
(vi) Principal Focus: The principal focus (F) Lens Formula and
of a lens is a point on its principal axis
Lens formula is a relationLinear Magnification
where incident light ravs parallel to the between of an
formula, we haveobject distance (u).Imaze
lens. According to lens the
principal axis, after refraction, actually (a) imaze dtance (u) and
converge to (for a convex lens) or appear Fig. 12.4 Principal 1 1 1 focal length (f) of a
to diverge from (for a concave lens). (a) convex focus (F) and volation is true 7
Since a lens has twO refractive surtaces, It has lens, and (b) tocal :near magnification
for all types of
lenses, i.e., conveA
situated concavelelnghl
ens, fi
twO princ1pal foci
of the lens. () to the height of (m) of an image formed by a and concave and all types of
(vi) Focal Length: The distance berween
of a lens. Thus. principal focus F and optical
focal length, f= OF centre
symmetrically
O is
the object (h). For a
Linear
lens is defined as the
lens, it is found that images
ratio of the height formed
of the image
Image Formation by a Lens called Power of a Lens magnification, m=
The position of the image formed by The power (P) of a
a lens can be obtained by lens is defined as the
of light: reciprocal of its focal lerngth (
(i) An incident ray considering
any two of
Thus,
power, P= 1 f).
parallel
the other side of the lens to the principal axis, after refraction, he The SI unit of power is
the same side of the lens (for a convex lens) or appears to diverge passes through foloW The power of a dioptre (D), where 1
convex (converging) lens is D=1m,
(for a concave lens). from the the taken positive and that of
principalprincipal
() Aray of light negative. a concave
passing through the principal focus f.. If a number of thin (diverging) lens is taken
principal focus (for a concave focus (for a convex lens) power (P) of the lenslenses having powers P, P, P, ...
(ii) Aray of light lens), after refraction, or etc., are
combination is equal to the algebraic sum placed in contact, then the
passing through the optical emerges parallel to
the
appearing
to pass Thus, we have of the individual powers equivalent
Aconvex lens centre of the lens principal
may form either a
related to the lens. The real or a virtual emerges straight axiS towaxt P= P, + P, + P, +
upon without any
image
different possibilities are
Position of the object
given in thedepending
following table: the position of devatig Objective EXPERIMENT 12.1
Position of the Image an To determine the focal length of a convex
() At infinity Size of the lens by obtaining the image of a distant object
At the Image Materials Required
(ii) Beyond 2F
principal focus F, Nature of the Image A convex lens, a lens
Point-sized holder, a small-sized white
measuring scale, etc. cardboard or a ground glass screen fixed
Between F, and 2F, Real and inverted on a stand, a
(ü) At 2F,
Diminished Alternatively, a student may take an optical
At 2F, Real and inverted bench having two uprights for lens
(iv) SCreen. and
Between F, and 2F, Same size F
(v) At Beyond 2F, Real and inverted Theory
principal focus F, Enlarged The rays of light coming from the sun
(vi)
At infinity Real and inverted distant object like a distant tree, a or a
Between focus F, and distant
building or a distant electric/telephone
optical centre O On the same Infinitely large Real and inverted can be considered to be parallel pole
(a)
Fig. 12.5 (a) ight rays parale to principal (b)

Aconcave lens as the side of a other.

to each focus (F ), and (b) parallel light rays fallingaxISobliquely
COnverge at princig
lens always object is Enlarged axis converge in focal plane
on principa
at amy forms Virtual and erect
positton. For an object a vitual, erect and
In all other
When parallel rays from the sun or a distant object
are incident on a convex lens along its principal
as shown in Fig. 12.5(a), the rays after refraction converge
the sate situations, the situated at infinity, diminished image of lens. Thus, a point-sized real and inverted image is formed at the principal focus F, on other side of
lens as diminished
side of the the an
Sign the object image is formedpoint-sized image is object placed in front of the at focus F,
However, if the parallel rays coming from a distant object are incident obliquely
coavention
from the optrcal for is
lenses Same as situated. between optical formed at the principal focus in Fig. 12.5(b), then the rays form a real, inverted and highly diminished on a convex lens as sh
centre of theIS lens. tor mirrors centre Oand principal focus F plane of the convex lens. image AB in the second
with one In both the situations, the distance between the optical centre O and focus point F, gives the
82 Sipie Science Lab
SKits -10
difference that all the measu distances are of the
focal ler
given convex lens, i.e., OF, = f Thus, the focal length of a convex lens can be estimated by obta
a sharp real image of a distant object at its principal focus/focal plane.

tenses
 of lens
holder starid aid sreett stand shursih t athile h e t the
The basc ning the tw
principal axs of the lers
Provedute Ntant tree
shoud he along the
obtain a sharp and clear inage of the hitant jgct he eet
order to) e sary bet Hurakh
7 In Therefore, choose only that obet h stant
be
well.illuminated

tsthhutinated
Lens STeen sunlight
An object in shade should not he wiected
holder in
su is bein! taken as a distantobject, then the imayette nserad te yon the
CnieunN Stand 8. I the
suticent sunlight Is and the sun's image
should never he seen drectly nth the ak e
Morore, cisur that the sCrcCn

mcasuring scale
should be set horizontally on the tatie t plattetS Shtg tte atiens
) The stand and parallel to the principal axs of the
Fis, 12.6 Determnining the focal length holder and
screen
WNens N O gmund by obtaining the image ot
Plrthe w h t e a h N rthe 3 convex lens
that ts of a
the oher sde ot the lns distant object orn the screen
EXPERIMENT 12.2
s Nen N stand :
in front of the
awav Om the WndOW
the sren bv Ovng it back and forth
aiuN: the:NSion ot lens
t SOwiN and arulh mveted imge of the distant objcct on it. As the distant object is Objective
distances in case of a convex lens and draw corresponding
t a s h , dar d plad nthe laboratory
in shade, the image obtained Ps Edthe image distance for varying objectformed
ilummnated with sunltght
and thes e n is on rav diagrams to show the
nature of image
and is easilV VIsIble
the sren is cear and bright one On the sCTeen, Mark the
positione Materials Required
bright imse of the distant objct meaSUriNg scale, meas. e
:. When vu g a sharr and sren stand. Using a e lens (f= 15-20 cm), a lens holder, a white card sheet or cardboard vcreen, acreen stasd ese
Cente ns f the lens holder as vell as the distance between the optical centre Amall candle fitted on a stand, a matchbox,a drawing board sheets of whte paper drewtg pits
honzontal distane hnwen the
wo marks. Obiouslv, it is the )
the given convex lens and is equal to the tocal length t or an adhesive tape, a 30-cm scale, a sharp
pencil, etc
of the lens and the prnal fius F of obsnation table.
the lens. Revd our ohsenation
in the Theory
bright images of diferent dis
6. Rerat the steps lcast three or four times torming sharp and IAL If aburning candle is placed on one sIde of a convex lens at a suitable distance aiong tbe prsncipal
objes. RwN vOur ohsenations in
the ohservation table. vis ofthe lens, then the image of candle flame, if real, can be obtained on a white screen placed on othet
7.Find che mean value of the focal length of the given
convex lens. side of the lens. A sharp image can be obtained by moving the screen back and forth along toe prncapa.
Obsery ations and Calculations
avis of the lens. The distances of object (u) and image (v) from the lens can be easily neasured by 2Sang
a metre scale.
Position of Optical Position of Principal Focal Length of
Name of the Focus F of the Convex the Convex Lens
Mean Focal Length IBI We can study the nature, size and position (or distance) of the Image tor varying ocject IStances in
Centre O of the Convex of the Convex Lens
No. Distant Object
Lens (cm) Lens (cm) f= 0F (cm) case of aconvex lens by drawing ray diagrams using some specific incident rays whose path ate retracton
1 Tree 200 35 5 15.5 =..... .Cm
from the convex lens can be easily found. These rays are as follows
(a) A ray travelling parallel to the principal axis of the lens, after retraction, will pass through tocus posnt
2 m
F, on other side of the lens.
3
(b) A ray travelling through focus point F, of the convex lens, after retraction, starts gOLng parailei to the
4.
principal axis of the lens.
(c) Áray passing through optical centre Oof the convex lens goes straight without undergoing any
Resuit deviation from its path.
The estimated value of focal length of the given convex Once the image is located, we can measure the distance of object () trom the lens, d:stance of image ()
lens = from the lens, height (size) of the object hand height (size) of the image Aby a measunng scaie The sigrs
Precautions to u, v, h and h are assigned in accordance with "new Cartesian coordinate svstem" being followed tor
1. The refracting surfaces of the lens should be lenses. Of course, the lens is considered to be a thin lens
of the lens. cleaned but never use water or a wet cloth for
cleaning The different types of images and their nature, position, size, etc are discussed as tollows
2. The principal axis of the convex lens
vertically in the lens stand. should be horizontal. In other words, the lens 1. An object is very far away (at infinity) from A
should be placed lens: From a far away (distant) object AB, the
3. The lens holder and the
sCreen stand should be sturdv and in stable light rays are parallel rays. These rays travelling
table or the platform. equilibrium when placed on the
4. There should not be any parallel to principal axis of convex lens, after AR
2F

on the convex lens. obstacle in the path of light rays coming from refraction, converge at focus point F,. Thus, infinty
the distant object and incident an image is formed at F, itself as shown in
5. Adjust the position of the
the lens without any convex lens such that the light rays coming from Fig. 12.7. The image is real, inverted and of
obstruction. the distant object fall on point size. Fig. 12.7 When object is at infin1ty - image forms at F
84 Simple Science Lab Skills-10
Lenses 85
 P r o c e d u r e

o!
awavy from 2F,:
If an obiect AB find image listance fnr
2*ying nhjort dictanrath
2. An object principal axiS
normal to the
beight is placed distance u, then a rake a convex lens whose tocal length 1s abtyr3 0 n iean eth efttig arfaces
lens bevond 2F. at a
of the axiS, after sCreen on tand nt 1anle e arher stand
parallel to pnncinal Eiy the lens in a iens holder. a white cardhoard
rav AD ravel1ng focus pount F.. Rav metre scale on your working rabie and set the iens older ant wry taris rhne t As
through
refracton. passes gocs straught
opttcal centre un in Fig 12 13,the lens holder should he plared nexr the nikedte
AO pass1ng through Thus, a real Fig. 12.8 When object is away from 2F, -image forrn: aic ae or1
meet at pont A ide of it and the screen stand on the other side of he lens The ndle el be
Two retacted ravs formed somewhere between E, and 2F, lens
A B is the principal axis of the
and inverted image
distance from the Alternatively. take an optical bench with three uprghts and ix he sanele e% si ngees: tt hem
berween F. and 2F. at a
AB = h as shown in
iens and is of beight ,tleing amatchstick, light up the candle Switch offthe fan of he abrntory ser ng abie
but p< land h <h
Fg 12S Here. > so that we get a vertical and long flame of burn1ng candie which ces ot ckes
obect AB of height h is .Adiust the height of the screen so that an nverted mage urhng ame hee s tted
3 An object at 2F,: lf an axis of the lens he age o e he
nrincipal on the screen. Slowly move the SCreen towards the lens or aw* ror 1
placed normal to the 26,
distance = 2f then as shown in h screen is a sharp, well-defined and clear image Note the positon of: candle ens st r the
at 2F at a
to principal eter scale and find the distance of candle flame rom iens () s well ss istance of ees mes
Fg 129. a rav AD travell1ng parallel focus point t, v= 2f
passes through u= 2f
aXIS. after refraction. goes straight. (o), Record your observations
centre
Rar 40 passing through optcal Thus. a real Sie. 12.9 When object is at Zt, - image forms at 2t 5 Gradually, change the distance between candle and lens (re ) nsmal sterps ofScm sa an rvery
point A Roctd
wO refacted ravs meet at time, set the position of sCreen sO as to get sharp and clear mmage of the ame oe e res
inverted image AB is formed at a distance
and your observations.
opposite side of the lens. The image is
T=2on A Screen
heght h = :
of same size. ie its Lens (Convex) Image
h
an object AB B
4 An object between F, and 2F,: If F, 2F, Burning
of height t is situated nomally to the principal candle (object)/
and Scale
axis of the lens somewhere between F,
2F (2/> u>f)as shown in Fig. 12.10. then
constructing the inmage as before we find areal,
inverted and enlarged image being formed Fig. 12.10 When object is between F, and 2F, - imaee
at A B at a distance from the lens. Here, forms beyond 2F, Fig. 12.13 An experimental set-up to find image distance for
varying object distances nature of image or varyitg obect istances
> 2fand thus, t >u The size i of the image 15
found to be greater than h.
IBL To draw ray diagrams for showing nature of the :mage tormet Se evn: o
5. An object at F,: If an object AB is situated B
varying object distances
normally to the principal axis of the convex lens F 6. Fix a white sheet of paper on a drawing board either using drawing prns or small preces ot adhesve
2F, F 2F,
at focus point F.. then as shown in Fig. 12.11, (tixo) tape.
we find that the refracted rays are parallel rays To
inclined to the axis. I! means that the ravs will 7. Draw athin line of about 20 cm in length in the mddle of the white sheet A the centre of thas lne.
meet only at infinity. Thus, a real, inverted and mark a point O. Make a thin convex lens LL' of small aperture about the posnt Obviousiy, the poLnt
extremely large-sized image is formed very far Fig. 12.11 When object is at F, - image forms at infinity O represents the optical centre of the lens and its princpal axis
away from the convex lens. Mark points F, and F, on ether side of the lens such that OF =OF The distances OF, and OF
A may be taken to be 6-8 cm The points marked F and F, cepresent two prncigal focI of the lens LL
6. An object between optical
centre 0 Also, mark the ponts 2F,and 2F, on the line at double the distathes of OF and OF as shown n
h
focus F, of the lens: 1f an object AB is and
Fig. 12.14.
normally to the principal axis of the placed
lens somewhere between convex 8. Draw an object AB of suitable height A, along a line perpendieular to the prncipal axis of the lens,
optical 2F, B' F, F, A shown to be placed at intinity as shown n Fg
and focus point F, as shown in centre O
Fig. 12.12 2F,
(u <f). then we find that a
erect and 9. Draw thin straight lines, representing incident ravs comng trom the obrect AB parallel to the prncipal
on
enlarged image A'B' is formed virtual,
the axis FOF, ot the lens and strtk1ng the surtace of iens LL at ponts EG, H. Ater refraction
of the same side
lens. The image cannot be
formed on a from the lens, these rays are retracted along DE, E, GE, HF and so on. All these rays meet
Screen, but can be seen with
V> u and h' > h. the naked eve. Here, Fig. 12.12 When object is at point , which is the focus point of lens on the other sde Thus, a h1ghly dim1nished image
between O (pointstzed image) ot the distant object AB is formed geometrncally at the pont F, as shown in
forms between Oand 2F,and F, - image Fig 12.7
86 Simple Science Lab Skils-10

Lenses 87
 AB and
considering
relevant rays,
h and b'
locate the
of the objct and v as vell as heights and
difterent positions record
P r e c a u t i o n s

6to 9for distances tu

measure the
10. Repeat steps neat diagrams and Eorpart [A] of
Experiment
mage. Draw lens
formed by the convex for various t As maximum distance between candie and screen is I m. bence, focal iength of the cmver lens shosld
vour observations.
relative size of
theimage excecd 20 cm, otherwise, a sharp image of the candle flame may not be sbtasted
position and the KTeet
11. Descrnbe the nature, Tabulate vour readings.
positions of the object. Refore starting the experiment, the given convex lens should be cleaned
The lens holder and stands for candle and screen should be sturdy (ot shosid rot be shaky) and in
Observations stable equilibrium when placed on a table or a platform
Experiment The base of candle stand, lens holder and screen stand should be paraliei and perpendcular to the
For part |[A] of the ........ Cm
of convex lens, f= length of the metre scale.
Estimated value of focal length various positios of obioes
image () for
distance of obiect u)
and distance of -The upper end of candle flame should be at the sarne level as the optcal centre of the ea
A) Table for t The candle flame should be thin long flarne and should not flicker
of the Base of (cm) u= 0L V= IL
Position of the Mid-point ,The image obtained on the screen should be a well-defined, sharp and clear imagr
Screen (cm) (cm)
S.
No.
Candle (0bject) Lens
L
I(image) Positions of mid-points of bases of lens holder, candle stand and screen stand shouid be noted cieatiy
For part [B] of experiment
1. o The convex lens drawn on paper should be thin and of small aperture
2 10 Use a very sharp tipped pencil to draw thin lines to represent inc1dent and refracted rays
3. 11 Path of real refracted rays should be shown by a continuous line bur the path of ravs draws to show
4.
formation of virtual image should be shown by a dotted line
12 Values of , V, h and h should be noted carefully using a measur1ng scale of least count 1 mm
5.
(or 0.1 cm).

For part [B] of the Experiment

lens from ray diagrans
(B] Table for characteristics of images formed by a convex

Position of Nature of the 1

Magnification, VIVA VOCE
Position of h
S. Ray (cm) (cm) (cm)(cm) m=
No. Diagram the Object the Image Image
Q1. What is a lens?
or one
1. Fig. 12.7 At infinity At focus F, Real Ans. A lens is a part of a transparent refracting medium bounded by two nonparallel curved surtaces
curved and another plane surface.
2. Fig. 12.8 Beyond 2F, Between F, Real and
and 2F, inverted Q2. What is a spherical lens?
Real and
Ans, A lens whose surfaces are parts of two spheres.
3. Fig. 12.9 At 2F, At 2F,
inverted 03. Are all spherical lenses identical?
Ans. No, lenses are of two tvpes, namely a convex lens and a concave lens
4. Fig. 12.10 Between F, Beyond 2F, Real and
04. What is a convex lens?
and 2F, inverted
Ans. A lens which is thicker at the middle and thin at the edges.
5. Fig. 12.11 At focus F, At infinity Real and
inverted O5. What are different kinds of conver lenses?
both surtaces are convex,
Ans. Convex lenses can be of three kinds. These are double convex lens whose
concavoconvex lens
6 Fig. 12.12 Between focus On same side Virtual and planoconvex lens whose one surtace is convex but the other surtace is plane and a
F, and optical of convex lens erect having one surface concave and the other surface convex.
centre o as the object
O6. What is a concave lens?
Ans. A lens which is thin at the middle and thick at the edges is called a concave lens.
Result
Q7. Are concave lenses also of three kinds?
1. Variation of image distance for different values of object distance in case
experimentally studied.
of a convex lens has been Ans. Yes, these three kinds are double concave lens, planoxoncave lens and convexoxoncave lens.
2. Ray diagrams to find position, size and nature of images for varying Q8. What is a converging lens?
the retracted rays bend towards the
convex lens have been drawn. Results obtain¿d from these ray obiect distances in case of a Ans. A converging lens converges the light beam incident on it. As a result,
diagrams have been shown in table B. principal axis of the lens.
88 Simple Science Lab Skills-10 Lenses 39
 lens formula2
lens. 026. What is the leris vith its focal length i
bebavesth donveging distance of object (u) and distance of image (u) frorm the
As, Acoves le Aformula correlating
the reracted rays bend formula.
inddenl on it As a result, away Iron H. is called the lens
diverges the ightbem
Ans, A divegny len formula,
priopalxsof thr lem As per lens 7

o for a convez lens!

w27 What is the sign ofnand rnegative. For a real irage formed
behates a a ivergpg les. real object placed on
Aos, A oncave lenv Ans For a the left side of a convex lens, 'u is always image formed on the left side ofa
but for a virtual
taken positive
As, Opi al entre of athin lens is apont sittuated on its pinipal axis, aray of light passingthrough whih on the right side of aconvex lens, 'v' is
lens, 'v' is taken negative.
convex
without any deviaton, magnification of a lens2
o sraightalong its path 028. What is the ratio of the size therght; of the
doubl' Lonves len image formed byalens is defined as
03, phal entte sitated in a Ans. The linear magnification (m) of an
Ans, Whee
halouble
r the onvex lens ofsnunetial ature (where R, = R), the optical centre is situated l at the geometrical placed in front of it.
image h' to the size (height) of the object h
Onte ol the lens. h
m =
Thus, h
Ans, 1e piipal fous of a onvex lens is the point on its principal axis where light rays travelling parsll.s magnification of a lens?
rinipal aN0s of tle lens, after reration, converge 029, What is the formula for
OB What is the pincipal ous of a conYe Ieus? Ans. Here, linear magnification, m =
Ans, Ihe prinNipal focus of acoNave lens is the point on its principal axis where light rays coming parallel ,.
piipal avis of tle lens, alter tetaction, appear to diverge from. power of a lens?
030. What do you mean by expressed in metre.
the reciprocal of its focal length
0l6 I1y does a lens bave wo papat loi? Ans. The power of alens is defined as
of a lens.
Ans. As ales has two retsa ting surtaces, it has tivo pinipal foci situaled symnetrically on cither side of h.: 031. Name the SI unit of power
dioptre (D), where 1D =1m
Ans. The Sl unit of power of alens is
and which negative?
032. Which lens has positive power lens as negative
Ans, les, it is a eal point wlee the tetracted ays actually converge to. is taken as positive and that of a concave
Ans. The power of a convex lens lens by obtaining the inage of a Jstant
O8. I riuipal focus of a concave lens a virtual poil? focal length of a convex
033. Is the method of estimation of
Ans, \es, principal tocus of d Concave lens is a virtual point because a good method? lens and therefore, not considered
refracted rays do not converge at focus but value of the focal length of aconvex
e to diverge trom the principal focus. Ans. No, it gives only an approximate
O9, Ihat is the focal legth ot a lens: a good method.
the image ot a distant o h t :
length of a concave lens by obtaining
Q34. Can you estimate the focal obtained on a screen.
Ans, The distance of the principal focus of a lens from its
optical centre is called its focal length. only a virtual image which cannot be
020. What is the sign of the focal lenpth of Ans. No, because concave lens forms
convex nd concave lenses? image tormed hi a onvex
between a real object and its real
035. What is the minimum distance
Ans, As per new Cartesian sign convention, the focal
a conave lens is tahen to be
negative.
length ofa convex lens is taken to be positive and
that of where f is the focal length of the convex lens.
Ans. 4f,
00. IWlhich point is taken ds the
origin convex lenses?
pointof a lens? Q36. WIhat are the applications of tiim projetors, etc
Ans. The optical centre of a lens is photographic cameras, microscopes, telescopes,
opticalcentre of the lens.
taken as the origin point. It neans all
the distances are measured from Ans. Convex lenses are used in spectacles,
the concave lenses?
0? IWhat is the nature Q37. Can you suggest an application of (nearsightedness) of an eve.
of image
Ans. Generallk, aconvex lens forms fotned by a convx lens? Ans. Concave lenses are used to correct myopia
virtual and erect image of an objectreal and inverted image of a real
object placed in front of it. However, it
03. Is the image lormed placed between principal focus torms
by a Fand optical centre O of
the lens.
Ans. Aconvex lens forms a convex lens an enlarged or adiminished one? Other Important Questions
distance 'u' is less than diminished image of an object placed at a
2f (u< 2), then the distance greater than 2f from it. If
04. Can aconvex lens object thichnesses Hhvh one ot they
lenses of sante apeture but difterent
image formed is an enlarged
Ans. Yes, if the object is lom an image ol sante
size as the obicct?
image. Q1. You are provided witlh two convex
eactly same as thatsituated at 2F, (u = 2) of a will be of shorter focal length?
of object. convex lens, then its image is the middle will be of shorter fval length
025. What is the nature formed at 2F, whose size Ans. The convex lens with greater thickness at distant object be
of length of a conver lens by torming the iMage st a
Ans. A concave lens image forned by a concave
lens? Q2. Can the method of finding the tocal Why?
alwavs concave lens?
used to estimate the tocal length of a concave lens
irrespective of its position.forms a virtual, erect and diminished image of an the focal length of a concave lens. It is because a
obiect placed in front or Ans. The method cannot be employed to estimate and this virtual image cannot be obtained on the screen.
always forms a virtual image of distant object
90 Simple Science Latb Skills- 10
Lenses 91
 a wOstw atise
Watch ie
part of kept very
lWhen
tine magnifi
length.
erect
and image ot hear thel
small
txal Jens) an Such a lens is called
lens conver part.
that a
that pan
lens of of the handle
Q3. Which tvpe ofuse d o v e h : llensth
Watchmakers w a t c h m a k e r s
to magty
Ans. the
distance
less than covenient
tor tious posiion
(at a makes it
TOmed.
This locattta
at the image is at
n a g n i t i c a t r o n
magnifier. Ihe Refraction of Light through
glass or a obet il lens'hat
is
piaces the image
trom the lens, =
studen: s U1g he ot the distane ot
Q4. A shen lensth
that ttual
-54 cm.li
obshes cm nd t
Te is the u= -
aGlass Slab and a Prism
lens, ishat trom the lens,
side ot the
Ans. Here
of obiet
distane
then 1
13
length of the lens be
BASIC CONCEPIS
(-54) Refraction of Light
1
N
Refraction of light is the phenomenon Incident ray incidlent ray
5 18 of the change the direction of a
f= 18 cnn ieht ray incident obliquely at the Optically (1) Optically
interface of two different transparent rarer medium denser medium
(54) X
magnification, m = media.
convex lens when Optically (2) Optically
and torned bv a linear obi
diagram too Whenever, a ray of light passes denser medium rarer medium
of the inage
position ray
nature size and of the lens. DraW a obliquely from an optically rarer
be the focus F, the convex lens. The Refracted ray
same side of ray diagr medium 1 to an optically denser N
Q5. I1hat iillbetween optical centre Q and
placed of the object on the
is medium 2, the refracted ray bends (a) b
and erect image
get a virtual
Ans. IWe shall 12.12. focuses a classroom
window, a towards the normal as shown in Fig. 13.1
student distant tree z
is shown in Fig. conter lens, a accurate value of focal
length ot a student is closer to lenglh? Fig. 13.1 (a) and the angle of refraction (n) is less than the angie of incidence (Z). 1e., 1< 2h
determine the focal will the
Qo. To case he focuses the sun on
screen. In nhich length when
the screen becas However, when a ray of light passes obliquely from an optically denser medium I to an opticaly rarer
the sun on the value of focal
will be closer to accurate medium 2, the refracted ray bends away from the normal as shown in Fig. 13.I (b) and the angie of
Ans. The studentsituated at infinit.
distant object, iin what way
is trulv
sun while focusing a
will it aifect refraction (Z) is greater than the angle of incidence (2). ie. Lr> L.
cover one half of the cunvet icns
Q7. If we Laws of Refraction
image fomed? position and sizeremain unchanged. Howere
object and its nature,
whole Two basic laws of refraction are as follows:
complete image of
Ans. We shall get now less.
the brightness of the image formed is length) at a distance of 20 (1) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface at the point of incidence all ie
placed on the left side of alens (having 10 cm focalformed? in the same plane.
O5. An obiect is image
distance? Where will be the (ii) For a given pair of media, the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence () to the sine of the angie
will be the sign of object negative, i.e., u =-20 cm.
distance is tormed on right side of lens t of refraction (r) is a constant.
Ans. The sign of object left side of lens, its real image is
Asobject is placed at 2f distance on Sin
distance. Thus, = + 20 cm. Mathematically, = a constant = n,
it emerge after refraci Sin
principal focus of aconvex lens. How wvill
Q9. Aray of light is passing through the The constant !,, is called the refractive index of the second medium with respect to the first medium.
through the lens the lens.
parallel to the principal axis of The above mentioned mathematical equation is known as the Snell's law
Ans. After refraction through the lens, the ray emerges
at about 2 m from a convex lens of focal lene Absolute Refractive Index of a Medium
Q10. A student focuses the image of a candle flame, placed
flame towards the lens and each time focuses
10 cm, ona screen. fter that he moves gradually the The absolute refractive index of a given transparent medium is detined as the ratio of speed of light in
image on the screen. vacuum (or air) to the speed of light in the given medium
(a) In which direction does lie move the lens to focus the flame on the screen?
Speed of lhght n vacuum or aur ()
(b) What happens to the size of the image of the flame formed on the screen? Mathematically, absolute refractive index of a medium, n= Speed of light in the given medium ()
() What difference is seen in the intensity (brightness) of the image of the flame on the scree
(d) What is seen en the screen when the flame is very close (at about 5 cmn) to the lens? Refractive index of a medium is a pure ratio and thus has no units. Moreover. as the speet of ight in any
Ans. (a) He moves the lens away from the screen to focus the flame on the screen.
The size of the image of the flame formed on the screen increases gradually. medium is less than the speed oe light in air, the absolute retractive ndex of a mehum has a value nore
than one.
(c) The intensity of the image of the flame on the screen decreases gradually.
(d) When the flame is very close (at about 5 cm) to the lens, no
image is seen on the surec
92 Simple Science Lab Skills-10
 transparent Path ABEKGH. we find that the emergent ray FCD has undergone alateral shift FK from the extended
Relative Refractive Index 1) to another
medium
medium incident ray. The value of lateral shift depends upon (i) the thickness of the glass slab (u) refractive index
medium (say medium I is
transparent with respect to)
one
travels trom relative to (or medium.
defined as (thesay slab, and (iii) angle of incidence of the light ray at
glass slab
When light medium 2 second the glass
of
refractive index of light in the
medium 2), the medium to the speed of Speed of light in Ist medium P r o c e d u r e

light in the first

ratio of speed of 1, 1,1
medium 2w.r.t. medium Speed of light in 2nd medium Fix awhite sheet of paper on a drawing board using either draw1ng p1ns ot an adhes1ve (tixo) tape
retractive index of (0)
Mathenmatically, respectively, then we find Place the rectangular glass slab PORS in the middle of the paper Using a sharp pencl. mark its
medium 2 that
medium l and boundary PORS.
refractive indices of
If n, and n, are the absolute Demove the rectangular glass slab. Draw the normal MEN at a point E of the face PQ of the glass
lah, Dravw a thin line XE making an angle i (say, i = 30°) from the normal MN The line should be
refractive indices of
two medja. about 10-15 cm long.
1 depending on the
be more/less than (u,,) is the reciprocal ,Dt the glass slab exactly over the boundary marked on the paper eariier. Fix two pins, having sharp
The value of n,, mav respect to medium 2
that refractive index of medium l with ins A and B, vertically on the line XE such that the two pins are about 6-8 cn apart
Again, it is found with respect to medium 1
(u,, ).
refractive index of medium 2 A Observe the images of the pins A and B through the opposite parallel face SR of the glass slab Fix
1 uo more pins C and D vertically such that the feet of images of pins A and Band the feet of pins
Thus, ve have 3 CandD appear to be exactly in a straight line. In other words, the pins C and D should be collinear
3 Then, refractive index o
a value , 1.e., n, 2 with the images of pins A and B.
index of glass w.r.t. air has
As an example, refractive s Remove the pins and encircle the marks A, B, C and D of pinpricks of four pins Also, rernove the
value, n,. glass slab.
air w.r.t. glass will have a
n,, is a constant whbose .. 6 Draw a thin line joining pricks of pins C and D and extend it so as to meet the face SR of the glass
and pair of transparent media, refractive index
For a given wavelength the value of the anol slab at point F. Also, draw the line EF joining point of incidence E and the point of emergence F
depends upon the optical properties of
the two media and is independent of 7 Draw a normal M'FN on the face SR at point F.
incidence. called an optically denser medium and 8. Using a protractor, carefully measure the values of angle of incidence (ZXEM = Li), angle of refraction
value of refractive index
A medium with larger (higher) is called an optically rarer medium. (ANEF= L) and the angle of emergence (NFD = Le). Record the values of angles i. Lr and Le
medium with lesser value of refractive index
in the observation table. You will find that values of &iand Ze are equal or almost equal
your
EXPERIMENT 13.1 9. Repeat the experiment for at least two more angles of incidence (say, i = 45 and 60) and record
observations the observation table.
Objective
different angles of incidence Observations
To trace the path ofa ray of light passing through a rectangular glass slab for interpret the result
measure the angle of incidence, angle of refraction, angle of emergence and Angle of Refraction Difference between
Angle of Incidence Angle of Emergence
Zi=ZXEM r= /NEF Le=LNFD i and e(Li- Le)
Materials Required S. No.
(in degrees) (in degrees) (in degrees) in degrees
A drawing board, a sheet of white paper, a rectangular glass slab, a sharp pencil, a measuring scale
a protractor, etc. 18
1. 30° 30
Theory
2.
The path of a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass slab is
shown in Fig. 13.2. When a ray of light ABE is incident on one face (Air) 3.
PQ of a rectangular glass slab at an angle of incidence i, the refracted
ray EF bends towards the normal (because glass is optically denser than (Glass)
air) subtending an angle of refraction r. The refracted ray EF again Result and its Interpretation
N 1. The paths of light rays passing obliquely through a rectangular glass slab are enciosed herewith
suffers refraction at the opposite face SR of the glass slab, which is
exactly parallel to face PO. At the second face, the ray of light passes (Student should attach all the three sheets for ditferent angles of inc1dence))
from glass to air and consequently bends away from the normal. Thus, G R 2. In each set of observations, r< i It shows that a ray entering from ar to glass (rarer to denser
the emergent ray in air travels along the path FCD making an angle Air medium) bends towards the normal.
emergence e.
3. With increase in the value of angle of incidence , there is a coresponding increase in the value of
From symmetry considerations, it is obvious that Ze = Ziand as a angle of refraction r.
result, the emergent ray FCD is exactly parallel to the
ABE. However, if we extend the direction of incident ray Fig. 13.2 A ray of light passing 4. Within limits of experimental errors, we observe that e = t This shows that the emergent ray is
incident ray along the through a rectangular glass slab parallel to the incident ray.
Simple Science Lab Skills-10
Refraction of Lignt through a Glass Slab and a Prism 95
 From simple geometric, it can be shown that
faces smooth.
rectangularwith all its fixed on the drawing
sheet of paper
Precautions

1. The glass
slab should be
perfectly
placed inthe
middle of the
white board and
slab should be marked carefully Thus, angle of deviation suffered by aray of light on refractn frorn the prrsm depends upon the angle ot
2. The glass should be incidence
prism and the angle of
boundary
and its
be sharp. images of pins
AandBfrom the other side
tips of pins should viewing the B and feet of pins Cand of
3. The While and Dlie
Procedure

should be fixed
vertically. of pins A
The pins the feet of images iy a white sheet of paper on a drawing board using drawing pins t an
4. we must
ensure that adhesive (tixo) tape
the glass slab, maintained at least 5 cm
or more, 2. Clean the given prism and place it in the middle of the paper Usng asharp pencal. mark its boundary PQR
exactly in same
straight line. and Dshould be
the pins Aand Band pins C of emergent ray with greater
precision Demove the glass prism. Draw the normal NEM at a point E of refraCtig surface PO The point E
distance between ray and that o f.
5. The tracing the direction
of incident
should be kept at a
distance should lie almost in the middle of the face PO of the prisn Draw a line ABE Inclined at an angle
This would help in pins and images, the eye simultaneously in the same
straight from the normal NEM as shown in Fig. 13.3. The value of ZI should lie berween 30 and 60
the collinearity of be seen ine.
6. Whle viewing of all of them can 4. Putthe glass prism exactly over the boundary POR marked on the paper eariser Fux rwo pins. having
pins so that the feet
25cm fromthe between 30 and 60°. sharp tips A and B, vertically on the line drawn such that the two pins ate about 68 crn apar
should preferably be should be
7. The angle of
incidence
pinpricks on
the white sheet of paper encircled 5. View the image of the pins A and B fron the side of second refracting surface PR of the pr1sm Fix
Immediately after removing the pins, the two more pins C and D vertically such that the feet of pinsCand D appear to be on the same straight
8. drawn
with a sharp pencil. that the lines are thin ines line as the feet of the images of pins A and B as viewed from the face PR of the prism Moreover, the
pencil so as to ensure
be drawn using a sharp distance between the prisms C and D should be about 6-8 crn
9. All the lines should good quality protractor.
measured precisely using a 6 Remove the pins and encircle the pinpricks formed on paper. Remove the prstn too
10. The angles should be
7 Draw a straight line to join the points C and D. Extend this line so that it meets the refracting surface
EXPERIMENT 13.2 PR of the prism at point F. Also, join the line EF
8. Draw normal NFM on face PR at point F. Extend the lines ABE and DCF s0 2s to intersect at point G
Objective
9 Obviously, the line ABE is the incident ray, EF the refracted ray and FCD the emergent ray.
light through a glass prism The angle subtended by incident ray ABE from normal NEM is the angle of incidence.
To trace the path of the ravs of
Thus, angle of incidence, Zi= AEN
Materials Required adhesive (tixo) tape, pins . The angle subtended by the emergent ray FCD from the normal N'FM is the angle of emergence.
a glass prism, drawing pins or
A drawing board, a sheet of white paper, etc. Thus, angle of emergence, Ze = NFD
measuring scale, a protractor, a sharp
pencil,
The angles subtended by the refracted ray EF from normals drawn on rwo refracting surtaces
Theory of prism are called the angles of refraction. Thus, angles of reiraction are = MEF and
A prism is a refracting medium bounded by two
plane but Lr, = LMFE. Measure the values of i, Le, Lr, and Lr, using a good qualiry protractor
two 10. Measure the angle of deviation, i.e., 8suffered by a light rav due to refracthon at both the refracting
nonparallel refracting surfaces. The angle between the
plane refracting surfaces is called the angle of the prism and surfaces of the prism.
usually denoted by the letter A. In school laboratories, we (Air) (Air) In the figure, HGF = 8 = angle of deviation
commonly use a glass prism whose angle of prism is 60°. 11. Finally, measure the angle of prism Atoo using the protractor. Record vour observations in the
InFig. 13.3, PQR represents the principal section of a prism observation table.
whose refracting surfaces are PQ and PR respectively. 12. Repeat the whole experiment for at least two different angles of incidence and record vour observations
Let a ray of light ABE be incident at point E on the refracting in the observation table.
A M
surface PQ making an angle of incidence ZAEN = Zi. As
refraction is taking place from air to glass, the ray bends towards (Glass) R
Observations
the normal NM and the refracted ray travels along the path Angle of prism, ZA =
of EF making an angle of refraction FEM = Lr,. Since the Fig. 13.3 Aray of light passing through a
prism deviates towards the base of prism Angle of Refraction at Angle of Retraction at Angie of Emergence Angle of Deviation
two refracting surfaces are inclined to each other, the ray is S.
Angle of lncidence
Surface PQ Surface PR HGF
Le= N FD
incident at point F on the refracting surface PR making an angle MFE = . from the normal MN No.
Zi= ZAEN
<r,= MFE <I,=ZMFE
(in degrees) in degrees
drawn on PR. Since now refraction is taking place from glass to air, the light ray (in degrees) (in degrees) (in degrees)
bends away from the
normal. As a result, the emergent ray travels along the path FCD. The angle of 35* 51 42
If the incident ray ABE and the emergent ray FCD emergence is ZNFC= 2 1 40°
are extended, they meet at point G. It means that u 2.
torefraction through the prism, the light ray has been deviated
of deviation of light ray is Zö = HGF. towards the base of the prism and the ange 3

96 Simple Science Lab Skills-10 Refraction of Light through a Glass Slab and a Prism 97
 dilerent angles
bcen tiacdtordifterent t
Result glass pIISD have angles of inc
ravy ah: thnugh a the three shccts
tor the light ray
The paths of the should atta h all deviatOn o have hecn ngle of incidene
heew t Naicnt cmersgence .
rand angle ol
and are atauhed angic of
angeN N e Ans An optrally denser medtsm n lhat hes rafracirs nf
iaes
s11ggests that fs refrachve indlex is lp
theprism
Feraut0s Bctore usc lcan
broken paper fixcd on
lea
oges arc not
the mddle of the
white shect of drawiny
shou b piaced in sharp penil. speed of light in the given medtinm
The gizs psm carctulls using a
uld he marked cas1lv fixcd
and its u a n sh that ihcsc can be
should be sharp so Ans. It has ro
units
The n
b e e vetka'k face ((PR) of
4 The ns shouic and Btrom the sde
of sccondrctractng prism,
cxactly in same sttaight
iages ot pns A puns Cand Dlie
Ang Because it Is a pure ratio, ie it is the ratio hetwaen he spse f ig
WhaicVWnE th and F and icct of least 5 given medium hence, has no untts
images of rins A be maintancd at Cm ot Mo
that the teer of and pins Cand D
should
hetween pins Aand B of cmergent ray with grealer prec
6 The dstane incdent ray and that
tracing thc dircton of be kept at a Ans The relative retractive index nf medium rtmedium iefineri s he she
This wouid helr in pins, the cyc should distance of a 1to the speed of light in medium 2
VCWIng the coilincar of pins andimages of simultancously in the
same strag
them can be scen
so tha: the iect of all of
icas 25 CTT rom the pins
ne white sheet of paper should be encircle
removune the pins thc pnpncks on the Ans.
8 Immediatev ater
using asharm peal pencil with pointed end.
For this purposc. usc a sharp
9 Lines draun shouid he thin well-defined marks.
10 Al thc angies should he noted
carefully using a protractor having
mark.
Moreover, whie Ans. The light ray which talls on the glass slab is alled ncxcdent cav The ght er t h t
cvemust bc sct straght above the slab is called the refracted ray and the rav finallv emerging eom he tias s i a b i l e e e
tak:ng the Trad1ng of an angle the
01) What 1sthe rohathatstup hstwheeule
arectangular gass ab
Ans. The angle of incidence (1) is numericallv equal to angle ot emergence e
VIVA VOCE O13. I this relation alea
Ans. No, the relation is true only tor a rectangular glas siab whese oppeste se t palen
Olb. Why are angle ol eimergend e
Glass Slab
Ans. Because devtaton sutfered by light ray while undergong retra tos t wo pasale stta eshe slae
slab is exactly equalbut in opposte drectons
Ans. Reftacton t ht is the homeon of bending ot the path of a light ray when it travels obliquely from
cM ttaspa:ent medium to a'the
Ans. No, of course, the emergernt ray s parallel to the invdent av but thev ae t noahe e
ray has suttered some Lateral shitt
Ans. i The shodent rav, reflatted t.N and the nomal to the inlertace at the poiint of incidence all lie in the
(yt The Tatio
Ans, Lateral shitt ot a light rav is the normal thstanee between the hree then o Nent av d etent tav
when a light ray is incident obiiquely on a retanxuiar ghss skab
a. teta tyve e e ka al
Ans. I he value ot lateral shitt tepends upon the thwknexs ot the lkt
Ans. The eond law f tetaction is Jtaw n te Siells law, ie,
the angle ot inctence
04 WhAt happe hen ondttyin dent nornnatly nn teittiy surface?
Ans. The rav fravels straght without ati Ans, lhe Lateral shitt ieasey with nteae t thu kihee t the gl
bedng
05. 1What happeos when s t etiere sdgsel tto an optically tdenser
raret mrdiam edium from an opa Glass Pusm
Ans. The light tav bend toatds the honal
ie angle of tehation ris lesy klgrale piane retta ting surta
lhan the anyle ot lt As A PGRS a trobprent whum geleally bwundet by
98 Simpte Science Latb SKiits-10 Refsactotof Lant through a Gkass Skat and a Prisrm 99
 angle of prism.
called the
of prism? a prism is
Q22. What is the angle the two retracting faces of
between you? When light cmerges into air, the speed of light is nore n ait and here. light ray regains its original irection
Ans. The angle being used by
tor the prism by bending away from the normal.
angle ot prisan
. Whal is the for refraction through a prism? o2 Why are the incident and emergent rays parallel to each sthet in asetrectangular zass slab'
Ans. 60 emergent ray
retracted ray and incident ray. The ray other, the refracting angle
incident ray, prism is called the ac Since the opposite surfaces of a rectangular glass slab are exactiy parallel ty each
Q24. What are the retracting face of the passing throu at first surface willbe the incidence angle at the other surface As a result, the angle of emergence at second
talling on first of light finally emerging out in air fromm
Ans. The light rav rav and the ray the secop Curface is exactly equal to the angle of incidence at first surface and s, the incadent and ernergent rays are
calledthe refracted
the glass prism is prism is knoNn as the emergent ray.
emergence Ze?
parallel to each other.
retracting face of the
angle of incidence.
iand angle of Sios ties esue depend
Q25. Can you detine normal drawn on first refracting surface at he pont o O4 What is lateral displacement for refractian through a rectanguiar giass siabl
subtended bv the
incident rav with the on the width of the glass slab and angle of incidence?
Ans. The angle incidence. The angle subtended
by the emergernt ray with the normal glass slab is the rormal (perpendicular)
emergence Ans. Lateral displacement of light for refraction through a rectarngular
incidence is called the angle of called the angle of
the point of emergence is distance between the emergent ray and extended path of incident rav
on second retracting surface at to the wdth ithckres) of the glass
angies of refràction here? Value of lateral displacement (or lateral shift) is directly proportional
Two angles
Ans. Why
Q26. refraction
are thereof two (r, and r.) are the angles subtended by the refracted ray passing through th of lateral dispiacernent aiso increases
prism from the normals drawn ontwo refracting surfaces. As there are two refracting surfaces, hhence, there slab. Moreover, as value of angle of incidence Zi increases, the value
prism and ark angle ot sn sence angje ot eerge
05. Draw the path of lightray through a triangular
are two angles of retraction. 'e,angle of prism 'A and angle of deviation in it.
Q" is meant by angle of deviation? Ans. Refer to Fig. 13.3.
Ans. What
The angle between the directions of incident rav and emergent ray is called the angle of deviation (Zô, prism. On what factors does its alue depend
O6. Define angle of deviation for refraction through a through a prisn is the angle betwern the incident
02s. In hich direction does the emergent ray get deviated as a result of refraction through a prism) Ans. Angle of deviation of light ray while undergoing refraction
prism. ray and the emergent ray.
Ans. As a result of refraction through a prism, the light ray bends towards the base of the on (1) the angie of prsm. 'a the refractive
Q29. Is angle of deviation suffered by a light ray undergoing refraction through a prism constant? Value of angle of deviation (ö) suffered by a light ray depends
incidence.
Ans. No, it is not aconstant. Its value depends on the material of prism, angle of prism and angle of incidon index of the material of prism, and (ii) the angle of
Q30. How does angle of deviation depend upon the angle of incidence i? incidence, refraction, enerzence d ratoon it ve
07. Do you know any relation(s) correlating angles of
Ans. Here, 8 + 24=i+ e or 8 = i+ Le- LA state the same.
refraction rand 'r. from two retracting surtaces ot prism,
Q31. How does angle of refraction depend? Ans. Relations amongangle of incidence i, angles of
are:
Sin e angle of emergence 'e and angle of deviation '8
Ans. Here, Si n. -= I1 and r, + Lr, = ZA, where n is the refractive index of glass prism.
sin ,
ZA = Lr, + r,
and ZA + Zõ = Zi+2e, where LAis the refracting angle of the prism.
Q32. What is dispersion of light? by a light ray undergotng retraction through 4prrss
O8. Show variation of angle of deviation '8 suffered
Ans. Dispersion of light is the phernomenon of splitting up of a ray of white light into
its constituent colours feature ot the graph?
while passing through a prism. with variation in the angle of incidence 'i. What is the special
with angle of incidence for a givern prism s shown
Ans. A graph showing variation in angle of deviation Ñ
value of angle of incxdence. acquires a munimum
Q33. What is the cause of splitting of white light into its
Ans. Refractive index of prism for constituent colours? Here, initially angle of deviation decreases on increasing the
different colours light is different. As a result, the angles of
different for different colours and consequently,oflight deviation are value , and then again begins to increase.
Q34. Which colour of white light is rays of different colours get dispersed.
the most and which colour Q9. What is dispersion of light?
Ans. Violet-coloured light is deviated deviated the beam of white light nto ts cunstituent colours when
the most and red-coloured light the leastleast?
while passing through a prism. Ans. Dispersion of light is the phenomenon of splitting of a
it passes through a dispersive medium like a glass prism
a glavs
Q10. Why does white light split into different colours when passes through
AOther Important Questions prism?
wavelengths
Ans. White light consists of lights of ditferent colours having difterent
Q1. Draw a ray diagram showing However, inside
in the diagram. In air, all these lights travel with same speed of 3 x10 m s
refraction of light ray through a d1tterent speeds and are
Ans. Refer rectangular glass slab. Show lateral si the prismn, lights of different wavelengths travel with oius
deviated differently. As aresult, the light emerges into its cunstituent
to Fig. 13.2. Here, FK is
the lateral shift.
Q2. Why does a ray of light - Angle of incidence 1
the ray ber.d bend towards the normal when it enters from air
Ans. As glass is anaway from the normal when it emerges into a glass slab? Wny
denser medium than out into air?
travelling with optically
lesser speed, air, the speed of
slab in the ray bends light
shorter time by followinglight towards the normal soin asglass is less than that in air. While
100 Simple the shortest path. to cover the thickness ofthe glass
Science Lab Skills-10
Refraction of Light through a Glass Slab and a Prism 101
 body of
Asoeba elongates The nucleys ai eicmgates xnd ete
o The
'hsnrer 5the mddie
C o n appears even in the body of the Ameelg ccetessrcang
s t r i c t i o n

he ones part t the nucicu

o nucleus elongates rmore and more and aitimately te nt,
o The of nucleus (karyokinesis) is folicwed y fhe irssn f
e toaerieei
Division
CcnstKton
o becomes deeper and deeper and ultimately drrides the b Ameha

14 Reproduction in Living Organists o

Thus

Cell membrane
two

Cytoplasm
daughter arnoebae are torned from

Food vacuoles
single garet n e zat dentty t

BASIC CONCEPTS Nucleus

produce more of its own kind Contractile vacuole

which a living organism is able to

" Reproduction is a process bv -Asexual reproduction, and s.
living organisms
There are two tvpes of reproduction in (a) D
Nucleus atcngates
reproduction. this tue
the production of offspring from a single parent. In Constriction soge
* Asexual
reproduction. gametes areinvolves
reproduction not produced and no fertilisation takes place. For example, fission, budding in the midie

spore formation, regeneration, etc.

* Sexual reproduction is the reproduction which involves both male and female sexes. In this type of
reproduction, gametes are formed and fertilisation takes place.
" The significance of asexual reproduction is that
New individuals having the same genetic constitution are formed.
" It is a quick and casy method of reproduction. Fig. 14.1 Process of binary fission in Aeceba
Desirable characters are retained over generations.
" The advantages of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction are Inference
uddie be ucics s under
. Sexual reproduction promotes diversity of characters in the offspring because it results from the fusion The slide shows the elongated body of the Amoeba with a constrctiot in the
of two gametes coming from two different and sexually distinct characters. diVisIOn, hence the given slide shows binary fissIOn in Amoebz
the process of
There is an increasing opportunity for new combination of characterS. Precautions
It plavs a prominent role in the origin of a new species, and it leads to variation which is necessary
for evolution. o First focus the slide under low power, then observe it under high power
Sing fine adyustrment knob
b Focus the slide first by using coarse adjuster and then tocus the slide by
EXPERIMENT 14.1
jective EXPERIMENT 14.2
study binary fission in Amoeba with the help of a permanent slide Objective
baratus Required To study budding in yeast with the help of a permanent slide
nanent slide of Amoeba showing binary fission, Compound Apparatus Required
microscope
sic Principles Permanent slide of yeast showing budd1ng, Compound microscope
Binary fission is a type of asexual reproduction.
In binary fission, two daughter organisms are
Basic Principles
formed from a single parent. It takes place in " Budding is a types of asexual reproduction
organisms, for example, Amoeba, Paramecium and bacteria. unicellular Daughte ucie
" Budding is observed in Annother bud
Procedure unicellular as well as
Cell wal Bud Elongated
" Focus the permanent slide Nucieus efChains
of Amoeba under the multicellular organisms.
" Observe the characteristics. microscope.
Draw labelled diagram and note
ot buds

down your When the bud gets detached

Observations observations. from the parent body, it is
o It is asimplest form of capable of growing into a
reproduction in which two daughter amoebae are formed from a Cytoplasn
parent Amoebu. new individual, for example. Fig. 14.2 Process of budding in yeast
yeast and Hydru.
Reproduction in Living Organisms 10
 microscope.
Procedure
under the
slde of veast note down
Focus the
emanent
diagram and
charactenstics
Draw labclled
Obseve the
vour observ ations

bulb-likeprojection Parent
Durng budd1ng a
Observations

unicellular organism. Bud aposars

Yeast is a side of the bodv callcd bud Iateraily
fomed on one nuclei
or outgrowth is and one of the daughter
into two nuclei
The nucleus divides
into the bud new individual. Cia 14.3 Budding in yeast as Fig. 14.4 Budcing r tyira
parent celland form a
passes
separate from the give rise to a observed under a microscOne
* The bud may attached to the parent
body and Inference

The bud mar remain 4 The slide shows various stages of bud formation The buds are orned eteraily on e gu gatat
new bud
resulting in a chain
of veast cells. Hence, it is concluded that the gven slide shows budding in fydra
repcated 34 times which grows in size
and becomes a new
The process mav be from the parent cell,
matuntv. get separated
The buds. upon
P r e c a u t i o n s

indvidual
First focus the slide under low power, then observe it under hsgh 20w
protuberance, hence u Focus the slide first by using coarse adjustment and then by sing ine
Inference yeast cells show stmete t
veast cells with a chain of buds. Some of the
The slide shows
conclude the given siide
shows budding in yeast.

Precautions it under high power.

Fist focus the side under
low power, then observe
fine adjustment knok
VIVA VOCE
and then focus the slide by using
" Focus the slide irst by using coarse adjuster O1. Define reproduction.
EXPERIMENT 14.3 Ans. Reproduction is a process by which alving organ1sm is able o grc mote s w
02. Name two main types ot reproduction.
Objective
a permanent slide Ans. Asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction
To study budding in Hvdra with the help of
03. What is asexual reproduction?
ApparatusRequired
microscope Ans. Asexual reproduction involves the production ot ottsprng irom asngje patent in thss tepe otprxhu ts
Permanent slide of Hv£ra showing budding. Compound no gametes are produced and no tertilisation takes place
Basic Principles 04. What is sexual reproduction?
on the parent body as a
* Budding is a type of asexual reproduction. In this process, a bulging appears Ans. Sexual reproduction is the reproduction which iny olves both male xnd temale seves in thav tvpe o4
result of repeated mitotic divisions of the cells. reproduction gametes are formed and tert1lisaton takes place
of a lateral
" Hydra is a tiny freshwater multicellular organism. Budding in Hydra results in the formation 05. Under which category of teprodustton wl so bde i t a r d d s s
outgrowth called bud. Bud grows in size, and mouth and tentacles are formed terminally. As the bud Ans. Under asexual reproduction
becomes nutritionally independent, it constricts the base and separates as a baby Hydra. 06. What is the signiticatce ot asevual ivproduhoe
" Hyára multiplies by budding under favourable conditions. Budding is a faster process of reproduction in Ans. Significance of asexual reproduction is that
which several buds form simultaneously. new individuals having the same genetic constituton are torme
* it is a quick and easy method of reproduction
Procedure > the desirable characters are retained over generatons
" Focus the permanent slide of Hydra under the high power of compound microscope. Q7. Which two main proese e itvolved n sehai teprstl
o Observe the characteristics.Draw labelled diagrams of stages of budding and note down your observations. Ans. The twomain processes involved in sevual reproducton are mexsis, ard tertilisation
Observations Q8. WIhat are the advantages ot scual tepruductiot o sctl piustic
$ Buds are formed on the parent organism laterally, near the basal part of the body. Ans. Sexual reproduction is a highly evolved provess and has hany atv antages over asexual reproduction
More than one buds are formed. Sexual reproduction pronotes a diversty ot chara ters n the ottspring because it results
from the tus
tistuNt indiv iduals
* A bud starts growing as a small bulge. ot two gametes coming from two dtterent and eallh
The free end of the bud modifies into mouth. There is an inCreasing opportunty tor new cmbnathon ot characters
" Itplays a proninent role in the origin ot a new speies
Acirclet of 6-10 thread-like tentacles arises at the base of It leads to variation which is neressary or evouthon
the mouth.
104 Simple science Lab Skills-10 Reproduction in Living Organisms 1
 and parents'
tission. individuals
are formed from a single
parent
identity is h 024.
Why is
budding

is
considered a faster thi
considered a faster
means of reproduction because it dces not
Q9. Define binary two
which
dalughter
fission.
Budding
female gametes. invoive formation and fusion of
male and
Ans.
in binary
Ans.. A
fission
binary fission.
Ihich
reproduce by
are Amocba,
Paramecim
,Euglena and of ceil division is involved

Q10.
is called
ive
examples
organisms
organisms

of any bwo which reproduce bv

binary fission

grows and forms the bud.

Planara A
025.
n s . M
VWhich
i t o s i s .
lype

Examples of the body. It

Ans.
process of budding. forned on one
side of the
Abud or chainindivid,,
of buds may be The bu
Q11.
Ans. In
Explain the
buddinga
bulb-like
projection is
multicellular
depending upon
the
organism.

the parent body

forms a new formed Other Importamt Questions
unicellular or separating fromn nucleUS.
may be bud on division of
parentbody. The cytoplasm (b)
from the } division of division is involved in binar issster?
the (a) of cell
technical term for
[NCERT Lab Manual]
Which type
O12. Give the (b)
karvokinesis
fission.
01.
l o n g i t u d i n a l binary
Ans. Mitosis
cytokinesis
Ans. (a) reproduces by daughter cells are formed in binary fissiur? NCERT Lab Manual]
oganism which How many
Q13. Name an asexual
reproduction ? 02.
Ans. Euglena. tormation etc. as Ans. Two

classify budding,
tission, spore
formation occurs, and
no fertilisation
takes place hence Why are binary
fission and budding included underashhal eproductinn? [NCERT Lab Manual]
014. Why do we involve single parent,
no gamete O3.
parent is
involved
Ans. These processes reproduction. Ans. (i) Only one produced.
we classify them as
asexual (ii) Gametes are not
multiple fission? ocCur. does not
fission different from (iii) Fertilisation
binary Multiple Fission
Q15. How is (iv) Daughter organisms are genetically identical to the parent organisn
Ans. Binary Fission organisms are forose.
identical 1. During this process, many new hinarv fission and budding faster processes of reproduction as compared to e eproduction
splits to form two [NCERT Lab Manual]
1. Asingle organism from a single parent.
Justify.
organisms. 2. Nucleus divides repeatedly to form a large number of p..s . V s in binary fission and budding, daughter cells are formed by simple cell division whereas in sexual
much
2. Nucleus divides only once. reproduction, gamete formation, fusion of gametes (fertilisation) and development from zvgote take
longer time.
Q16. Define vegetative reproduction. etc.) which 2v fission?
which vegetative part of plant (root, stem, leaf O5 Why is it justified to call mitotic division as binarv
Ans. It is atype of asexual reproduction in Paramecium, Euglena, veast, bacteria,
meant for reproduction, develops into new self-supporting plant. Ans As aresult of mitotic division in unicellular organisms like Amoeba,identical to parent organism as well as
otr the two daughter individuals are formed which are geneticallv
Q17. Give any two advantages of vegetative reproduction. each other. Hence, mitotic division can also be called
binary fission.
Ans. (a) Desirable characters of plants can be preserved. repreduction.
(b) Itis cheaper, easier and more rapid method of reproduction. O6 Differentiate between asexual and sexual
(c) Plants which do not produce viable seeds can be reproduced by this method. Ans. Asexual Reproduction
Sexual Reproduction

(d) Plants raised from a single parent are genetically identical (any two). involved). 1. Two parents are involved (both male and
female
1. Single parent is involved (sexes are not
Q18. Offsprings produced by asexual reproduction are called clones? Why? sexes are involved).
Ans. Offsprings produced by asexual reproduction are morphologically and genetically similar, hence they ar 2. No gamete is formed; no mitotic division takes
place. 2. Gametes are formed; mitotic division takes
place
called clones. 3. Fertilisation takes place
3. Fertilisation does not occur.
Q19. Which organisms have better survival value - asexually or sexually reproducing and Why? genetically different
4. New individuals formed are
Ans. SexXually reproducing organisms show better survival value as they show more variations. 4. New individuals formed are genetically identical.
from each other as well as from parents
Q20. How budding in yeast is different from budding in Hydra?
formation as ase\ual tvpe of reproduction?
Ans.
07. Why do we classify budding, fission and spore
Budding in Yeast Budding in Hydra classified under asexual reproduction because:
1. Bud is formed as protuberance. Ans. AIl these types of reproduction are
1, Bud is formed as lateral outgrowth. (i) They involve single parent.
2. Bud is unicellular.
2. Bud is multicellular. (ii) No gamete formation takes place.
3. Bud separate out, or may produce another (iii) No fertilisation occurs.
bud, 3. Bud detaches and develops as separate individual.
thus chain of buds are formed. (iv) Organisms formed are genetically similar. ariations among organisms and wh
reproduction. which one leads to more
Q8. Outof asexual and sexual
What is the distinguishing
Jn Hudra, bud is formed as afeature of budding in Hydra? Ans. Sexual reproduction leads to more variation.
involves (i) formation of gametes which
are produced as a result of meiotic
fusion
lateral outgrowth on the parent body. It is because sexual reproduction chromosomes, and (ii) fertilisation which involves random
sthe bud formed in Hydra division that involves crossing over of
unicellular or
he bud formed in Hydra is multicellular. multicellular?
cell
of gametes.
ke yeast does the chain of buds
In Hudra, bud form in Hydra?
detaches from the parent body and
develops as a separate individual. 107
Reproduction in Living Organisms
mpie Science Lab Skills-10