GlenZ DIGINITY SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES.
Anatomy and Physiology Notes (Yr1, Sem1 – Nursing).
The Cell Structure and Function
By the end of the study, the students should be able to:
1. Identify and describe the structural components of the human cell and explain their
respective functions.
2. Differentiate between various cellular organelles based on their structure and
physiological roles.
3. Analyse the relevance of cell structure and function in understanding disease
processes and applying this knowledge to clinical nursing practice.
Introduction
Definition of a Cell:
The cell is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of life. All living organisms
are composed of cells. In humans, cells form the foundation for all body structures and
functions.
Relevance to nursing:
Understanding cell structure and function is crucial in nursing because most diseases start
at the cellular level. Medications, body processes, and patient care strategies often target 1
or affect cellular functions.
Types of Human Cells
Over 200 types of cells in the human body (e.g., muscle cells, nerve cells, blood cells).
Two major categories:
Somatic Cells – all body cells except reproductive cells.
Gametes – sperm and egg cells.
Structure of the animal Cell
Okiror Solomon - BScN, DN, ECN, (PGDME, DHSM)
GlenZ DIGINITY SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES.
Figure 1: The Human Cell
The human cell has three main parts:
1. Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane)
2. Cytoplasm – includes cytosol and organelles
3. Nucleus
Cell membrane
Structure:
A phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.
Functions:
- Acts as a barrier, separating internal cellular environment from the external
environment.
- Regulates transport of substances in and out of the cell (selectively permeable).
- Facilitates cell signaling and communication through receptors.
- Provides shape and protection.
Cytoplasm
Cytosol: The jelly-like fluid where organelles are suspended.
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Organelles: Specialized structures with specific functions.
Organelles and their functions
Organelle Structure Function
Mitochondria Double-membraned; inner "Powerhouse" of the cell –
membrane folded (cristae) produces ATP through
cellular respiration
Ribosomes Small granules (free- Site of protein synthesis
floating or on ER)
Endoplasmic Reticulum Network of membranes; Rough ER synthesizes
(ER) smooth and rough types proteins; Smooth ER
synthesizes lipids
Golgi Apparatus Stacks of flattened Packages, modifies, and
membranes transports proteins and
lipids
Lysosomes Membrane-bound vesicles Breaks down waste
with digestive enzymes materials and cellular
debris
Peroxisomes Contain oxidative enzymes Detoxification of harmful
substances like hydrogen
peroxide
Okiror Solomon - BScN, DN, ECN, (PGDME, DHSM)
GlenZ DIGINITY SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES.
Centrioles Cylindrical structures near Important in cell division
the nucleus (form spindle fibers)
Cytoskeleton Protein filaments Maintains cell shape,
(microtubules, movement, and
microfilaments) intracellular transport
Nucleus
Structure:
- Surrounded by a nuclear envelope (double membrane).
- Contains nucleolus and chromatin (DNA + protein).
Functions:
- Controls all cell activities.
- Contains genetic material (DNA) which directs protein synthesis.
- Nucleolus produces ribosomal RNA and assembles ribosomes.
Cell functions
Human cells perform a variety of essential functions:
• Metabolism: Sum of all chemical reactions for energy production and use
• Growth: Increase in size and number of cells
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• Reproduction: Mitosis for somatic cells; meiosis for gametes
• Response to stimuli: Ability to respond to environmental changes (irritability)
• Homeostasis: Maintaining internal balance (e.g., temperature, pH)
• Transport: Movement of substances across membranes (diffusion, osmosis, active
transport)
• Secretion: Production and release of substances like hormones or enzymes
Cell division
Mitosis:
- A type of cell division that produces two identical daughter cells.
- Important for growth, repair, and maintenance of tissues.
Meiosis:
- A type of cell division that results in four genetically different daughter cells, each
with half the chromosome number.
- Occurs in reproductive cells (sperm and ova) for sexual reproduction.
Okiror Solomon - BScN, DN, ECN, (PGDME, DHSM)
GlenZ DIGINITY SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES.
Cellular transport mechanisms
Cells maintain homeostasis by transporting substances across the plasma membrane using
various methods:
Passive Transport (no energy required):
- Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration.
- Osmosis: Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
- Facilitated Diffusion: Movement via protein channels or carriers.
Active Transport (requires energy/ATP):
- Movement of substances against the concentration gradient using transport proteins.
Bulk Transport:
- Endocytosis: Process of taking substances into the cell.
- Exocytosis: Expelling substances from the cell.
Clinical significance
- Cancer – uncontrolled cell division due to mutations in DNA.
- Genetic disorders – result from faulty DNA in the nucleus.
- Cell injury – due to lack of oxygen (hypoxia), toxins, or infections. 4
- Target of many drugs – antibiotics target bacterial cells; chemotherapy targets rapidly
dividing cells.
Summary
- The cell is the foundational unit of life.
- Major components: cell membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus.
- Organelles perform specific roles to maintain life.
- Understanding cells is essential to understanding disease processes, drug action, and
body functions in nursing practice.
Quiz
1. List the major organelles of the cell and their functions.
2. Differentiate between passive and active transport.
3. Explain why mitochondria are referred to as the powerhouse of the cell.
4. Describe the structure and function of the cell membrane.
5. What is the role of the nucleus in the human cell?
Okiror Solomon - BScN, DN, ECN, (PGDME, DHSM)
