ChemEasy at Quetta Professor’s Academy

Science is the study of nature Chemistry is the branch of science Matter is anything that has
through observation and experiment in which we study about the matter mass and occupies space.
A substance whose all atoms are A code for a chemical Elements can exist either as atoms
the same is called element. element is called symbol. (e.g. argon) or as molecules (e.g. N2)

Rules for Assigning Symbols: Some Elements are well known by their Latin names and symbols
1: Use the first letter. EX: H for are also given to them from their Latin names.
Hydrogen, C for Carbon etc.
English name Latin name Symbol
2: Use the first and the second Sodium Natrium Na (Rule 2)
letter (The first letter be capital Potassium Kalim K (Rule 1)
and second being small). Ex: He Iron Ferrum Fe (Rule 2)
for Helium, Li for Lithium etc. Silver Argentenum Ag (Rule 3)
Gold Aurum Au (Rule 2)
3: Use the first and the third
Mercury Hydrar-gyrum Hg
letter. Ex: Mg for Magnesium,
Ag for silver

Atom: (Greek word atomos meaning indivisible by a Greek philosopher Democritus)

Atom is the smallest particle of an element which may or may not exist independently.
1. Atoms of noble gases (He, Ne, Ar etc.) exist independently whereas the atoms of other
elements do not.
2. An atom has two parts i.e. the nucleus and the shells
3. An atom consists principally of three fundamental particles: electrons, protons, and neutrons
called subatomic particles. These are the basic building blocks of atoms.

Sub-Atomic Particle: The tiny particles present in atoms are called Sub-atomic particles.
Proton: Positively charged sub atomic particle with a mass of about 1 amu is called proton.
Electron: Negatively charged sub atomic particle with a mass of about 1/1836 amu is called
electron.
Neutron: Neutral sub atomic particle with a mass of about 1 amu is called neutron.

Atomic number (symbol is Z)

The number of protons in the atom is called atomic number. Hydrogen has one proton; its
atomic no. is 1, and Carbon has six protons; its atomic no. is 6 etc.

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Atomic Mass (Symbol is A)

The sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is called atomic mass. Ex: Carbon
atom has six protons and six neutrons; its atomic mass is 12

Atomic Mass unit (amu)

One twelfth of the mass of carbon-12 is called atomic mass unit. OR
The mass of one proton or one neutron is called amu.
Amu is numerically equivalent to 1 g/NA.

Shell: The circular paths around the nucleus in which electrons revolve are called shells. Ex: K shell,
L shell, M shell etc. K shell can hold 2 electrons; L shell can hold 8 electrons, M shellcan hold 18
electrons etc. 2n2 formula is used to calculate the number of electrons in a given shell, where “n”
means the number of shell.

Ions Naming Ions

Charged particles are called ions. The cation has the same name
1. Cations as its element. For example,
Positively charged particles are called cations. Ex. Na+, Ca2+, Al3+ etc K+ is called the potassium ion,
2. Anion The anion is named by taking
Negatively charged particles are called anions. Ex. F-, O 2-, N 3- etc. the elemental name, removing
 Ions consisting of only a single atom are called atomic the ending letters, and adding
or monatomic ions, while two or more atoms form polyatomic “ide.” For example, F- is called
ions/ molecular ions fluoride
 Metals form cations whereas non metals form anions. While naming Transition
 The number of charge on an ion depends upon the number of metal, show the charge of the
electrons gained or lost. ion in the backet.
 The number of electrons gained or lost by an element depends Ex: Fe2+ is Iron(II) ion and
on the group number of that element in the periodic table. Fe3+ is Iron (III) ion
 Transition metals are capable to make ions with different Cu+ is Copper (I) ion
charges. Iron forms either Fe 2+ or Fe 3+ ions, Copper forms Cu+ Cu2+ is Copper (II) ion
or Cu2+ etc.

Polyatomic ion: Those ions which are made of many atoms are called polyatomic ions. Ex: SO42- , NO3- etc.

ate- series (must be memorized)

NO3- ClO3- CO32- SO42- PO43-
(Nitrate) (Chlorate) (Carbonate) (sulphate) (Phosphate)
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Naming Polyatomic Ions Sulphate series

 The -ate forms (formula and charge) must be memorized. In some SO42- sulfate
cases, the -ate form has three oxygens, and in some cases four SO32- sulfite
oxygens. The charge is the same for the entire series. SO22- hyposulfite
 The -ite form has one less oxygen that the -ate form. SO52- persulfate
 The hypo- stem -ite form has two less oxygens than the -ate form. The charge is the same
 The per- stem -ate form has one more oxygen than the -ate form. for the entire series

Compound Ionic compounds Covalent or molecular compounds

The combination of two or Ionic Compound is a substance Covalent Compound is a substance
more different that is formed from the that is formed from the combination
elements held together by combination of two or more of two or more different elements
chemical bonds is called different elements held together held together via covalent bond. Ex.
compound. via ionic bond. Ex. NaCl, MgO, H2O, CO2, C6H12O6 etc.
Al2O3, CaCO3 etc.
Valency/ Valence
The combining power of an element is called its valency.
In other words the number of electrons gained, lost or shared by an atom is its valency.

ALWAYS REMEMBER
 Metal + Nonmetal —> ionic compound
 Nonmetal + Nonmetal —> covalent compound


Writing Exact Formula for an Ionic compound The formula of covalent compounds
must be memorized
1. Write the metal first and then the non metal
NH3 Ammonia
2. Write their valancies on the top CO2 Carbon dioxide
CO Carbon monoxide
3. Remove the sign of plus and minus C6H12O6 Glucose
4. Cross the valancies to the bottom SiO2 Silicon dioxide
H2O Water etc.

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Naming Compounds Naming Covalent Compounds

Ionic compounds 1. The formula is written with the
Ionic compounds contain a positive ion (cation) and a more electropositive element
negative ion (anion). placed first, then the more
1. The cation is always named first and the anion second. electronegative element.
2. A monatomic (meaning “one-atom”) cation takes its 2. The first element in the formula is
name from the name of the element. For example, Na is given the neutral element name.
called sodium and Ca is called calcium. 3. The second element is named by
3. A monatomic anion is named by taking the root of the replacing the ending letters with -
element name and adding -ide. Thus the Cl ion is called ide.
chloride and O2- is called oxide. 4. A prefix is used in front of each
4. A polyatomic anion may end with –ate or ite (as described element name to indicate how
above). many atoms of that element are
5. If there is more than one of a polyatomic ion in the present. like Mono for 1, di for 2, tri
formula, put the ion in parentheses, and place the for 3, tetra-4, penta-5,hexa-6,
subscript after the parentheses; e.g., Ca (OH)2, Mg3(PO4)2, hepta-7, octa-8 etc.
etc. 5. If there is only one of the first
elements in the formula, the mono-
NaCl Sodium chloride KI Potassium iodide
prefix is dropped. Ex:
CaS Calcium sulfide Li2O Lithium oxide
CO2 (Carbon dioxide)
CaCO3 Calcium NaNO3 Sodium Nitrate
Carbonate CO (Carbon monoxide)
Al2(SO4)3 Aluminum Al2(SO3)3 Aluminum N2O5 (Dinitrogen pentaoxide) etc.
sulphate sulphite

Molecule: A group of atoms bounded together covalently and can exist independently is called
molecule. Noble gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn) can exist independently so they are also molecule (mono-
atomic molecule). Examples include: H2O, CO2, O2, N2, He, Ne etc.

Types of molecules: (Depending on the Types of molecules: (Depending on the number of

types of atoms) atoms)
1. Homo-atomic molecules: Molecules 1. Mono-atomic molecules: Molecules made up of just
made up of only one kind of atoms are one atom are called Mono-atomic molecules. (All
called homo-atomic molecules. Ex: N2, H2, noble gases) Ex: He, Ne, Ar etc.
O2, F2 etc. 2. Diatomic molecules: Molecules made up of just two
2. Hetero -Atomic Molecules: Molecules atoms are called diatomic molecules. Ex. N2, H2, O2, F2,
made up of different kind of atoms are HCl,
called hetero-atomic molecules. Ex: CO2, 3. Poly-atomic molecules: Molecules made up of more
NH3, CH4, C2H4, C6H12O6 than two atoms are called poly-atomic molecules. Ex.
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Formula unit:
Formula unit is the lowest ratio of ions present in an ionic compound. Ex. NaCl, K2O etc.
Sodium chloride (NaCl) is an ionic compound. In the structure of NaCl, each Na ion is surrounded by six
chloride ions and each chloride ion is surrounded by Na ions. The formula unit for sodium chloride is
NaCl. Another words; formula unit is the repeating unit of an ionic compounds.

Formula unit can also be used the repeating unit of giant covalent structures. Like diamond and sand
giant structures whose formula units are C and SiO2 respectively.

Empirical Formula
Empirical formula tells us about simplest ratio of numbers of atoms in a compound.
The molecular formula of glucose is C6H12O6 and the empirical formula is CH2O.

Molecular Mass: The sum of atomic masses Formula Mass: The sum of atomic masses
present in a molecule is called molecular mass present in a formula unit is called formula unit
Ex: H2O contains two atoms of hydrogen and one mass.
atom of oxygen. By adding their masses, we get
the mass of H2O molecule. NaCl K2O
H 20 CO2 1 (Na) + 1 (Cl) 2 (K) + 1 (O)
2 (H) + 1(O) 1 (C) +2 (O) 1 (23) + 1 (35.5) 2 (39) + 1 (16)
2 (1) + 1(16) 1 (12) + 2 (16) 23 + 35.5 = 38.5 amu 78 + 16 = 94

2 + 16 = 18 amu 12 + 32 = 44 amu amu

There is no difference in the method of
Mole (Symbol mol, is the SI unit of amount of substance, represented by n)
The quantity of matter containing 6.02X 1023 particles iscalculation between molecular mass and
called mole.
As; formula mass.
1 pair = 2 1 dozen = 12 1 ream = 500 pages
Similarly;
1 mole = 6.02X 1023(602000, 000,000,000,000,000,000) (A very large number)

Avogadro’s number: Molar Mass: The mass of one mole of any substance is
6.02X 1023is called Avogadro’s number called molar mass.
represented by NA.

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Branches of Chemistry

Organic chemistry is the study of chemical compounds that consist primarily of carbon and
hydrogen.
Inorganic chemistry is the study of chemical compounds except organic compounds
Physical chemistry is the study of the physical properties of chemical compounds. Like m.p, b.p,
colour ,density etc.
Analytical chemistry deals with the separation, identification and quantification of chemical
substances (analytes) in a given sample.
Biochemistry is the study of bio-molecules (Proteins, Carbohydrates, and Lipids etc.) and their
reactions.
Nuclear chemistry is the study of changes in the nucleus of elements.
Environmental chemistry is the study of the sources, reactions, transport and effects of
pollutants in the air, soil, and water environments.

Classification of matter

Mixture is a combination of two or more pure substances which can easily be separated.
The components of a mixture can be separated physical methods like filtration, distillation etc.

A homogeneous mixture is a mixture in which A heterogeneous mixture is a mixture in

the composition is uniform throughout the which the composition is not uniform
mixture. Ex: NaCl solution, Sugar solution etc. throughout the mixture. Ex: Cough syrup,
vetable soup etc.

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Chemical Reaction and Chemical Equation

Chemical Reaction:
Def: When two or more substances react to make new substance/s is called a
chemical reaction.
OR
Breakdown of old bonds and formation of new bonds is called a chemical
reaction.
Ex; Hydrogen reacts with Oxygen to make water
Carbon dioxide reacts with water to make glucose and oxygen etc.

Chemical equation:

Def: A chemical equation is the representation of a chemical reaction by using

symbols and formulae.
A chemical equation consists of the chemical formulas of the reactants (the starting
substances) and the chemical formula of the products (substances formed in the
chemical reaction). The two are separated by an arrow symbol (usually read as "yields/
produces") and each individual substance's chemical formula is separated from others
by a plus (+) sign.
As an example, the equation for the reaction of sodium with hydrochloric acid can be
denoted as
2Na (s) +2HCl (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) +H2 (g)

The following diagram represents the parts of a chemical equation.

Balancing Chemical Equation

Def: A balanced equation is an equation in which the number of atoms for each
element is the same for both the reactants and the products.

The law of conservation of mass states that ‘no atom can be created or
destroyed in a chemical reaction’, so the number of atoms that are present in the
reactants must be the same as the number of atoms that are present in the products

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4 Steps of balancing a chemical reaction

Step 1: Count the number of atoms of each element on each side of the equation

Step 2: Check which atoms numbers are not balanced

Step 3: Balance one atom at a time by using an appropriate coefficient.

Step 4: Repeat step 1,2 and 3 until every atom is balanced.

Unblanced Chemical Equations Balannced Chemical Equations

Na + Cl2 NaCl 2Na + Cl2 2 NaCl

H2 + O2 H2O 2H2 + O 2 2H2O

FeCl3 + MgO Fe2O3 + MgCl2 2FeCl3 + 3MgO Fe2O3 + 3MgCl2

ZnS + O2 ZnO + SO2 2 ZnS + 3O2 2 ZnO + 2SO2

Fe2O3 + C Fe + CO2 2Fe2O3 + 3C 4Fe + 3CO2

P4 + O2 P2O3 P4 + 3O2 2P2O3

Inter Molecular Forces (Van der Wall’s Forces)

Def: The force of attraction between two molecules is called Inter Molecular Forces (IMF).
Types of Inter molecular forces
1. Dipole Dipole interaction
Def: It is a type of inter molecular forces in which the negative end of one molecule is
attracted by the positive end of another molecule is called Dipole Dipole interaction.
Explanation: Due to unequal sharing of electrons, polar molecules are formed. A polar molecule
has two ends i.e. a partial positive end and a partial negative end. For example HCl

In such polar molecules, the negative end of one molecule gets attracted by the positive end of
another molecule.

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Dipole Dipole Interaction

2. Hydrogen Bonding

Def: Hydrogen bonding is a type of Inter molecular forces in which highly partial positive
hydrogen atom of one molecules gets attracted by a very electronegative atom such as a F, O,
N atom of another molecule.

Explanation:

In molecules containing F-H, O-H or N-H bonds, a large difference in Electronegativity between
the H atom and the N, O or F atom cause a highly polar covalent bond.

element Electronegativity value

H 2.2
N 3.0
O 3.5
F 4.0

Because of the difference in Electronegativity, the H atom bears a large partial positive charge
and the N, O or F atom bears a large partial negative charge.

The partial positive hydrogen atom in one molecule is highly attracted to the lone pair of N, O, or
F atom of another molecule.
Examples 1: In water, (H2O) molecules, the O atom in one molecule is attracted to a H atom in
the second molecule.

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For making one hydrogen bond, one Hydrogen atom and a lone pair is needed. The ratio of
hydrogen atoms and lone pair in H2O is 2:2 so on average one water molecule can form two
hydrogen bonds

This is the reason the boiling point of water is higher than that of ammonia (NH3) or hydrogen
fluoride (HF).
Examples 2: In Ammonia (NH3) molecules, the N atom in one molecule is attracted to a H atom
in the second molecule.

In the case of ammonia, there is a

shortage of lone pairs.

The ratio of hydrogen atoms and lone

pair in NH3 is 1:1 so on average one NH3
molecule can form one hydrogen bond.

Examples 3: In Hydrogen fluoride (HF) molecules, the F atom in one molecule is attracted to a
H atom in the second molecule.

In hydrogen fluoride, there is a shortage of hydrogen atoms. The ratio of hydrogen atoms and
lone pair in HF is 1:1 so on average one HF molecule can form one hydrogen bond.

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Conditions for Hydrogen Bonding

1. One molecule should contain H atom and the hydrogen atom should be covalently
attached to one of the most electronegative elements like F, O or N, so that hydrogen
atom gain a significant amount of positive charge.
2. The elements to which the hydrogen is going to make Hydrogen bond must not only be
highly electronegative, but also has at least one "active" lone pair.
3. Lone pairs in the 2 shell have the electrons contained in a relatively small volume of
space which therefore has a high density of negative charge. Lone pairs at higher levels
are more spread over and not so attractive to positive things.

3. London forces (Dispersion forces)

(Named after Fritz London who first suggested how they might arise).
Def: London force is a weak intermolecular force between two atoms or molecules
which are present close to each other.
How is this bond formed?
Stage 1: Creation of instantaneous dipoles
Attractions are electrical in nature. In a symmetrical molecule like Helium, Neon etc,
The electrons are mobile, and at any one instant they might go towards one end of the
molecule, making that end Partial negative. The other end will be temporarily short of
electrons and so becomes partial negative. So now the molecule has become polar for a
short period of time and is called instantaneous dipole.
Stage 2: Creation of induced dipole: The molecule which has just got polarity
(Instantaneous dipole) can disturb the electrons of the second molecule and causing the
second molecule to be polar and this polarity is called induced dipole.
The temporary attraction between instantaneous dipole and induced dipole is called
London forces.

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Factors Affecting London forces

1. Molecular size
2. Molecular shape
1. Molecular size
Bigger molecules can easily be polarized. In other words poles can easily be created in big
molecules which increase the ability of bigger molecules to form stronger London forces.
London forces ∞ Molecular size
That is why F2, Cl2 being small in size are gases and have low boiling points, Br 2 being
bigger in size is liquid and I2 is solid and have higher boiling points.

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That is why Radon has the highest boiling pint among all other noble gases

Noble gases Boiling Points

Helium -269°C
Neon -246°C
Argon -186°C
Krypton -152°C
Xenon -108°C
Radon -62°C

That is why one to four carbons of alkanes are gases and have low m.p and b.p. Five to
seventeen carbon alkanes are liquids having higher values of m.p and b.p and above seventeen
carbon alkanes are solids and have highest values of m.p and b.p.

2. Molecular shape
Linear molecules have many sites to develop dipoles so they have many contact points to bind
together as compared branched molecules.

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For example, the hydrocarbon molecules n-butane and iso-butane both have same molecular
formula (C4H10), but the atoms are arranged differently. In n-butane the carbon atoms are
arranged in a single chain, but iso-butane is a shorter chain with a branch. Therefore, n-butane
has higher boiling point than iso-butane.

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