Receptor Triggering factor Response Reflex

J receptor lung congestion, edema, Apnea (brief pause in

emboli, pneumonia, heart breathing) followed by
failure, and barotrauma. rapid breathing,
bradycardia (slow heart
rate), and hypotension (low
blood pressure)
Irritant receptor harmful substances like Cough, sneeze, and
dust, smoke, and bronchoconstriction
chemicals.

Proprioceptors changes in muscle length, Muscle spindle reflex

tension, and joint position. (stretch reflex) to maintain
muscle length and tension,
and joint position sense
Pain Receptors damaging or potentially Withdrawal reflex to
(Nociceptors) damaging stimuli like heat, remove the body part from
pressure, and chemicals. the painful stimulus

Thermoreceptors changes in temperature, Adjustments to maintain

both hot and cold. body temperature, such as
sweating or shivering
Stretch Receptors Stretching of muscles, Stretch reflex to maintain
tendons, and ligaments. muscle length and tension,
and control muscle tone

Reflex Stimulus Response Location

Hering-Breuer Lung inflation Inhibits inspiration Lungs, specifically
(stretch receptors in to prevent over- the bronchi and
the bronchi and inflation of the bronchioles.
bronchioles) lungs.
Deflation Lung deflation Triggers inspiration Lungs, specifically
(stretch receptors in to prevent lung the bronchi and
the bronchi and collapse. bronchioles.
bronchioles)
Head Changes in head A group of reflexes Not a reflex, but a
position (vestibular that help maintain region of the body
system) head position and where various
balance. reflexes can
originate, such as
the gag reflex.
Vasovagal Stimulation of the Causes a sudden Originates in the
vagus nerve (often drop in heart rate heart and blood
by pain, stress, or and blood pressure, vessels, but can be
 changes in blood leading to fainting. triggered by various
pressure) stimuli, including
emotional stress,
pain, and changes
in blood pressure.
C Fiber Pain, temperature, Triggers pain Found throughout
or chemical irritants sensation and the body, including
withdrawal reflex. the skin, muscles,
and internal organs.
Proprioceptors Changes in muscle Helps with muscle Located in muscles,
length, tension, or length, tension, and tendons, and joints.
joint position joint position
awareness.

1. Location of Respiratory Control Centers:

The key players are located in the brainstem, a part of the brain responsible
for many involuntary functions. More specifically, the medulla oblongata
houses the crucial respiratory centers, while the pons contains additional
centers that fine-tune the breathing rhythm.

2. The Medulla: Setting the Basic Rhythm:

Imagine the medulla as the conductor of an orchestra, setting the tempo and
rhythm of breathing. It contains two key groups of neurons, the first one is
the Dorsal Respiratory Group (DRG). You can think of the DRG as the primary
inspiratory center, its neurons send signals to the diaphragm (our main
breathing muscle) and the external intercostal muscles (between the ribs),
causing them to contract and initiate inspiration (breathing in). The DRG
neurons fire in a ramp-like fashion, meaning their activity gradually increases
throughout inspiration, leading to a smooth increase in lung volume.
Secondly is the Ventral Respiratory Group (VRG). The VRG is more complex,
containing both inspiratory and expiratory neurons. While the DRG handles
the basic rhythm, the VRG becomes more active during forceful breathing
(like exercise) and controls the accessory muscles involved in breathing,
such as the internal intercostal muscles (which help with forceful expiration)
and abdominal muscles. It helps with both inspiration and expiration.

The Interplay between the DRG and VRG creates a rhythmic cycle: The DRG
initiates inspiration, and once the lungs are sufficiently inflated, stretch
receptors in the lungs send signals that inhibit the DRG and VRG, leading to
passive expiration (breathing out).

3. The Pons: Fine-Tuning the Rhythm:

The medulla sets the basic rhythm, but the pons acts as a fine-tuning knob.
The Pneumotaxic Center is located in the upper pons, it sends inhibitory
signals to the inspiratory neurons in the medulla. Think of it as a “switch”
that limits the duration of inspiration. By shortening inspiration, it increases
the breathing rate. Located in the lower pons the Apneustic Center has the
opposite effect. It stimulates the inspiratory neurons, prolonging inspiration.
However, its influence is less direct and is mainly seen when signals from
other brain regions are disrupted. Damage to the pneumotaxic center can
lead to apneusis, characterized by prolonged, gasping inspirations.

4. Describe the effect of various reflexes on breathing.

Stretch Receptor Reflexes

- These receptors in the lungs and airways sense lung inflation.

They trigger the Hering-Breuer reflex, which inhibits further
inspiration and promotes expiration, preventing overinflation.

Juxtacapillary Receptors (J-receptors)

- These receptors are found in the alveolar walls and are sensitive
to conditions like pulmonary edema, pneumonia, and emboli.
They trigger rapid, shallow breathing, dyspnea (difficulty
breathing), and potentially bronchospasm.
Head Paradoxical Reflex

- Head Paradoxical Reflex: This reflex, primarily seen in infants,

increases breathing rate when the head is turned to the side.

Irritant Receptors:

- These receptors in the airways are sensitive to irritants like dust,

smoke, and allergens. They trigger coughing, sneezing,
bronchospasm, and potentially tachypnea (rapid breathing).

Proprioceptors

- These receptors in muscles, tendons, and joints sense movement

and position. They can stimulate breathing, particularly in
patients with respiratory depression.

Thermoreceptors

- These receptors detect temperature changes. While not directly

involved in breathing regulation, they can influence breathing
rate in response to extreme temperatures.

Cough Reflex

- This reflex clears the airways of irritants and mucus. It involves a

forceful expulsion of air, triggered by receptors in the airways.

Sneezing Reflex

- This reflex clears the nasal passages of irritants. It involves a

forceful expulsion of air through the nose.

Pain Receptors
 - These receptors throughout the body can trigger changes in
breathing, often leading to rapid, shallow breathing in response
to pain.

Deglutition Reflex

- This reflex, involved in swallowing, temporarily inhibits breathing

to prevent food or liquid from entering the airways.

5. Explain how the central and peripheral chemoreceptors differ in the

way they regulate breathing.

Basically, we have two types of sensors that tell us to breathe first is the
brain sensors (central). These are mostly focused on carbon dioxide. If
there’s too much CO2, they tell your brain to breathe faster to get rid of it.
The second one is Artery sensors (peripheral) these mainly watch for low
oxygen. If oxygen is low, they signal your brain to breathe more deeply and
quickly to get more oxygen in.

6. 6. Compare and contrast central chemoreceptors’ response to respiratory

and nonrespiratory acid-base disorders.

- Okay, so central chemoreceptors are like little CO2 sensors in your brain.
They’re always watching out for changes in your blood’s acidity, which can
happen in two main ways:

When your lungs aren’t working properly and can’t get rid of enough CO2
this is the Respiratory Acid-Base Disorders . Think of it like breathing too
slowly or shallowly. The CO2 builds up, making your blood more acidic. The
central chemoreceptors sense this and tell your brain to breathe faster and
deeper to get rid of the extra CO2. When the problem isn’t with your lungs,
but with something else, like your kidneys not working properly or having too
much acid in your body from something you ate or drank it is Non-
Respiratory Acid-Base Disorders. In these cases, the central chemoreceptors
still sense the increased acidity, but they can’t fix it by just making you
breathe faster. Instead, they might trigger other responses, like making you
feel nauseous or dizzy, to signal that something is wrong.
7. Contrast the regulation of breathing in individuals with chronic
hypercapnia with the regulation of breathing in healthy individuals.

- In healthy people, high CO2 makes them breathe faster. In people with
chronic high CO2 (hypercapnia), their bodies get used to it, so high CO2
doesn't make them breathe as much. Instead, low oxygen is what makes
them breathe more.

8. Explain why administering high concentrations of oxygen to patients with

chronic hypercapnia poses a special risk that is not present in healthy
individuals.

-For people with chronically high CO2 in their blood, giving them extra
oxygen can be dangerous. Their bodies rely on low oxygen to trigger
breathing. Giving them extra oxygen can make them breathe less, causing
their CO2 levels to go even higher, which is very risky. This isn’t a problem
for healthy people whose breathing is mainly controlled by CO2 levels.

9. Discuss the neural mechanism in regulating one’s breathing.

- Your brain has a special area called the brainstem that acts as the control
center for your breathing. It receives information from sensors in your body
that detect levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in your blood. Based on this
information, the brainstem sends signals to your breathing muscles (like your
diaphragm) to adjust your breathing rate and depth, ensuring you get the
right amount of oxygen and get rid of excess carbon dioxide. It’s a constant
feedback loop to keep your breathing just right.

10. Discuss the chemical mechanism in regulating one’s breathing.

- Our body has special sensors called chemoreceptors that act like little
chemical detectives. They watch for changes in our blood’s chemistry,
especially the levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen. When CO2 levels
get too high, these sensors send a signal to our brain to make us breathe
faster and deeper to get rid of the excess CO2. If oxygen levels get too low,
the sensors tell our brain to breathe deeper to get more oxygen. These
chemical signals help our body maintain the right balance of gases in our
blood, keeping us healthy and breathing comfortably.

11. Describe why ascending to a high altitude has different immediate and
long-term effects on ventilation.

- When you go up high, the air gets thinner, meaning there’s less oxygen.
Your body immediately reacts by breathing faster and deeper to try to get
more oxygen. This is your body’s quick fix. But over time, your body makes
more red blood cells to carry more oxygen, and your heart gets stronger to
pump blood more efficiently. These long-term changes help you adjust to the
thinner air and breathe more normally at high altitude.

12. State and define various abnormal breathing patterns.

- Normal breathing is smooth and regular, but sometimes our breathing

changes, signaling problems. These changes are called abnormal breathing
patterns. For example, apnea means no breathing at all, which is dangerous.
Hyperventilation is breathing too fast and deep, often caused by anxiety.
Hypoventilation is breathing too slow and shallow, which can lead to low
oxygen levels. Cheyne-Stokes breathing is a pattern of breaths that get
deeper and faster, then slower and shallower, followed by a pause. This
pattern is often seen in people with heart failure. Kussmaul breathing is
deep and rapid breathing, usually a sign of a serious problem like diabetic
ketoacidosis. Each abnormal pattern has its own cause and can be a sign of
a medical issue that needs attention.

Key terms: define the following terms

Dorsal Respiratory Group (DRG)- Located in the medulla oblongata, it

primarily controls inspiration (breathing in).

Ventral Respiratory Group (VRG)- Also in the medulla, it controls both

inspiration and expiration (breathing out).

Medullary Respiratory Center- The overall control center for breathing,

located in the medulla oblongata. It includes the DRG and VRG.
Pontine Respiratory Center- Located in the pons, it helps regulate the
rhythm and depth of breathing.

Apneustic Center- Part of the pontine respiratory center, it promotes

prolonged inspiration.

Pneumotaxic Center- Also part of the pontine respiratory center, it limits

inspiration and helps with smooth transitions between breathing phases.

Hering-Breuer Reflex- A reflex triggered by lung stretch receptors to

prevent overinflation of the lungs.

Head Paradoxical Reflex- A reflex that causes inspiration when the head is
extended, opposite to the normal response.

Chemoreceptor- A sensory receptor that detects changes in the chemical

composition of its environment, such as blood gas levels.

Vagovagal Reflex- A reflex triggered by the vagus nerve, often causing a

decrease in heart rate and blood pressure.

Central Chemoreceptors- Located in the brainstem, they sense changes in

CO2 and pH in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

Peripheral Chemoreceptors- Located in the carotid and aortic bodies,

they sense changes in O2, CO2, and pH in the blood.

CSF- Cerebrospinal fluid, the fluid that surrounds the brain and spinal cord.

BBB- Blood-brain barrier, a protective layer of cells that restricts the passage
of substances from the bloodstream into the brain

Oxygen-Associated Hypercapnia- A condition where increased CO2 levels

in the blood are associated with low oxygen levels.

Acute Hypercapnia- A sudden increase in CO2 levels in the blood.

Chronic Hypercapnia- A persistent increase in CO2 levels in the blood.

IV. Critical Thinking Questions

1. Describe the stimulating effects of CO2 on the receptors in terms of the

immediate response to increased CO2 in the blood. What happens
when this goes on for 1 or 2 days?
 - When CO2 levels in your blood go up, special sensors called
chemoreceptors spring into action. Peripheral chemoreceptors in
your carotid and aortic bodies quickly detect the increase and tell
your brain to breathe faster and deeper, getting rid of the excess
CO2. Central chemoreceptors in your brain also respond, but
indirectly. CO2 crosses the blood-brain barrier and turns into
acid, making the fluid around your brain more acidic. This
stimulates the central chemoreceptors, making you breathe even
harder. If the high CO2 lasts for a day or two, your body starts to
adjust. Your kidneys help by getting rid of acid in your pee, and
your central chemoreceptors become less sensitive to the acidity
change, so you don’t breathe as hard. It’s like your body is
trying to find a new normal.
2. Describe the peripheral receptor response to decreased arterial 02
levels. What do the receptors actually respond to when 02 levels drop?
- When arterial oxygen levels drop, peripheral chemoreceptors,
located in the carotid and aortic bodies, spring into action. They
don’t directly sense the decrease in oxygen levels but rather
respond to the decrease in partial pressure of oxygen (pO2) in
the blood. This means they detect the lower amount of oxygen
dissolved in the blood, not just the total oxygen content. This
triggers a signal to the brain, which then increases breathing rate
and depth to bring more oxygen into the lungs and ultimately
into the bloodstream.

Multiple choice

1. D

2. B

3. C

4. What receptors are associated with causing coughing, sneezing, and

tachypnea when stimulated?

- Irritant receptors, also known as rapidly adapting receptors (RARs), are the
main culprits behind coughing, sneezing, and tachypnea when stimulated.
These receptors are found in the airways and are sensitive to a variety of
irritants, including dust, smoke, allergens, and even changes in airflow. When
stimulated, they send signals to the brain, triggering a reflex response that
includes coughing, sneezing, and an increase in breathing rate (tachypnea)
to expel the irritant and protect the airways.