Chapter1:WomenEntrepreneurshipinMorocco

Women Entrepreneurship in Morocco

Female Entrepreneurship in Morocco: A Reality to Contextualize

The history of Morocco is marked by the indelible imprint of great women.

having made breakthroughs in all areas; breakthroughs that can easily be qualified
today of entrepreneurial, even revolutionary. Zaïnab Nafzaouia, Khnata Bent
Bakkar, Sayyida Al Hourra and many others significantly contributed to the construction
and to the preservation of the Moroccan nation over the centuries.

In the specific field of business, Moroccan entrepreneurship has always

characterized by the strong presence of women entrepreneurs. Indeed, Europeans themselves
they were amazed to see so many women engaging in agricultural and artisanal activities,
industries, some of which have always been reserved for them. This is the case in the craft of the
the making of carpets, which has always been the domain of women due to related constraints
both to the manufacturing technique and to the instinct of artistic creativity that seems to be
more developed in Moroccan women than in men.

The history of female entrepreneurship in Morocco spans several centuries.

Indeed, thanks to the weaving activity which has always been the prerogative of women in Morocco, this
has always shown undeniable entrepreneurial qualities. Dr. Mauran
written at the beginning of the century:

Moroccan traders who have carpets made for the needs of the market,
from the surroundings, from inland towns or for export, address a woman
entrepreneur, a mistress, who runs a kind of workshop where women come
work together and receive food and the modest sum of 0.25 fr per day.

De Périgny writes concerning himself:

From dawn, many women come to bring their skeins, receive

their money and buy bundles of wool that they take home to wash and
filer. In order to prevent them from being deceived, old muezzins of Qaraouiyine paid
by the administration of the endowments are assigned to the scales of skeins and bales and
indicate the amount they have to receive
 Today, two sectors of women's entrepreneurship coexist in Morocco: one
artisanal sector that has been able to survive despite the strong competition from industrial units, and
a modern sector dominated by a new generation of highly skilled women entrepreneurs
formed and institutionalized. The latter sector has experienced rapid development in
beginning of the 90s under the impetus of funding and aid programs
development of the World Bank and certain foreign governments. Indeed, these
the latest demanded that at least 30% be allocated to women
entrepreneurs. Hence the ambitious program for the integration of women in business (IFA).
Women entrepreneurs are currently supported by powerful associations.
like the Association of Women Entrepreneurs (AFEM), the Starting Point Space
(ESPOD), Joussour (bridges), etc.

Although most Moroccan women entrepreneurs are innovators

and especially dualists in the sense of Cromie and Hayes (1988), a significant proportion is
composed of feminist radicals. The latter advocate for a bolder reform of
the law on personal status for better social equity.

The status of women in Morocco remains quite precarious. Thus, the

statistics show that the percentage of illiteracy is much higher among the
women (especially rural) than among men; pay equity between women and men is
yet another pious wish; access to bank financing is still very difficult for the
women, etc.

In the business field, the percentage of women business leaders

oscillates between 7% and 12% depending on the sources and most of these women focus on the axis
Casablanca-Kénitra. Once again, access to financing for businesswomen remains more
complicated, as well as that related to public markets although significant progress is
recorded in recent years.

Moreover, Moroccan reality shows that, regardless of one's profession otherwise, the
a woman must first take care of her home. This means that the woman entrepreneur in
Morocco is primarily dualistic in that it must take care of its business and its family.
at the same time. Generally speaking, it is possible to identify the following types of
women entrepreneurs in which the previously mentioned dualism is a constant:
 Women artisans: this type is the extension of women-
entrepreneurs of the past who specialized in crafts such as weaving
and the carpet knotting;
Industrial women: this category includes all women
engaging in industrial activities and modern liberal professions;
Rural women: this term refers to all women who work in
the fields but also engage in artisanal activities whose production is
intended for self-consumption.
Militant women: this category corresponds to the category of women
Goffey and Scase's radicals mentioned in the study by Cromie and Hayes (1988). It concerns
women working in political and feminist organizations to improve the fate of
women in Morocco.
A particular feature of female entrepreneurship in Morocco deserves special attention.
to be noted. Indeed, under the instigation of foreign development aid programs
(ACDI, USAID, etc.) as well as international organizations (UNCTAD, ITC, etc.),
women-entrepreneur associations have emerged and experienced significant growth.
Several other associations quickly emerged in the wake of these.
first initiatives and are now very active in the promotion of
female entrepreneurship in all fields. However, the most coveted activities
by women entrepreneurs remain the carpet, decoration, furniture, pastry, the
daycares, and services.

Of course, such a finding does not exclude the presence of women entrepreneurs.
in other more sophisticated sectors such as ICT, aeronautics, offshoring and
the automobile. Nevertheless, despite the leaps made by giants in recent years in the
In the field of women's entrepreneurship, a long way remains to be traveled given the potential of it.
sweet half of our society.

The story of female entrepreneurship in Morocco

Female entrepreneurship in Morocco dates back several decades, but it has not
began to gain momentum only in recent years. Although the Kingdom of
Morocco has made significant progress in terms of gender equality in recent years.
For years, female entrepreneurs continue to face significant challenges.
 One of the first initiatives to promote women's entrepreneurship in
Morocco was launched in 1985 by the Mohammed VI Foundation for Research and Study on
family, a non-profit organization created to promote research and studies
on family issues in Morocco. This initiative has raised awareness among women
to entrepreneurial opportunities and to help them obtain funding for their
projects.

In 2006, the Moroccan government adopted a national strategy for equality.

between the sexes, aimed at promoting female entrepreneurship. This strategy was followed
the adoption of law 18-97 in 2007, which encourages women to create their own business
by offering tax benefits and simplifying the procedures for starting a business.

Since then, female entrepreneurship in Morocco has experienced growth.

significant, with a growing number of women creating and leading businesses. In
2019, a study conducted by the World Bank revealed that women represented
about 10% of business owners in Morocco, a figure that is up from the previous one.
regional average of 7%.

Despite these advancements, women entrepreneurs continue to face

important obstacles, particularly in terms of access to financing. Women often
having difficulty obtaining loans for their projects due to lenders' reluctance to grant
loans to women and the need to provide additional guarantees.

In conclusion, although female entrepreneurship in Morocco has experienced a

significant growth thanks to public policies and awareness initiatives
By training, women entrepreneurs continue to face significant challenges. It is
Therefore, it is important to continue to support and encourage female entrepreneurship in Morocco.
especially by improving access to financing and fighting against gender stereotypes.

The types and forms of women entrepreneurship in Morocco

The types of female entrepreneurship in Morocco

There are several types of female entrepreneurship in Morocco, each with its
specific characteristics. The first type is informal female entrepreneurship, which concerns
women who work in the informal sector of the economy, such as street vending,
artisanal production and domestic services. These women often come from
disadvantaged backgrounds and have limited access to resources and funding.

The second type of female entrepreneurship is social entrepreneurship, which involves

focus on creating non-profit businesses that have a positive social impact. The
women entrepreneurs in this field seek to solve social issues such as
poverty, social exclusion, and injustice by using innovative business models.

The third type is technological entrepreneurship, which involves the creation

companies that use new technologies to develop new products and
services. Women entrepreneurs in this field often have a background in science,
in engineering or computer science and seeking to create innovative solutions to meet
to the needs of society.

Finally, the fourth type is luxury entrepreneurship, which involves

the creation of high-end businesses in the fashion, beauty, and sectors
jewelry. Women entrepreneurs in this field seek to create high-end products.
range for the most demanding customers.

The forms of entrepreneurship in Morocco

Entrepreneurship in Morocco can be classified into several types and

forms, depending on the activities undertaken, the size of the company, the sector of activity and others
factors. Here are some of the most common types and forms of entrepreneurship in
Morocco:

Sole entrepreneurship: This involves the creation of a business by an individual.

sole person. The sole proprietor can be the sole owner of his business or
working alone as a freelancer.

Collective entrepreneurship: This involves the creation of a business by a

group of people, usually partners or shareholders, who share the
responsibilities and the benefits of the company.

Social entrepreneurship: This involves the creation of a company whose mission

the main goal is to solve a social or environmental problem while generating income
for the company and its employees.
 Technological entrepreneurship: This involves the creation of a company
based on a technological innovation or a groundbreaking idea in the field of
technology.

Rural entrepreneurship: This involves the creation of a business in the

agricultural sector or in other economic sectors related to rural areas of Morocco.

Cultural entrepreneurship: This involves the creation of a business in the

field of culture, such as artistic production, the sale of handicrafts or the creation of
museums.

Tourism entrepreneurship: This involves the creation of a business in the

tourism sector, such as the opening of a hotel, the creation of a travel agency or
the organization of guided tours.

These types and forms of entrepreneurship are not exhaustive, but they offer
a general idea of the diversity of entrepreneurship in Morocco.

The position of women in Moroccan society

Morocco is a developing country with an emerging economy, which has

experienced significant growth in recent years. In this context, women have
played an increasingly important role in the economic and social development of the country.
Female entrepreneurship in Morocco is constantly evolving but still faces challenges.
structural challenges that hinder its development.

Morocco is a country where women face gender inequalities.

important, which have negative repercussions on their participation in economic life. The
Gender discrimination is rooted in cultural traditions that favor the role of the
woman in the household rather than in the workforce. Consequently, access to
women's economic and financial resources are limited. Women entrepreneurs at
Morocco faces many barriers, particularly the lack of access to funding,
to business networks, to markets, to technologies, and to vocational training.

However, despite these obstacles, Moroccan women entrepreneurs have

succeeded in developing their activities and contributing to the national economy. Women have a
strong presence in informal sectors, such as trade and craftsmanship, which represent
an important part of the country's economy. Women entrepreneurs have also emerged
in sectors traditionally dominated by men, such as technology and
professional services. They have developed innovative, creative businesses,
socially responsible, which have contributed to economic growth and job creation
of jobs.

To allow us to study Moroccan society, we present the profile of the

female population then the family, professional, institutional, and sociocultural context.

Individual factors

Moroccan women of working age (15 years and older) represent 12.3
millions of individuals, representing half of the total population. They primarily reside in
urban area (60.3%). Their levels of education remain very low, despite the
efforts of public authorities since the 1990s. Less than a third of the population
Feminine of working age holds a diploma and more than half are illiterate.
poverty, isolation and the poor quality of infrastructure hinder access to education,
particularly women in rural areas (Hachelouf, 1991; High Commissioner for
Plan, 2012).

Since the country's independence, women have entered the labor market in
gradually transitioning from domestic space to public space. Initially, they have
privilege work from home and invest in areas and professions related to their traditional role,
notably embroidery, sewing, weaving, and subsistence agriculture (Chaouai, 1998 ;
Zirari, 2006).

Little by little, following the acceleration of the urbanization phenomenon and the rise
of the level of girls' education, they entered the labor market outside of
the family (Bihas, Cherif and Jammari, 1995. They then entered different fields
of activities, such as textiles and retail (Barkallil, 2005). In the 1980s,
they have increasingly integrated into various sectors, becoming advisors, engineers, lawyers,
doctors, etc. (Assaad, 2009; Gray, Foster and Howard, 2006; National Report Group
on human development, 2005). However, they are still overrepresented in the
less valued professions and sectors (agriculture, services, casual and seasonal work,
craftsmanship, domestic work.

The female activity rate (25.7%) is one of the lowest in the MENA region.
(High Commission for Planning, 2014; Ministry of Employment and Social Affairs, 2013-2014)
and remains significantly lower than that of men (72.3%). Women are more affected by
unemployment that men, especially in urban areas (20.6% compared to 11.5%
for men (Barkallil, 2006; Benradi, 2006; Lakhoua, 2010; Mejjati, 2001; Zirari,
2006). Graduated women are particularly exposed, notably because of the
significant decrease in job creation in the public sector (High Commission to

Married women are also fewer in the market.

the work that single or divorced women (Ministry of Employment and Affairs
social, 2013-2014). The low female activity rate is linked to a traditional distribution
family roles that encourage women to prioritize family life, but also
to discriminatory practices in Moroccan companies (High Commission for Planning,
2013; Paterno, Gabrielli et D'Addato, 2008). Employed women have limited access to
responsibility positions, lower salaries, and low union engagement (Invest HR,
2015; Ministry of Employment and Social Affairs, 2013-2014; Naciri, 2002; Report
national Beijing, 2015; Soudi, 2002). They remain numerous in the informal sector, not
recognized and precarious (Akinboade, 2005; Mejjati, 2001, 2006; Paterno, Gabrielli, and D'Addato,
2008; National report Beijing, 2015; Zirari, 2006), especially in rural areas and
peripheral (Barkallil, 2005; Benradi, 2012; Mejjati, 2001, 2006).

At the entrepreneurship level, women own 12% of businesses in the

country (High Commission for Planning, 2012). This rate remains very low when one knows that the
The European average is 30% of businesses managed by women. If some manage to do it.
with motivations of opportunity (desire for independence and autonomy,
personal accomplishment), it is known that in many developing countries,
entrepreneurship is an alternative to unemployment, to temporary work, to social exclusion
or to the discrimination encountered in the workplace (World Bank, 2005; OECD,
2004). It is also a form of survival to meet the daily needs of their families.
(World Bank, 2005; Benzakour, 1998; Mejjati, 2001; Paterno, Gabrielli and D'Addato,
2008) or to free oneself from marital dependency (Gray and Finley-Hervey, 2005).

Family context

Moroccan women occupy a traditional role within the family, their

legitimacy being linked to household management and child education. In a society
characterized by a patriarchal culture, women's access to decision-making at the level
family remains limited. These decisions are made solely by the man in the majority of
case (60.7%), jointly in 31.9% of cases, and more rarely by the woman alone
(Benradi, 2007).

Social representations place the father at the top of the family hierarchy and
the wife must act in a complementary and respectful manner towards her husband's family policy
marry (Harrami, 2005). Moroccan women generally need to have permission from
their parents or their husband to go out or manage their property (Benradi, 2006; Bourqia, 2006).

The participation rate of women in family decision-making is higher

important for older women, for divorced, separated, or widowed women and for
women with multiple children. The least educated women also participate.
more in decision-making (AFARD, 2007; Ministry of Health, 2003-2004). When the
women have paid work outside, they benefit from more power and a
better status within the household, allowing them to negotiate more equitable relationships
(Zirari, 2006). Among these, 41.9% participate in decision-making regarding the
family (Ministry of Health, 2003-2004).

Professional context

The first women-owned businesses in Morocco were microenterprises of type

family-oriented, with artisanal products. This allowed women to offer their services
from their home and reconcile their domestic and professional activities (Mejjati, 2001).
Currently, female entrepreneurship remains confined to areas that do not require
Female entrepreneurship in a transitioning society: analysis of three profiles of women
entrepreneurs in Morocco have no specific training, require little investment
departure and involve a low risk (Barkallil, 2005; Mejjati, 2006). It is mainly about
in the fields of manufacturing, agriculture, retail, and services (Gray,
Foster and Howard, 2006). Women-owned businesses are also smaller, less
more structured and profitable than those of men (AFEM/CGEM, 2010). Among the owners
of microenterprises, 94% are women (Hamdouch, Berrada, and Mahmoudi, 2006).

In theory, Moroccan women entrepreneurs can appeal to various

support organizations for entrepreneurship in their environment, such as the Association of
women business leaders of Morocco (AFEM), the Morocco Entrepreneurship Network, the Association
Departure Space (ESPOD), the national agency for the promotion of small and medium
company (ANPME), the National Initiative for Human Development, the Office of
development of cooperation, etc. These private or public structures aim to
promote and support the creation of businesses.

In practice, besides the obstacles that most entrepreneurs face,

such as the burden of administrative procedures or difficulties in accessing funding
(World Bank, 2012; Hamdouch, Berrada, and Mahmoudi, 2006), women
Moroccan women entrepreneurs also face more specific challenges. They are
affected by systematic discrimination as women from clients, from
suppliers, banking institutions and general support services and
advice (Boussetta, 2011). Their businesses are less present within the associations
of economic interest and networks, which can pose a barrier to commercialization
of their products (Economic, Social and Environmental Council, 2014).

Institutional context

Morocco has adopted and implemented the principle of a market economy.

with economic liberalization policies since the 1980s. However, despite
the high level of private sector participation in the economy, the country is characterized by
a low to medium income, with a population of nearly 35 million inhabitants and a GDP
of 7,356 US$ per capita in 2013 (International Monetary Fund, 2013). The weight of the sector
The informal sector (50 to 60% of private Moroccan companies) is one of the major problems.
for the country (World Bank, 2010). The public authorities have adopted a series of new
laws and provisions to promote the development of the private sector, focusing on
notably regarding the situation of women in the labor market and entrepreneurship.

Thus, the legal status of Moroccan women has greatly evolved during the
last decade and sparked numerous societal debates. Historically, the provisions
legalities in the country placed women in a position of subordination, particularly in relation to
to her husband. The Family Code (the Moudawana), enacted in 1957-1958 and amended
slightly in 1993, established a hierarchical relationship and a gender division of roles between
married and woman, the latter having a status of minor within the family sphere (Benradi,
2006; Enhaili, 2006; Naciri, 2002). The Labor Code also contained provisions
discriminatory towards women. The woman was considered a minor in terms of
of commercial and contractual legislation and could not engage in a public activity or
to have the status of a merchant only with her husband's permission.
 Following the ratification of several international conventions and to the
mobilization of civil society and women's movements (Mejjati, 2001), of
Legal modifications in favor of women's rights were initiated in the years
1990, accelerating at the beginning of the 2000s. Thus, the reform of the Family Code enters into
application in 2004 and establishes legal equality between men and women, the
co-responsibility within the couple and women's access to social majority (Bras, 2007).
The new Labor Code (2004) abolishes the possibility for the husband to prohibit his wife
the exercise of a public activity and introduces measures in favor of women's work,
like the principle of non-discrimination between men and women in terms of employment and
salaries. From now on, a married woman is free to engage in commercial activities. The
the new constitution (2011) confirms equality and parity between men and women regarding
their rights and freedoms of a civil, political, economic, social, and cultural nature (High-
Planning Commission, 2014.

These legislative changes have represented significant advances for the

economic and social situation of Moroccan women, aimed at transforming relations
gendered within the family, at work, and in Moroccan society. These reforms have increased
the financial independence of Moroccan women, and helped to facilitate and to
make their professional activities and their presence on the economic scene visible (Martin,
2012; Rachdi, 2006). Women's entrepreneurship is increasingly valued (Bouchikhi,
2014), in a context of economic restructuring imposed by organizations.
international financiers. Moroccan authorities have become aware of the importance of the
potential contribution of women entrepreneurs to economic development and
they develop programs to promote entrepreneurship among young people
Moroccans (Boussetta, 2013). This political support is accompanied by a series of measures
legislative measures aimed at improving the entrepreneurial activity rate (Abargaz and Aboudrar,
2013).

However, strong resistances remain on the ground to implement these reforms.

operational. On the one hand, legal texts have a sacred character due to the link
existing between Moroccan laws, fiqh (Islamic law), the hadith (words and life of the)
Prophet) and the Quran (word of God) (Benradi, 2006). Legal changes have
of course improved the status of women, but never violating the laws of Sharia (laws
Islamic). For example, the new Family Code does not challenge the priority
boys in terms of family inheritance (Bessis, 2007). On the other hand, the burden of
administrative procedures, the complexity of regulation, production costs
high, the difficulties in accessing financing, and the lack of support and monitoring
concrete obstacles constitute significant barriers for women entrepreneurs (Bank
global, 2012; Hamdouch, Berrada and Mahmoudi, 2006.

Sociocultural context

The predominant Islamic ideology in Morocco has largely contributed to the

sociocultural construction of the relationships between the masculine and the feminine based on the

separation and the hierarchy of genders. For a long time, the main role of women
Moroccan woman has limited herself to taking care of her home, her children, and her husband. She was
considered as the natural guardian of sacred values and had the mission to
to pass on to his children. As for the man, he was to embody masculinity and power, being
the sole provider of the family's income. Thus, the domestic sphere was reserved for the
feminine and Female entrepreneurship in a society in transition: analysis of three
profiles of women entrepreneurs in Morocco in the public domain in the masculine. Women were
often under the supervision of the male members of their family and deprived of any possibility
access to financial resources and certain professions. Religious practices are
considered as one of the main causes of a gendered division of spousal roles and
of an unequal distribution of power between men and women (Diehl, Koenig and
Ruckdeschel, 2009; Inglehart and Norris, 2003.

Since the beginning of the 1990s, these judgments and practices have started to
gradually retreat (Lfarakh, 1998) and women's work is increasingly valued
(Nair, 2003). An increasing number of men today accept that their wives
work outside the home and travel for their business (High Commission for Planning,
2013), an unthinkable situation a few years ago (Naciri, 2002). These developments are
the consequence of profound socio-economic changes, the schooling of girls,
the advancement of women's rights, the entry of female personnel into the labor market,
the emergence of the nuclear family and legal reforms in favor of women's equality
men.

In terms of religious beliefs, reformists challenge the

restrictive interpretations of religion that have led to transforming the spirit of the Quran and the
They are instruments of women's subjugation and call for a re-interpretation of Islam.
(Minces, 1996). On the other hand, traditionalists oppose any reinterpretation of the
religion (Benradi, 1999), arguing that the Quran already grants the capabilities to
producing wealth and managing it independently (Kebe, 2004). According to Amina Wadud, a
the figures of the Muslim feminist movement, the Quran mentions the roles of men and
of women without any hierarchy. These issues continue to divide society.
Moroccan.

This one is characterized by a patriarchal culture (Benradi, 2012; Enhaili,

2006). Studies highlight that social representations remain dominated by the
supremacy of the masculine and by a radical distinction between the genders, to the detriment of
female (Benradi, 2006; Zirari, 2006). Women's participation in decision-making is
stigmatized, particularly in peri-urban and rural areas, where a household identified through the
mother is systematically perceived negatively (Benradi, 2006, 2012; Harrami, 2005).
The political world is considered a masculine space (Harrami, 2005; Zirari, 2006) and
The political participation of Moroccan women remains low (Enhaili, 2006). Morocco
situated at the bottom of the international rankings regarding equality between the
genres, the economic participation of women, and support policies and mechanisms
female enterprises (Report of the Economic, Social and Environmental Council, 2014).

Certain categories of Moroccan women remain excluded, discriminated against and

weakened in terms of education, family life, and in the world of work (Zirari, 2006).

The impact of female entrepreneurship on the Moroccan economy

Female entrepreneurship is a major issue in economic development.

from Morocco. Indeed, women represent more than half of the Moroccan population and
Their participation in the economy is essential for the growth and development of the country.
In this context, female entrepreneurship has become an effective tool to encourage
the economic empowerment of Moroccan women and their participation in life
economic of the country.

In recent years, female entrepreneurship has experienced growth.

significant in Morocco. According to data from the General Confederation of Enterprises of
Morocco (CGEM), women represent 30% of the entrepreneurs in the country. This figure may
seems weak, but it represents a significant increase compared to previous years
previous. Additionally, the number of businesses created by women has increased significantly.
significant over the last few years, thus contributing to economic growth of
countries.

Female entrepreneurship also has a positive impact on employment in Morocco.

In fact, companies created by women tend to hire more women.
which contributes to the improvement of women's employment in the country. Moreover, these companies have
also a positive impact on the local economy by creating jobs and stimulating
the economic activity in the areas where they are located.

Another advantage of female entrepreneurship is that it contributes to

diversification of the Moroccan economy. The businesses created by women operate in
a variety of sectors, including services, agricultural production, craftsmanship,
the industry, and technology. This economic diversification enhances the resilience of
the Moroccan economy by reducing its dependence on a single sector.

Moreover, women entrepreneurs have a positive impact on empowerment.

economic empowerment of women in Morocco. By becoming entrepreneurs, women can take
in charge of their own life and that of their family, which reinforces their social status and their
decision-making power.

Finally, female entrepreneurship has a positive impact on Moroccan society in

their ensemble. Women entrepreneurs are role models for young girls and the
women who aspire to a professional career. They inspire women to get involved.
more in economic life and to play a more active role in society. Furthermore, the
companies created by women contribute to the improvement of living conditions of
local communities, particularly by creating jobs, stimulating economic activity and
by improving access to quality products and services.

In conclusion, women's entrepreneurship has a positive impact on the economy.

Moroccan by creating jobs, diversifying sectors of activity, and strengthening
the economic empowerment of women.