Data Communication

Dr. Sanjeev Patel

Asst. Professor Grade-I
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Odisha

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Outline
◼ Course Objective
◼ Course Overview
◼ Data Communication’s Components
◼ Networks and Topology
◼ Types of Networks
◼ Standards and Organization
◼ OSI Reference Model
◼ Guided and Unguided Media
◼ Data and Signal
◼ Characteristics and Transmission Impairments 1-2
 Course Objective

◼ CO1: Define the components of data communication

systems and transmission media.
◼ CO2: Study and analyse the various data
transmission and encoding techniques.
◼ CO3: Describe switching and multiplexing
techniques.
◼ CO4: Apply error detection and error control
mechanisms for reliable data transfer.
◼ CO5: Apply the data communication protocols to
reduce the packet loss. 1-3
Evaluation Schema

Mid Semester Exam : 30 (16 Hrs.)

End Semester Exam : 50 (36 Hrs.)
Teacher Assessment : 20
(Assignments/Quiz/Viva)

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Book(s)

▪ William Stallings, “Data and Computer Communications”, Seventh

Edition, PHI 2004.
▪ B. A. Fourozan, “Data Communications and Networking”, 4th
Edition, Singapore, McGrawHill, 2023.
▪ Andrew S. Tanenbaum, ”Computer Networks” 4th Edition PHI
▪ B. A. Fourozan, “TCP/IP Protocol Suite”, 3rd Edition, Singapore,
McGrawHill, 2009.
▪ L. L. Peterson and B. S. Davie, Computer Networks-A System
Approach, Elsevier, 2011
▪ James F. Kurose, Keith W. Ross, “Computer Networking: A Top-
Down Approach Featuring the Internet”, 3rd Edition , Pearson
Education 2016.
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 Course Overview
◼ Module 1: Data communication’s components; Data vs
signals; Types of networks; OSI reference model; Guided
and Unguided Media; Characteristics of Transmission Media
◼ Module 2: Analog vs Digital transmission; Encoding; Analog
modulation; Digital modulation; A/D Conversion: PCM, Delta
modulation.
◼ Module 3: Multiplexing: TDM, FDM, WDM; Packet switching
and circuit switching.
◼ Module 4: Types of error; Detection: Parity check,
Checksum, CRC; Correction: Hamming code; ARQ
mechanisms: Stop-and-wait, Go-back-N; MAC protocols:
Aloha and CSMA/CD.

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 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

Data communications are the exchange of data

between two devices via some form of transmission
medium such as a wire cable.

Fundamental Characteristics:
• Delivery/Bandwidth/Throughput
• Accuracy/Loss ratio
• Timeliness/Delay/Latency
• Jitter-differences of delays of two
consecutive packet

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1-1 COMPONENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATIONS

❑ Components of Data Communications are:

• Message
• Sender
• Receiver
• Transmission Medium
• Protocol.
❑ Data Représentation
• Text, Number, Images, Audio, Video
❑ Data Flow
• Simplex
• Duplex
• Half Duplex
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 Components
1. Message. The message is the 4. Transmission medium. The
information (data) to be transmission medium is the
physical path by which a message
communicated. Popular forms of travels from sender to receiver.
information include text, numbers, Some examples of transmission
pictures, audio, and video. media include twisted-pair wire,
coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable,
and radio waves.
2. Sender. The sender is the device
that sends the data message. It can 5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of
be a computer, workstation, rules that govern data
telephone handset, video camera, communications. It represents an
agreement between the
and so on. communicating devices. Without a
protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating,
3. Receiver. The receiver is the just as a person speaking French
device that receives the message. It cannot be understood by a person
can be a computer, workstation, who speaks only Japanese.
telephone handset, television, and
so on.

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 Figure 1.1 Five components of data communication

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 Data Representation
◼ Text (Unicode, American Standard Code
for Information Interchange (ASCII))
◼ Numbers
◼ Images ( Divided into pixel with size in bit
patterns, has color scheme of RGB- red,
green, and blue or YCM- yellow, cyan, and
magenta.
◼ Audio
◼ Video
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 Data Flow

◼ Simplex
◼ Duplex
◼ Half Duplex
◼ Full Duplex

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 Figure 1.2 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)

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 1-2 NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)

connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending
and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network.

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 Computer Networks

◼ A computer network is a set of computers sharing

resources located on or provided by network nodes.
◼ The computers use common communication
protocols over digital interconnections to
communicate with each other.
◼ These interconnections are made up of
telecommunication network technologies, based on
physically wired, optical, and wireless radio-
frequency methods that may be arranged in a
variety of network topologies.
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 A Communications Model
• Source
– generates data to be transmitted
• Transmitter
– Converts data into transmittable signals
• Transmission System
– Carries data
• Receiver
– Converts received signal into data
• Destination
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– Takes incoming data
 Networks: Why?
◼ Potential of networking:
◼ move bits everywhere, cheaply, and with
desired performance characteristics
◼ Break the space barrier for information
◼ Network provides “connectivity”
◼ Direct or indirect access to every other node in
the network
◼ Connectivity is the magic needed to
communicate if you do not have a direct pt-pt
physical link. 1-17
What’s the Internet

◼ millions of connected router

workstation
computing devices: server
hosts = end systems mobile
local ISP
◼ running network apps
◼ communication links
◼ fiber, copper, radio, satellite regional ISP
◼ transmission rate =
bandwidth
◼ routers: forward
packets (chunks of
company
data) network 1-18
What’s the Internet

 protocols control sending, router workstation

receiving of msgs server
 e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, FTP, PPP mobile
local ISP
 Internet: “network of
networks”
 loosely hierarchical
regional ISP
 public Internet versus private
intranet
 Internet standards
 RFC: Request for comments
 IETF: Internet Engineering Task
Force company
network 1-19
What’s a protocol?
network protocols:
human protocols:
◼ machines rather than
◼ “what’s the time?”
humans
◼ “I have a question”
◼ all communication
◼ introductions activity in Internet
governed by protocols
… specific msgs sent
… specific actions Protocols:
taken when msgs • protocols define format,
order of messages sent and
received, or other received among network
events entities, and actions taken on1-20

message transmission, receipt

 Figure 1.3 Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint

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 Figure 1.4 Categories of topology

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1.23
 Figure 1.5 A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)

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 Figure 1.6 A star topology connecting four stations

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 Figure 1.7 A bus topology connecting three stations

Back Bone Cable are connected to Drop line through Taps.

Signal becomes weak as it travels further distance.
Advantages: Ease of Installation. Uses less cables. Less complex.
Disadvantages: Difficult to fault isolation and reconnection. Difficult to add new devices.
Signal reflection at tapes reduces the signal quality. A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission.

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 Figure 1.8 A ring topology connecting six stations

Easy to install and reconfigure. Fault isolation is simplified. If one device does not receive a signal within a specified period,
it can issue an alarm. The alarm alerts the network operator to the problem and its location.

The only constraints are media and traffic considerations (maximum ring length and number of devices).
Unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage. In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such as a disabled station) can disable the
entire network. Solution: Dual Ring.

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 Figure 1.9 A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks

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 Figure 1.10 An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a closet

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Types of networks / Networks
Classification

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 Local Area Network (LAN)
◼ A Local Area Network (LAN) is a computer network that
interconnects devices within a limited geographic area such
as a home, office, school, or building
◼ using wired (Ethernet) or wireless (Wi-Fi) communication
◼ Coverage Area is Small
◼ usually within a building or campus
◼ Ownership Privately owned and maintained
◼ Speed High data transfer rate (typically 100 Mbps to 10
Gbps)
◼ Technology Used Ethernet cables, switches, routers, Wi-Fi

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 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

◼ A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a type of computer

network that spans a city or a large campus, interconnecting
multiple LANs within a metropolitan area.
◼ It is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN.
◼ Coverage Area 5 to 50 kilometers
◼ covers city, town, or multiple campuses
◼ Ownership Usually owned by an ISP, government, or large
organization
◼ Speed is High
◼ similar to LAN, often up to 1 Gbps or more
◼ Connection Type Fiber optics, leased lines, microwave, etc.

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 Wide Area Network (WAN)
◼ A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a telecommunications
network that covers a large geographical area,
◼ such as a country, continent, or even the entire globe.
◼ It connects multiple LANs and MANs, often using
◼ public networks like the internet, leased lines, or satellites.
◼ Coverage Area Very large
◼ national to global scale
◼ Ownership Typically not owned by a single organization
◼ leased from telecom providers
◼ Speed per user varies—lower than LAN/MAN
◼ Connection Type Satellite, leased telephone lines, fiber
optics, undersea cables

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 Internet
◼ The Internet is a global network of interconnected networks
that enables billions of devices worldwide to communicate
and share information.
◼ It uses standardized protocols (like TCP/IP) to ensure reliable
data transfer between diverse systems and platforms.
◼ It is the largest Wide Area Network (WAN) in existence.
◼ It is networks of network.
◼ Connects networks and devices all over the world
◼ It includes LANs, MANs, WANs, cellular networks, and more
◼ Uses Standard Protocols TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP, DNS, etc.
◼ Services Web browsing, email, VoIP, social media, file
sharing, cloud computing
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 Standards Organization
◼ ISO – International Organization of Standardization
◼ ITU-T – International Telecommunication Union
Telecommunication Standards
◼ ANSI – American National Standards Institutions.
◼ IEEE – Institute of Electric and Electronics Engineers
◼ EIA – Electronic Industries Association
◼ FCC – Federal Communication Commission
◼ RFC – Request for Comment
◼ IETF – Internet Engineering Task Force

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 Standards Organization in INDIA
◼ Press Council of India (PCI),
◼ News Broadcasting Standards Authority
(NBSA),
◼ Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC),
◼ Telecom Regulatory Authority of India
(TRAI),
◼ Indian Broadcasters Federation (IBF),
◼ News Broadcasters Association (NBA),
◼ Indian Media Group (IMG),
◼ Indian Society of Advertisers (ISA),
◼ Audit Bureau of Circulations (ABC),
◼ Press Trust of India (PTI),
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 IEEE Standards
◼ 802.1 Overview and Architecture of LANs
◼ 802.2 Logical link control
◼ 802.3 Ethernet
◼ 802.4 Token Bus
◼ 802.5 Token Ring
◼ 802.6 Distributed Queue Dual Bus (DQDB)
◼ 802.11 Wireless LAN
◼ 802.15 Personal Area Network
◼ 802.16 WiMAX
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 OSI - The Model
▪ Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) is a layered model
▪ Developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO)
▪ A theoretical system delivered too late! and has Seven
layers
▪ Each layer performs a subset of the required
communication functions
▪ Each layer relies on the next lower layer to perform
more primitive functions
▪ Each layer provides services to the next higher layer
▪ Changes in one layer should not require changes in
other layers
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ISO OSI Reference Model
• Seven layers
– Lower three layers are peer-to-peer
– Next four layers are end-to-end
Application Application
Presentation Presentation
Session Session
Transport Transport
Network Network Network
Datalink Datalink Datalink
Physical Physical Physical
Physical medium
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 Figure 2.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model

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 Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model

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OSI Layers (1)

◼ Physical
◼ Physical interface between devices
◼ Mechanical (joins 1 or more signal conductor, circuits)
◼ Electrical (Representation of bits and bit rate)
◼ Functional ( function performed by individual circuits )
◼ Procedural (sequence of events)

◼ Modulation and Demodulation

◼ Raw bit stream
◼ Modem: broadly used to refer to any
module that performs the function above
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 Figure 2.5 Physical layer

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 OSI Layers(2)- Data Link layer
• Data Link Layer
– Means of activating, maintaining and deactivating
a reliable link
– Framing (Header and Trailer)

– Physical addressing

– Error detection

– Flow control

– Error Control

– Higher layers may assume error free transmission

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 Figure 2.6 Data link layer

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 Figure 2.7 Hop-to-hop delivery

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 OSI Layers (4)
◼ Network Layer
◼ Transport of information
◼ Virtual circuit service (connection oriented)
◼ Packet switching or datagram service
(connection less)
◼ Logical addressing (IP address)
◼ Routing
◼ Congestion control (flow of packet into the
network)
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◼ Both connection-less and connection-oriented
 Figure 2.8 Network layer

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 Figure 2.9 Source-to-destination delivery

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OSI Layers(5)

◼ Transport
◼ Exchange of data between end systems
◼ Error free
◼ In sequence (segment)
◼ No losses
◼ No duplicates
◼ Quality of service ( Throughput, transit delay,
error rate)
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 Figure 2.10 Transport layer

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 Figure 2.11 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

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 OSI Layers (6)
• Session
– Control of dialogues between applications/Dialogue discipline
– Grouping
– Synchronization/check points
– Recovery
• Presentation
– Data formats
– Architecture specific (Big-endian or Little-endian)
– Provide conversion from one encoding schema to another
encoding schema
– Data compression
– Encryption
• Application
– Means for applications to access OSI environment
– E mail, web browsers,
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Figure 2.12 Session layer

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 Figure 2.13 Presentation layer

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 Figure 2.15 Summary of layers

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 TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
• Developed by the US Defense Advanced
Research Project Agency (DARPA) for its
packet switched network Advanced Research
Projects Agency Network (ARPANET)
• Used by the global Internet
• No official model but a working one.
– Application layer
– Host to host or transport layer
– Internet layer
– Data link / Network access layer 1-57

– Physical layer
 The TCP/IP Reference Model

◼ The TCP/IP reference model.

5
8
 Figure 2.16 TCP/IP and OSI model

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 Full Forms: TCP/IP and OSI model

◼ SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

◼ FTP – File Transfer Protocol
◼ HTTP – Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
◼ DNS – Domain Name Server
◼ SNMP – Simple Network Management Protocol
◼ SCTP - Stream Control Transmission Protocol
◼ TCP – Transmission Control Protocol
◼ UDP – User Datagram Protocol
◼ ARP - Address Resolution Protocol
◼ RARP - Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
◼ ICMP - Internet Control Message Protocol
◼ IGMP - Internet Group Management Protocol
◼ IP – Internet Protocol
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Physical Media: Guided
◼ Bit: propagates Twisted Pair (TP)
between ◼ two insulated copper
transmitter/rcvr pairs wires
◼ physical link: what lies ◼ Category 3: traditional
phone wires, 10 Mbps
between transmitter & Ethernet
receiver ◼ Category 5:
◼ guided media: 100Mbps Ethernet

◼ signals propagate in solid

media: copper, fiber, coax
◼ unguided media:
◼ signals propagate freely, e.g., 1-61
radio
Physical Media: coax, fiber

Coaxial cable: Fiber optic cable:

❑ glass fiber carrying light
◼ two concentric
pulses, each pulse a bit
copper conductors
❑ high-speed operation:
◼ bidirectional
❖ high-speed point-to-point
◼ baseband: transmission (e.g., 10’s-
◼ single channel on cable 100’s Gps)
◼ legacy Ethernet ❑ low error rate:
◼ broadband: repeaters spaced far
◼ multiple channels on apart ; immune to
cable electromagnetic noise
◼ HFC
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 Baseband versus Broadband
◼ Ethernet networks use baseband transmissions; notice the word
"base"—for example, 10BaseT or 10BaseFL.
◼ Using baseband transmissions, it is possible to transmit multiple signals
on a single cable by using a process known as multiplexing
◼ Although baseband transmits only a single data stream at a time, it is
possible to transmit signals of multiple nodes simultaneously.
◼ This is done by combining all the signals into a single data stream. To
combine the signals of multiple nodes, a technology known as
multiplexing is used. Baseband supports the Time Division Multiplexing
(TDM).
◼ Reference
◼ https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/difference-between-broadband-

and-baseband-transmission/
◼ https://www.computernetworkingnotes.com/networking-

tutorials/differences-between-baseband-and-broadband- 1-63
explained.html
 Comparison of Baseband and
Broadband
Baseband transmission Broadband transmission

Transmit digital signals Transmit analog signals

To boost signal strength, use repeaters To boost signal strength, use amplifiers

Can transmit only a single data stream at a Can transmit multiple signal waves at a time
time
Support bidirectional communication Support unidirectional communication only
simultaneously
Support TDM based multiplexing Support FDM based multiplexing

Use coaxial, twisted-pair, and fiber-optic Use radio waves, coaxial cables, and fiber
cables optic cables
Mainly used in Ethernet LAN networks 1-64
Mainly used in cable and telephone networks
Physical Media: Unguided /Radio

◼ signal carried in Radio link types:

electromagnetic ❑ terrestrial microwave
spectrum ❖ e.g. up to 45 Mbps channels

❑ LAN (e.g., Wifi)

◼ no physical “wire”
❖ 11Mbps, 54 Mbps
◼ bidirectional ❑ wide-area (e.g., cellular)
◼ propagation ❖ e.g. 3G: hundreds of kbps

environment effects: ❑ satellite

◼ reflection ❖ Kbps to 45Mbps channel (or
◼ obstruction by objects multiple smaller channels)
◼ interference ❖ 270 msec end-end delay
❖ geosynchronous versus low1-65
altitude
 3-1 Data and Signal

• To be transmitted, data must be

transformed to electromagnetic signals

• Data can be analog or digital.

• The term analog data refers to information
that is continuous;
• Digital data refers to information that has
discrete states.
• Analog data take on continuous values.
Digital data take on discrete values.
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 Note

Signals can be analog or digital.

Analog signals can have an infinite
number of values in a range; digital
signals can have only a limited
number of values.

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 Figure 3.1 Comparison of analog and digital signals

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 Analog v/s Digital
Analog Digital
◼ Used to transmit video and ◼ Used to transfer (0,1) bits
audio signals. generally for file transfer.
◼ Used when we don’t have ◼ Used when we have large
large bandwidth. bandwidth.
◼ Higher error rate due to sine ◼ Low error rate.
property. ◼ Discrete by nature.
◼ Continuous by nature. ◼ Square wave forms.
◼ Uses curved wave forms. ◼ Can travel long distance.
◼ Can travel short distance. ◼ Repeaters are used to give
◼ Amplifiers are used which strength to signal which can
gives strength to signal but also correct signals.
can’t correct the signals. ◼ Digital signals can be used for
◼ Analog signals can be used for analog transmission. Eg. You
digital transmission. Eg; tube, Skype transmitting audio
Modem sends digital data over video signals using digital
analog telephone lines. signals.
 Note

In data communications, we commonly

use periodic analog signals and
nonperiodic digital signals.

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 3-2 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS

▪ Periodic analog signals can be classified

as simple or composite.
▪ A simple periodic analog signal, a sine
wave, cannot be decomposed into
simpler signals.
▪ A composite periodic analog signal is
composed of multiple sine waves.

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 Figure 3.2 A sine wave

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 Example 3.1

The sine wave is the fundamental periodic signal.

A general sine wave can be represented by three parameters:
peak amplitude (A) - the maximum value or strength of the
signal over time; typically measured in volts.

frequency (f) - the rate [in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz)]
at which the signal repeats. An equivalent parameter is the
period (T) of a signal, so T = 1/f.

phase () - measure of relative position in time within a

single period of a signal, illustrated subsequently

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 Example 3.1

The power in your house can be represented by a sine

wave with a peak amplitude of 155 to 170 V. However, it
is common knowledge that the voltage of the power in
U.S. homes is 110 to 120 V. This discrepancy is due to
the fact that these are root mean square (rms) values.
The signal is squared and then the average amplitude is
calculated. The peak value is equal to 2½ × rms value.

Peak Amplitude = 2½ × rms

So, what voltage is coming to Indian Home? 250v

What will be the peak amplitude? 350v
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 Figure 3.3 Two signals with the same phase and frequency,
but different amplitudes

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 3-4 TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT

▪ Signals travel through transmission media,

which are not perfect.
▪ The imperfection causes signal impairment.
▪ This means that the signal at the beginning
of the medium is not the same as the signal
at the end of the medium.
▪ What is sent is not what is received. Three
causes of impairment are
▪ Attenuation
▪ Distortion
▪ noise.
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 Attenuation
◼ Attenuation means a loss of energy.
◼ When a signal, simple or composite, travels
through a medium, it loses some of its energy
in overcoming the resistance of the medium.
◼ To show that a signal has lost or gained
strength, engineers use the unit of the decibel.
◼ The decibel (dB) measures the relative
strengths of two signals or one signal at two
different points.

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 Figure 3.26 Attenuation

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 Distortion
◼ Distortion means that the signal changes
its form or shape.
◼ Distortion can occur in a composite signal
made of different frequencies.
◼ As a result, signal components at the
receiver have phases different from what
they had at the sender.
◼ The shape of the composite signal is
therefore not the same.
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 Figure 3.28 Distortion

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 Noise
◼ Noise is another cause of impairment.
◼ Several types of noise, such as thermal noise, induced noise,
crosstalk, and impulse noise, may corrupt the signal.
◼ Thermal noise is the random motion of electrons in a wire,
which creates an extra signal not originally sent by the
transmitter.
◼ Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and
appliances. These devices act as a sending antenna, and the
transmission medium acts as the receiving antenna.
◼ Crosstalk is the effect of one wire on the other. One wire acts
as a sending antenna and the other as the receiving antenna.
◼ Impulse noise is a spike (a signal with high energy in a very
short time) that comes from power lines, lightning, and so on

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 Figure 3.29 Noise

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 Figure 3.30 Two cases of Signal to Noise Ratio: a high SNR and a low SNR

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 Characteristics of Transmission Media

• Bandwidth: a range of frequencies within a

given band, in particular that used for
transmitting a signal.
• Throughput: the amount of bits passing
through a system or process at given time.
• Latency (Delay): the total time it takes a data
packet to travel from one node to another.
• Bandwidth-Delay Product: the product of a
data link's capacity (in bits per second) and its
round-trip delay time (in seconds).
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 Note

In networking, we use the term

bandwidth in two contexts.
❏ The first, bandwidth in hertz, refers to
the range of frequencies in a
composite signal or the range of
frequencies that a channel can pass.

❏ The second, bandwidth in bits per

second, refers to the speed of bit
transmission in a channel or link.
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Four sources of packet delay

◼ 1. nodal processing: ❑ 2. queueing

◼ check bit errors ❖ time waiting at output
link for transmission
◼ determine output link
❖ depends on congestion
level of router

transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing 1-86
Delay in packet-switched networks
3. Transmission delay: 4. Propagation delay:
◼ R=link bandwidth
◼ d = length of physical
(bps) link
◼ L=packet length
◼ s = propagation speed
(bits) in medium (~2x108
◼ time to send bits m/sec)
into link = L/R ◼ propagation delay=d/s
transmission
A propagation Note: s and R are
very different
B quantities!
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nodal
processing queueing
 Caravan analogy
100 100
km km
ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth
 Cars “propagate” at  Time to “push” entire
100 km/hr caravan through toll booth
 Toll booth takes 12 sec to onto highway = 12*10 =
service a car (transmission 120 sec
time)  Time for last car to
 car~bit; caravan ~ packet propagate from 1st to 2nd
toll both:
 Q: How long until caravan 100km/(100km/hr)= 1 hr
is lined up before 2nd toll
booth?  A: 62 minutes
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Caravan analogy (more)
100 100
km km
ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth
 Yes! After 7 min, 1st car
 Cars now “propagate” at 2nd booth and 3 cars
at still at 1st booth.
1000 km/hr
 Toll booth now takes 1  1st bit of packet can arrive
min to service a car at 2nd router before
 Q: Will cars arrive to packet is fully transmitted
2nd booth before all at 1st router!
cars serviced at 1st  See Ethernet applet at AWL Web
booth? site
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Nodal delay
dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

◼ dproc = processing delay

◼ typically a few microsecs or less

◼ dqueue = queuing delay

◼ depends on congestion

◼ dtrans = transmission delay

◼ = L/R, significant for low-speed links

◼ dprop = propagation delay

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◼ a few microsecs to hundreds of msecs
 Figure 3.31 Filling the link with bits for case 1 Frequency Based. FDM

3.91
 References
▪ William Stallings, “Data and Computer Communications”, Seventh
Edition, PHI 2004.
▪ B. A. Fourozan, “Data Communications and Networking”, 4th Edition,
Singapore, McGrawHill, 2004.
▪ L. L. Peterson and B. S. Davie, Computer Networks: A Systems
Approach, 5th ed. Burlington, MA, USA: Elsevier, 2011.
▪ James F. Kurose, Keith W. Ross, “Computer Networking: A Top-Down
Approach Featuring the Internet”, 3rd Edition , Pearson Education 2009.
▪ Andrew S. Tanenbaum, ”Computer Networks” 4th Edition PHI
▪ B. A. Fourozan, “TCP/IP Protocol Suite”, 3rd Edition, Singapore,
McGrawHill, 2004.
▪ PPT available for the respective books
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 Thank You

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