Here are comprehensive notes on Motion, explained in an easy-

to-understand way, suitable for an 8th-grade student:

# Motion: How Things Move

What is Motion?
An object is in motion when its position changes over time.
An object is at rest when its position does not change over
time. For example, a sleeping person or a ball sitting still.
Motion and rest are always relative . This means an object can
be at rest compared to one thing, but moving compared to
another thing at the same time.
To describe where an object is, we need a reference point ,
also called the origin.

Physical Quantities: Measuring Things

A physical quantity is anything about a material or system
that can be measured and given a numerical value.
Scalar Quantities: These are physical quantities that only have
a magnitude (a numerical value) but no specific direction.
Examples include distance and speed .
Vector Quantities: These are physical quantities that have both
magnitude (a numerical value) and a specific direction .
Examples include displacement and velocity .

Distance and Displacement: How Far and Where To?

Distance:
This is the total length of the actual path an object travels
during its motion.
Distance is a scalar quantity .
The distance an object travels is always positive and can
never be zero or negative.
It depends on the specific path taken by the object.
Displacement:
This is the shortest distance between an object's starting
position and its final position, and it includes a specific
direction.
Displacement is a vector quantity .
Displacement can be positive, negative, or even zero . For
example, if you walk around a block and return to your starting
point, your displacement is zero, even though you covered a
distance.
It does not depend on the actual path taken, only on the initial
and final positions.
Comparing Distance and Displacement:
Both distance and displacement are measured in the same
units , like meters (m) or kilometers (km).
The numerical value of displacement is always less than or
equal to the distance travelled. It can never be greater than
the distance travelled.
If the distance travelled is zero, the displacement must also be
zero. However, if the displacement is zero, the distance
covered may or may not be zero (as in the example of walking
around a block).
If an object's location changes, both its distance and
displacement cannot be zero.
Speed: How Fast?
Definition: Speed is how much distance an object covers in a
certain amount of time.
Formula: Speed = Total Distance Travelled / Total Time Taken.
Unit: The standard unit for speed (SI unit) is meters per second
(m/s). Kilometers per hour (km/h) is also a common unit.
Speed is a scalar quantity .
Speed can be zero or positive, but it is never negative .
Types of Speed:
Uniform Speed (Constant Speed): When an object covers equal
distances in equal time intervals.
Non-Uniform Speed (Variable Speed): When an object covers
unequal distances in equal time intervals.
Average Speed: For non-uniform motion, average speed is
calculated by dividing the total distance travelled by the total
time taken.

Velocity: How Fast and In What Direction?

Definition: Velocity is the speed of an object moving in a
definite direction . It is the rate at which an object's
displacement changes with time.
Formula: Velocity = Displacement / Time.
Unit: The standard unit for velocity (SI unit) is meters per
second (m/s). Kilometers per hour (km/h) is also a common
unit.
Velocity is a vector quantity .
Velocity can be positive, negative, or zero .
Types of Velocity:
Uniform Velocity (Constant Velocity): When an object moves in
a straight line, covering equal distances in equal time intervals
in the same direction. If an object moves with constant velocity,
its acceleration is zero.
Non-Uniform Velocity (Variable Velocity): When an object
covers unequal distances in a particular direction in equal time
intervals, or if its direction of motion changes.
Average Velocity: If an object's velocity changes at a steady
rate over time, the average velocity is the sum of the initial and
final velocities divided by 2: Average Velocity = (Initial Velocity
+ Final Velocity) / 2.
Comparing Speed and Velocity:
Speed tells you "how fast". Velocity tells you "how fast and in
what direction".
The numerical ratio of average velocity to average speed is
always equal to or less than one . Average speed is never less
than the magnitude of average velocity.

Acceleration: How Quickly Does Velocity Change?

Definition: Acceleration is the rate of change of an object's
velocity per unit time. It is usually observed in non-uniform
motion.
Formula: Acceleration = (Change in Velocity) / (Time Taken) =
(Final Velocity - Initial Velocity) / Time.
Unit: The standard unit for acceleration (SI unit) is meters per
second squared (m/s²).
Acceleration is a vector quantity .
Acceleration can be positive, negative, or zero .
Positive Acceleration: Occurs when the object's velocity
increases, and the acceleration is in the same direction as the
velocity.
Negative Acceleration (Retardation or Deacceleration): Occurs
when the object's velocity decreases, and the acceleration is in
the opposite direction to the velocity.
Acceleration can be non-zero even when the velocity is
momentarily zero, for example, at the peak of a throw where
the object momentarily stops before falling.
Types of Acceleration:
Uniform Acceleration: When an object travels in a straight line,
and its velocity changes by equal amounts in equal time
intervals. A free-falling object is an example of uniform
acceleration.
Non-Uniform Acceleration: When an object's velocity changes
by unequal amounts in equal time intervals. Circular motion
with constant speed is an example of non-uniform acceleration
because the direction of velocity continuously changes.

Graphical Representation of Motions

Graphs help us visualize how objects move. Time is always
plotted on the horizontal (x) axis, and other quantities like
distance or velocity are plotted on the vertical (y) axis.
Distance-Time Graphs:
Object at Rest: The graph is a horizontal straight line . The
slope of this line is zero, meaning the speed of the body is zero.
Object Moving with Uniform Speed: The graph is a straight line
that slopes upwards. The steepness (slope) of this line tells you
the object's speed. A steeper slope means higher speed.
Object Moving with Accelerated Motion: The graph is a curved
line where the slope gets steeper over time, showing that the
speed is increasing.
Object Moving with Decelerated Motion: The graph is a curved
line where the slope gets less steep over time, showing that
the speed is decreasing.
Velocity-Time Graphs:
Object Moving with Uniform Velocity: The graph is a horizontal
straight line parallel to the time axis. The slope of this line is
zero, which means there is zero acceleration. The distance
travelled by the object is equal to the area under this graph.
Object Starting from Rest with Uniform Acceleration: The graph
is a straight line that starts from the origin and slopes upwards
. A steeper slope means greater acceleration.
Object Moving with Uniform Acceleration (with initial velocity):
The graph is a straight line sloping upwards , but it starts from
a point on the y-axis (representing initial velocity). The slope of
this graph gives the acceleration of the body. The distance
travelled is the area under this graph.
Object Moving with Increasing Acceleration: The graph is a
curved line where the slope increases over time.
Object Moving with Decreasing Acceleration: The graph is a
curved line where the slope decreases over time.
Object Moving with Uniform Retardation: The graph is a
straight line sloping downwards . This indicates negative
acceleration.
Equations of Motion (for objects with uniform acceleration)
These equations help us calculate different aspects of motion
when acceleration is constant.
Let's define the terms:
u = Initial velocity (the speed and direction at the beginning)
v = Final velocity (the speed and direction at the end)
a = Uniform acceleration (the constant rate at which velocity
changes)
t = Time taken
s = Distance or displacement travelled
The three equations are:
1. v = u + at (This equation relates final velocity, initial
velocity, acceleration, and time).
2. s = ut + (1/2)at² (This equation relates displacement, initial
velocity, acceleration, and time).
3. v² - u² = 2as (This equation relates final velocity, initial
velocity, acceleration, and displacement).

Uniform Circular Motion: Moving in a Circle

Definition: This occurs when an object moves in a circular path
at a constant speed .
Examples: The motion of the Moon around the Earth, or a
cyclist riding on a circular track at a steady speed.
Key Characteristics:
Even though the speed is constant, the direction of motion and
velocity are continuously changing because the object is
always turning.
Because the velocity is changing (due to change in direction),
uniform circular motion is considered an accelerated motion .
An external force, called centripetal force , is needed to keep
an object moving in a circular path.
The velocity (speed) of an object in uniform circular motion can
be calculated as v = 2πr / t , where 'r' is the radius of the
circular path and 't' is the time taken for one full revolution.