A Land Manager’s Guide

for Creating
Fire-Resistant Forests
Stephen Fitzgerald and Max Bennett

Photo by Stephen Fitzgerald © Oregon State University

EM 9087
 E M 9087 • S e pte mbe r 2 01 3

Photograph by Emily Jane Davis

University of Oregon
A Land Manager’s Guide for Creating
Fire-Resistant Forests
Stephen Fitzgerald and Max Bennett

W
ildfires are a natural disturbance in Pacific Northwest forests.
Historically, fire operated differently in various forest types
Silviculture is the art and science
(Figure 1, page 2) across the West. For example, fires were
frequent but less severe in ponderosa pine and dry, mixed-conifer forests.
of manipulating forests to meet
In higher, cooler-elevation forests, fires were less frequent but more
severe; many were ‘stand-replacing’ fires because most or all overstory
landowner objectives. It includes
trees were killed.
Over the last century and a half, forests have changed dramatically from treatments such as thinning,
their pre-settlement condition. This is particularly true in the drier forests
of the West, where decades of fire exclusion have resulted in a buildup of pruning, underburning, and a
fuel that has increased the size and intensity of wildfires. Climate change
may also be a factor in this trend toward “mega-fires.” wide variety of other practices.
The emphasis today in forest management, particularly on federal lands
and in wildland-urban interface areas, is on forest restoration and fuels
reduction. Land managers can affect the total amount, composition (fuel
sizes), and arrangement of fuels, and can thus influence the intensity
and severity of a wildfire. This influence is more effective or pronounced Stephen Fitzgerald, professor and
when larger areas are treated. Extension forester, central Oregon region;
and Max Bennett, Extension agent, Forest
This publication provides an overview of how various silvicultural and Natural Resources, Southern Oregon
treatments affect fuel and fire behavior, and how to create fire-resistant Research and Extension Center, Oregon
forests. In properly treated, fire-resistant forests, fire intensity is reduced State University.

2
 Forest Types and Fire Regimes of the East Cascades
Gradient of Potential Vegetation Types and Fire Regimes

The Nature Conservancy

Figure 1

and overstory trees are more likely to survive than in untreated forests.
Fire-resistant forests are not “fireproof ” – under the right conditions,
any forest will burn. Much of what we present here is pertinent to the
drier forests of the Pacific Northwest, which have become extremely

Photo by Stephen Fitzgerald, © OSU

dense and fire prone.

Fire Behavior 101

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He
e
yg

at
The fire triangle
Ox

Three elements are needed to sustain a fire: heat or an ignition source,

fuel, and oxygen (Figure 2). Take any one of these elements away and
the fire doesn’t start or goes out. For example, digging a fire line down Fuel
to mineral soil, which is noncombustible, removes combustible material
Figure 2
on the forest floor (surface fuel) and stops a forest fire’s progress if the
fire line encircles the fire.
The fire behavior triangle
Fire “behavior” is primarily described by its rate of spread (in feet per
hour) and its intensity (i.e., how hot it burns and how long its flame
Photo by Stephen Fitzgerald, © OSU

is). Once a fire ignites in forest or rangeland vegetation, its behavior

We
hy

depends on the three factors that comprise the fire behavior triangle:
rap

ath

the amount and arrangement of fuel, the area’s topography, and weather
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er
p

conditions (Figure 3). A change in any one factor during a fire alters its
To

behavior and type (i.e., whether it’s a ground, surface, or crown fire).
For example, if the weather becomes hot, dry and windy, the fire will
burn with more intensity and move faster across the landscape. If a Fuel
fire is burning in heavy fuels and then moves into an area with light or
Figure 3
discontinuous fuels, fire intensity and spread decrease.
3
 Other important aspects of fire:
■■ Torching. Movement of a surface fire
up into a tree crown; the precursor to
crowning
■■ Crowning. Active fire movement through
tree canopies
■■ Fire whirl. Result of an upward spinning
column of air that carries flames, smoke,
and embers aloft; whirls often form in
heavy fuels on the lee (downwind) side of

Photo by Bureau of Land Management

ridges and, in extreme conditions, can be
powerful enough to twist off entire trees.
■■ Spotting. When firebrands (glowing
embers) are lofted up and ahead of the
main fire front, igniting multiple spot
fires that then feed back into the main
fire front to create very extreme and
dangerous fire conditions.

Types of fires
A wildfire may be composed of three different types of fire: ground, surface, and crown. The proportion of
each type determines the overall severity of the fire and how much vegetation the wildfire will consume or kill.

Ground fires
Ground fires consume mostly the duff layer and
produce few visible flames (Figure 4). Ground fires
also can burn out stumps and follow and burn

Photo by Stephen Fitzgerald, © OSU

decaying roots and decayed logs in the soil. A fire
burning in tree roots often goes undetected except
when it follows a root near the soil surface. Then,
it can emerge, ignite surface fuels, and become a
surface fire. Ground fires can often smolder for
days and weeks, producing little smoke.
Slash piles containing too much soil can allow a Dashed line represents
base of smoldering duff.
ground fire to smolder for weeks or months (called
a “hold-over” fire), then re-emerge later and ignite Figure 4
surface fuels, causing a wildfire.
To prevent this, a skilled tractor operator should use a brush blade to create clean slash piles, or use a
hydraulic excavator to stack and pile slash without adding soil to the pile.

4
 Photo by BLM
Surface fires
Surface fires produce flaming fronts that consume needles, moss,
lichen, herbaceous vegetation, shrubs, small trees, and saplings (Figure

Photo by Teresa Brennan, USGS

5). Surface fires can ignite large woody debris and decomposing duff,
which can then burn (glowing combustion) long after surface flames
have moved past. Surface fire severity can be low to high.
High-severity surface fires can kill most trees (up to or more than
75 percent) as a result of crown and bole scorch, but can be highly
variable, leaving scattered individual trees and patches of green trees.
Surface fires with flame lengths less than 4 feet can be controlled by
ground crews. Surface fires can develop into crown fires if “ladder fuels” Figure 5. Surface fires consume
connect surface fuels to crown fuels, fuel moisture is low, or weather needles, moss, lichen, herbaceous
vegetation, shrubs, small trees, and
conditions favor torching and crowning. saplings.
[Link]

Figure 7. Active crown fires are intense and stand-replacing

blazes influenced by wind, topography, and crown density.

Crown fires Photo by Scott Isaacson, National Park Service

Crown fires are either passive or active. Passive

crown fires involve the torching of individual
trees or groups of trees (Figure 6). Torching is
the precursor to an active crown fire. Crown fires
become active when enough heat is released from
combined crown and surface fuels to preheat and
combust fuels above the surface, followed by active
crown fire spread from tree crown to tree crown
though a canopy (Figure 7). Crown fires are usually
intense and stand-replacing, and are strongly
influenced by wind, topography, and tree (crown)
Figure 6. Passive crown fires involve individual trees or
density.
groups of trees.

5
 Photo by Stephen Fitzgerald © OSU

Photo by BLM
Figure 8. Surface fuels and height to canopy are two factors that Figure 9. Reducing surface fuelds and increasing the height to
affect the transition from a surface fire to a canopy fire. the crown base increase the odds larger proportions of a forest
will survive a fire.

Four factors influence the transition from a surface forest fuels so that fire acts and plays out in a more
fire to crown fire (Figure 8): natural way and pattern, particularly in ponderosa pine
and drier, mixed-conifer forests.
■■ Surface fuel and foliage moisture content
■■ Surface flame length (affected by fine surface fuel There are five principles of creating and maintaining
loading, wind, and slope) fire-resistant forests:
■■ Height to the base of tree crowns (i.e., height of the
■■ Reduce surface fuels
canopy)
■■ Increase the height to the base of tree crowns
■■ Density of tree crowns (degree of overlapping of tree
■■ Increase spacing between tree crowns
crowns)
■■ Keep larger trees of more fire-resistant species
The common denominator is fuel ■■ Promote fire-resistant forests at the landscape level

We have little or no control over most factors in the By following these principles we can:
fire and fire behavior triangles. For example, we can’t
■■ Reduce the intensity of a fire, making it easier for
control the wind, topography or oxygen, or stop every
firefighters to suppress
fire ignition. However, one element we can control is
■■ Increase the odds that larger proportions of a forest will
fuel. We can alter fire behavior by reducing the amount
survive a fire (Figure 9). Small trees, shrubs, and other
and changing the arrangement of fuel before a wildfire
understory vegetation may be injured or killed, but
erupts. Recent examinations of large wildfires in the
larger trees in the stand will only be scorched, and soil
West show fire intensity and severity were usually
damage also will be reduced
significantly reduced when fuels had been reduced
■■ Reduce extent of post-fire restoration activities needed,
beforehand.
such as replanting.

Principles of Fire-Resistant Forests Reduce surface fuels

Reducing surface fuels, such as slash and small shrubs,
A fire-resistant forest has characteristics that make
impairs potential flame length and fire intensity, making
crown fires unlikely and allow the forest to survive
fires easier to control and less likely to reach into
surface fire without significant tree mortality in the
tree crowns. Reducing surface fuels means removing
main canopy.
significant accumulations of flammable organic
We can lower fire risk and wildfire damage by
material, but not eliminating all organic material down
removing or reducing fuels in strategic locations. Again,
to mineral soil. Specific fuels treatment methods are
we can’t truly “fireproof ” a forest, but we can influence
discussed in more detail on page 9.

6
 Photo © Oregon State University
Ponderosa pine has an open crown, high moisture content in the foliage, and thick bud scales that help it survive fire.

trees with thicker bark that insulates the cambium.

Increase distance to base of tree crowns
Although a fire may scorch the foliage above, the
When tree crowns ignite (torching), the stage is set for cambium is still protected. Also, large trees tend to have
a crown fire. Removing ladder fuels, including surface higher crowns, so their foliage and buds are less likely
fuels, and pruning the larger trees raises the base of the to be damaged by heat from a surface fire.
forest canopy so that a longer flame is needed to ignite
Ponderosa pine, western larch, and Douglas-fir tend
the crowns. Pruning is particularly effective in young
to develop thick bark that insulates the cambium from
stands, when crowns may still be low to the ground.
heat, and their root systems are deeper and more
Prescribed underburning can also increase the height of
protected. Ponderosa pine has other features that help
the lower canopy due to scorching and killing of lower
it survive fire, including an open crown, high moisture
branches.
content in the foliage, and thick bud scales. Western
Increase spacing between tree crowns larch also is very fire-resistant. Lodgepole pine, the true
firs, and hemlock have thin bark and shallow roots, and
When tree crowns are farther apart, it is harder for
are more likely to be killed in a fire, even a light surface
fire to spread from one crown to another, even when
fire.
the wind is blowing. Thinning reduces crown density.
Reducing the slash generated from thinning will Hardwood trees are a significant component of
diminish the potential for a high-intensity surface fire. many Pacific Northwest forests, particularly west of
the Cascades. Some hardwoods, especially deciduous
Keep large trees of more fire-resistant species
species such as bigleaf maple, red alder, and Oregon
Fire kills trees by killing the cambium layer (a layer of white oak, have higher moisture content and less
cells just inside the tree bark that produces new wood volatile oils in their foliage than conifers; as a result,
and bark), scorching the foliage and killing the buds, they burn at lower intensities. Evergreen hardwoods
and damaging and killing roots. such as Pacific madrone, common in southwest Oregon,
When thinning to improve fire resistance, leave larger Continued on page 9

7
 Table 1. Fuels reduction options
This table shows the effect of different fuel-reduction methods when used as a stand-alone treatment.
Method Surface fuels Ladder fuels Crown fuels Contract cost ($/acre) Notes
Thinning Increase Reduce Reduce Highly variable depending on Not a stand-alone treatment;
slope and other terrain factors, requires post-operation slash
stand density, tree size, equipment abatement.
available, etc. Pre-commercial thinning to
Up to $800 per acre for smaller, reduce ladder fuels can result in
noncommercial material but can considerable surface fuel on the
yield money from larger commercial ground that must be abated.
material. Commercial thinning can utilize
most woody material for biomass or
saw logs. The value can help offset
the cost of treatment and slash
abatement.
Pruning Increase Reduce Little to no effect $50-$250 per acre depending on Usually done in conjunction with
height and number of trees pruned thinning. As a stand-alone treatment
(without removal of pruned

8
material), may substantially increase
surface fire intensity at base of tree.
Cut-and-scatter Increase Reduce No effect $25-$45 Use where fuel loads are light. May
substantially increase surface fire
intensity.
Prescribed Decrease Decrease Little to no effect $50-$250 Often an initial mechanical
underburning treatment is needed to “step down”
fuels to a point where safe burning
is feasible; liability concerns make it
risky for most private owners; smoke
management required.
Cut, pile and burn Small decrease Reduce No effect $275-$1,500. Major cost is piling.
Cut, chip-and-scatter Redistribute Decrease No effect $500-$1,500
Mowing Redistribute Little to no effect No effect $40-$150 Only fine fuels
Slashbusting/ Increase/ Decrease Little to no effect $250-$700
mastication redistribute
have intermediate flammability. Other than Oregon
white oak, most hardwoods are readily killed by fire
due to their thin bark, but they will sprout back rapidly
from stumps or root crowns with few exceptions.
Promote fire-resistant forests
at the landscape level
The larger an area treated, the more effective fuels
treatments will be at moderating fire behavior. This
includes creating gaps and openings to further reduce
the potential for crown fire. Treating in strategic
locations can help break up both continuous horizontal
and vertical layers of fuels. For example, reducing fuels
adjacent to natural features, such as meadows and rock
outcroppings, and manmade features, such as roads,
helps firefighters connect firelines to these locations.

Fuel Reduction Methods

There are a variety of ways to reduce or treat surface,
ladder, and crown fuels to create fire-resistant forests.

Stephen Fitzgerald © OSU

Table 3 lists fuel-reduction methods, their costs, and the
effects of each on surface, ladder, and crown rules. Since
few methods are effective on all types of fuels, they are
typically used in combination. For example, a stand
may be thinned and pruned, and the resulting surface
fuels piled and burned.
Figure 10
Thinning
Common questions about thinning include: Which
promote a multi-aged forest (a forest containing three
trees should be selected? How far apart should trees be
or more age classes of trees), a modified approach
spaced? And, when should I thin (or not thin) during
can be used. Trees can be thinned across the range
the year? Below, we address these questions only
of diameter or age classes so that stand density and
with respect to creating fire-resistant stands. Making
ladder fuels are reduced while maintaining a multi-aged
decisions about thinning will involve a variety of other
character. Compared to an even-aged stand, such a
considerations.
stand will have a higher risk of crown fire because some
Tree selection younger understory trees (ladder fuels) would remain.
Remove smaller trees and retain larger, more vigorous Tree spacing
trees (Figure 10). This approach, called “thinning-
How far apart do crowns need to be to reduce crown
from-below,” removes ladder fuels, raises the base of
fire? In general, if the branches of adjacent trees are
tree crowns, and, if enough larger trees are removed,
overlapping within the stand, crown density is high
increases the spacing between tree crowns. Large
enough to sustain crown fire under the right weather
trees are more fire-resistant due to thicker bark. This
conditions. Conversely, if trees are widely spaced, say
approach tends to shift species composition away from
with crowns spaced more than one dominant tree crown
shade tolerant species that are often abundant in the
width apart, crown fires are much less likely to occur.
understory.
Factors that tend to increase the required crown spacing
Thinning from below is a common approach in even- include steep slopes, locations with high winds, and the
aged stands. In cases where you want to maintain or presence of species like grand fir with dense, compact
9
foliage. Tree spacing does not have to be even. Small
patches of trees can be left at tighter spacing, benefiting
some wildlife.
Opening up the stand significantly will dry surface
fuels due to increased light levels, surface winds and
temperatures. This may increase surface fire intensity
and rate of spread unless total surface fuel loading is
reduced. In addition, thinning that allows significant
light to reach the forest floor may result in the re-
growth of small trees and shrubs, which over time
become new ladder fuels. Other issues with very wide
tree spacing include increased risk of blowdown,
reduced future timber yields, and potential for
triggering reforestation requirements. Consider these
tradeoffs when making decisions about tree spacing.

Photo by Chris Schepf, University of Idaho

Timing
Pay attention to timing when thinning in pine stands.
Green slash larger than 3 inches in diameter generated
from winter through mid-August can provide breeding
material for pine engraver (Ips) bark beetles, which
may emerge to attack healthy trees. Avoid thinning
pine species during this time period or make sure slash
is cleaned up quickly after. In some areas, there may
be additional concerns with Douglas-fir beetles, fir
engraver beetles, or spruce beetles breeding in larger Figure 11. Pruning removes lower tree limbs, increasing the
diameter green slash or downed logs. height of tree crown bases.

Pruning
Prescribed Burning
Pruning can be combined with thinning or done as
Prescribed burning is the regulated use of fire to
a stand-alone treatment. Pruning removes lower tree
achieve specific forest and resource management
limbs, increasing the height of tree crown bases (Figure
objectives. It consists of two general categories: slash
11). A good height to shoot for from a fire-resistance
burning and prescribed underburning.
standpoint is 10 to 12 feet, though pruning even higher
is beneficial. The pruning slash should be disposed of Slash burning reduces surface fuels after various
through piling and burning, chipping, or, if fuel loads silvicultural treatments and is usually done by (1)
are light, cut and scatter. There are a wide variety of broadcast burning in larger units, usually clearcuts,
pruning tools, including hand-held saws, loppers, and or (2) piling and burning within stands. Prescribed
pneumatic shears, power pruners, and ladders. You may underburning is the use of fire within the forest
also be able to use your chainsaw in some situations. To understory. The primary objective of underburning is
maintain tree health, pruning should leave at least a 50 often fuels reduction, but underburning is also used
percent live crown ratio (ratio of the length of the tree to achieve other objectives, such as pre-commercial
crown to the total height of the tree) and should not thinning, nutrient release, wildlife habitat or forage
damage the tree bole. Pruning is particularly effective improvement, and control of unwanted vegetation.
in young stands where tree crowns have not yet lifted Prescribed underburning has become more common
(the gradual death and branch shedding of lower tree as the understanding of the ecological role of fire has
branches from shading) on their own. increased.

10
 PRESCRIBED BURNING
Key points to consider:
■■ Prescribed burning, especially
underburning, is risky with high potential
liability.
■■ A professionally developed burn plan is a
must, and professional contract burners are
recommended.
■■ Contact your state fire control agency in

Photo by BLM
advance to discuss your plans to burn and
obtain necessary permits.

Prior to initiating any prescribed underburn, a likelihood of survival during the burn. Careful and
landowner must develop a profession burn plan. Good constant monitoring of weather on the burn day,
planning helps meet pre-determined objectives and constant contact with a local weather service, or both
minimize the chance of an escaped burn. Key elements is imperative; sudden changes in weather can rapidly
of a burn plan include: change fire behavior, increasing the risk of escape.
■■ A clear description of the stand or vegetation to be Because of its complexities and the associated liability,
enhanced by underburning and expected outcomes for prescribed underburning is rarely done on private, non-
that vegetation industrial woodlands because the cost of an escaped
■■ Data on fuel amount, distribution, and moisture burn can be considerable, as it includes not only the
content, as well as the topography and desirable weather cost of suppression, but also the cost of reimbursing
conditions on a potential burn day any neighbors whose properties may be damaged.
■■ Predictions of fire behavior (intensity and spread) based On federal lands, prescribed burning is conducted
on the above factors regularly. Federal agencies are much more willing to
■■ Ignition patterns and arrangements for holding accept potential liability as they have the know-how,
(maintaining the fire within the area) trained personnel, and the equipment to manage a
■■ Timing and seasonality of the burn prescribed burn.
■■ Smoke management guidelines
Mechanical Fuels Reduction (Mastication)
Burn plans should include a map of the unit to
Mechanical fuels treatments utilize several different
be burned, the various types of equipment and
types of equipment to chop, mow, or otherwise break
other resources needed to implement the project,
apart (masticate) ladder fuels, such as brush and small
needed permits, back-up contingency plans in the
trees, into relatively small chunks or chips, forming
event of an “escape,” medical and communications
a compact layer of woody material that is distributed
plans, public awareness and coordination with other
across the site.
agencies as needed, and post-burn plans for “mop-
up” and monitoring. Often the area to be burned Mechanical fuels reduction equipment includes
will need some type of fuel pre-treatment in order to “slashbusters,” “brush mulchers,” mowers, and other
meet objectives. This could include tree falling and devices. The “slashbuster” is a vertically mounted rotating
brushing of unwanted vegetation in order to carry a cutting head mounted on a tracked excavator. The “brush
fire, or raking or pulling slash away from trees you mulcher” consists of a horizontally mounted cutting
want to keep (called ‘leave trees’) to increase their drum attached to the front of an all-terrain vehicle (ATV)

11
 sold as saw logs, posts and poles, as well as for firewood
and other materials for home use. Product sales may
help offset the treatment costs, and thinning of larger-
diameter logs may even generate a profit. When
markets are available, utilization of biomass also may
help offset costs.

Photo by Max Bennett © OSU

Once you have utilized all the material that is
practically and economically possible, the next step is
to treat the remaining slash. There are three primary
slash disposal methods: cut and scatter, pile and burn,
and chipping. It’s critical to consult your state forestry
agency in advance to determine if the proposed slash
disposal method will result in acceptable slash levels.
Cut and scatter

Photo by Chris Schepf, University of Idaho

Cut and scatter is most appropriate for stands with
light fuel loads or in areas that are a low priority
from a wildfire management perspective. Understory
trees, branches, brush, and other fuels are simply cut,
sectioned into smaller pieces, scattered across the
site, and left to decompose. This technique does not
eliminate fuels — it just redistributes them. Cut and
scatter temporarily increases the total amount of surface
fuel, and creates a continuous layer of fuels across the
Figure 12a and 12b. Mechanical “brush mulchers” masticate ground.
ladder fuels into small chunks or chips.
Although ladder fuels may be reduced, overall fire
(Figures 12a and 12b). One attraction of mechanical hazard may be increased initially. As the material
treatments is their relatively low cost compared to hand decays over time, or is burned, the fire hazard declines.
treatments or chipping (Table 1, page 8). Drawbacks A common problem in dry forests is that the slash may
include potential for wounding leave trees if the operator take a decade or more to decompose to the point where
is not careful or skilled, and soil compaction if operating it no longer poses a significant fire hazard. In higher
when soils are very moist. elevation areas with a winter snowpack, or in higher
precipitation zones, decomposition proceeds more
The material produced by these processes varies
rapidly.
in size but is usually coarser than that produced by
most chippers. It still forms a dense fuel bed, however. Regardless of the climate, getting the material into
Compared to more loosely arranged natural fuels, contact with the ground will speed decomposition.
moisture is retained longer and the available oxygen Ideally, cut and scatter the material to a depth of
supply is lower, resulting in potentially slower rates of 18 inches or less. Do not use this method of slash
fire spread than would have occurred if the area were disposal within your home’s defensible space (30
left untreated. However, the duration and severity of fire to 100 feet around your home). Use in low-density
in masticated fuels may be higher than in other types of stands where existing surface fuels and ladder fuels are
fuels treatments. light, where decomposition will proceed rapidly, and
where a potential short-term increase in fire hazard
Utilization and slash disposal
is acceptable. Also, consider slash levels in adjacent
During thinning, trees are felled, limbed, and bucked stands. A common practice is to use cut and scatter in
into logs of various lengths. These logs can often be areas with light slash loads and use hand piling in areas
utilized rather than left in the woods. Small logs can be with heavier slash concentrations.

12
 Figure 13. Examples of
slash piles waiting to be
burned. With pile burning,
you have the option to cut,
pile, and immediately burn
(“swamper burning”), or cut,
pile, cover, and burn later in

Photo by BLM
the fall and winter months
when the forest is moist and
the pile is dry.

Pile and burn plastic is pure polyethylene). Cover just enough of the
pile to keep it dry in the center so it will burn easily.
Pile and burn is a common method for reducing
■■ Burn when conditions are wet or rainy with little or no
surface fuels generated in thinning and pruning.
wind, and during daylight hours.
(Figure 13).
■■ Avoid piling green pine slash (more than 3 inches
Another option is to leave the slash over the winter to diameter) in the late winter through mid-August due to
let some of the nutrients leach out, and then pile and the risk of attracting pine beetles.
burn later. ■■ Make sure you have a burn permit from the state
forestry office, fire warden, or other local authority that
Guidelines for pile burning:
regulates open burning.
■■ Carefully evaluate locations of piles. Place at least 10 to ■■ Some areas have a system utilizing ‘good burn days’
20 feet away from trees, stumps, brush, and logs, and 50 based on ventilation index. Make sure you are in
feet from streams. Stay well away from snags, structures, compliance.
power lines, etc. ■■ Monitor the piles to make sure they are out.
■■Construct the piles so they will burn easily. Put small
Chipping
branches, twigs, and brush less than ½-inch diameter
at the bottom of the pile to provide “kindling,” then lay Chipping is effective but is also labor intensive and
larger limbs and chunks of wood parallel to minimize air requires good access. It is probably best suited to
pockets. For hand piles, 4-by-4-foot piles are a good size; homesites and defensible space treatments.
machine piles may be much larger.
Many contractors, including arborists and tree
■■ When machine piling, use a brush blade or excavator
service companies, have large chippers that can process
to avoid getting dirt in the pile. This helps prevent
relatively large-diameter material efficiently. Self-
“holdover” fires that smolder for weeks, suddenly flaring
propelled, whole tree chippers have been developed
up when winds and temperatures increase.
and may be available for contract work in some areas.
■■ Cover piles if they are not to be burned immediately.
Be aware that large piles of chips are a fire hazard from
Cover when pile is about 80 percent complete, placing
spontaneous combustion. The chips can be scattered
the remaining material to hold the cover in place. In
across the ground or, better yet, used as mulch for
Oregon, you must remove the cover prior to burning
covering skid roads and trails.
unless it is made of pure polyethylene plastic (not all

13
Maintaining Your Investment an Important Timber Management Tool. PNW 184.
Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Extension
Fuels reduction is an ongoing process. The effects of
Service.
thinning and other fuels treatments last 15 years or less.
New trees and brush grow in the understory and develop Holmberg, J., and M. Bennett. 2005. Reducing
into ladder fuels. When cut, many brush and hardwood Hazardous Fuels on Woodland Properties: Pruning. EC
tree species re-sprout vigorously from root crowns and 1576. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Extension
rhizomes. Service.
Other species, such as manzanita and several species of Parker, B., and M. Bennett. 2005. Reducing Hazardous
ceanothus, have seeds that remain viable in the soil for Fuels on Woodland Properties: Thinning. EC 1573-
many years, even decades, and germinate readily when E. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Extension
soils are disturbed. Service.
Follow-up treatments will be needed, but they should
be less expensive than the initial treatment. Do some fuel
Additional resources
reduction on a portion of your property every year so the
Fitzgerald, S. 2002. Fire in Oregon’s Forests: Risks,
work is spread out and more manageable.
Effects, and Treatment Options. A synthesis of current
issues and scientific literature. Oregon Forest Resources
For More Information Institute, Portland, OR.
OSU Extension publications listed below can be found
Know Your Forest, Reducing Fire Hazard page. http://
at [Link]
[Link]/learning-library/reducing-
Bennett, M., and S. Fitzgerald. 2005. Reducing fire-hazard
Hazardous Fuels on Woodland Properties: Disposing of
Landowner Fire Liability. Oregon Department of
Woody Material. EC 1574. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State
Forestry. [Link]
University Extension Service.
landowner_fire_liability_reduced.pdf
Bennett, M., and S. Fitzgerald. 2005. Reducing
Oregon Department of Forestry, general fire page.
Hazardous Fuels on Woodland Properties: Mechanical
[Link]
Fuels Reduction. EC 1575. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State
University Extension Service. Oregon State University Extension Service Emergency
Resources, Wildfire in Oregon page. [Link]
Emmingham, W.H., and N.E. Elwood. 2002. Thinning:
[Link]/emergency-resources/wildfire

Sections of EM 9087 where adapted from PNW 618, Reducing Fire Risk on Your Forest Property, available in the Oregon State University Extension
Catalog at [Link]
© 2013 Oregon State University. Extension work is a cooperative program of Oregon State University, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and Oregon
counties. Oregon State University Extension Service offers educational programs, activities, and materials without discrimination based on age, color, dis-
ability, gender identity or expression, genetic information, marital status, national origin, race, religion, sex, sexual orientation, or veteran’s status. Oregon
State University Extension Service is an Equal Opportunity Employer..
Published September 2013.
The Northwest Fire Science Consortium is a multi-disciplinary, multi-institutional network consisting of federal and state agencies, non-governmental organizations, universities,
and private landowners within Washington and Oregon. [Link]

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