GEORGIE HOLLAND

AGRI321
EXAM NOTES
AGRI321 EXAM NOTES GEORGIE HOLLAND STUDENT ID: 7102893
Contents Page
PART 1 – Agricultural Production and Food Security

Lecture 1: Farming, Agricultural Production and Food Security – Page 3

Lecture 2: Bioprotection Aotearoa & Myrtle Rust Case Study – Page 4
Lecture 3: Inclusion of Sustainable Nutrition in Sustainable Agriculture – Page 5
Lecture 5: Climate, Food and Land System Interlinkages – Page 6
Lecture 6: Life Cycle Sustainable Assessment (LCSA) – Page 6
Lecture 7: Linear vs Circular Economy – Page 7
Lecture 8: Cellular Agriculture – Page 8

PART 2 – Animal-Based Food Production

Lecture 1: Meat Quality and Consumer Acceptability – Page 8

Lecture 2: Meat Quality and Sustainable Productivity – Page 9
Lecture 3: Milk Quality and Consumer Acceptability – Page 10
Lecture 4: Achieving Quality, Sustainability and Innovation – Page 11
Lecture 5: Antibiotics in Agriculture – Page 12
Lecture 6: Future of Antibiotics in Animal Agriculture – Page 13

PART 3 – Plant-Based Food Production

Lecture 1: Introduction to Edible Plant Food Systems – Page 14

Lecture 2: Apples – Page 15
Lecture 3: Kiwifruit – Page 16
Lecture 4: Grapes – Page 17
Lecture 5: Grain Crops – Page 18
Lecture 6: Agrichemicals and Pesticides – Page 19

PART 4 – Value Addition and Waste Reduction

Lecture 1: Food Waste Innovation – Page 19

Lecture 2: Upcycled Foods – Page 20
Lecture 3: Value Addition of Plant-Based Byproducts – Page 21
Lecture 4: Value Addition of Animal Byproducts – Page 22
Lecture 5: Insects and Worms as Alternative Proteins – Page 23

Exam Preparation

Past Exam Questions & Sample Answers – Pages 23–25

Predicted Exam Questions 2025 – Pages 25–26

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AGRI321 EXAM NOTES GEORGIE HOLLAND STUDENT ID: 7102893
PART 1 – Agriculture Production and Food Security

LECTURE ONE: Farming Agricultural Production and Food Security

🎯 Key Objectives

• Food security + biosecurity in NZ/global ag. 🏛 1. Why It Matters: Ag History & Civilisation
• Tech in sustainable ag.
🧬 Neolithic Revolution (10,000 BCE)
• NZ laws: Animal Products Act, ag chems, vet
meds.
• Commercial decision-making in food systems. • Farming replaces hunting.
• Communicating science clearly to the public. • Domesticated: wheat, rice, lentils, sheep, goats, cattle.
• Led to: surplus → settlements → population → cities.
• Result: Innovation (irrigation), but also disease, war,
inequality

🕰 2. Societal Stages of Agriculture

🤖 3. Tech Evolution
Stage Key Traits
in Ag
Hunting-Gathering Wild food, mobile groups 💥 4 Revolutions
🌱
Modern Ag Trends
Early 1. Steam
First crops/animals, breeding
Domestication 2. Electricity
3. Computers • Precision ag
Settlements Surplus, irrigation, specialisation 4. AI/IoT/Ro • Vertical farming
botics/AR • Smart food tech
Cities, trade, complex
Civilisations
economies ❗ Tech gap between developed/developing
countries still exists.
🌍 4. Food Security & Sustainability
✅ 🔄
SDGs GEPQSP Model Genotype – Environment – Phenotype –
Quality – Storage – Processing → Helps analyse food quality
• Connect food, sustainability, and variation.
economy.
• Goal: Balance productivity +
environment.
🔐
📊 Measuring Food System Health (Still
4 Pillars of Food Security
Debated)
Pillar What It Means
• Production per worker
Can we grow/distribute enough
Availability • Smallholder income (esp. by
food? gender/indigeneity)
• % land under sustainable ag
Access Can people aRord it?
🧠 Final Takeaways
Is it nutritious and usable for
Utilisation
good health?
• Ag systems evolved differently worldwide.
• Food security = complex → needs
Stability Is access secure over time?
innovation + good policy.
• Holistic & multi-disciplinary approach is
essential.

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AGRI321 EXAM NOTES GEORGIE HOLLAND STUDENT ID: 7102893
LECTURE TWO: Bio-protection Aotearoa & Myrtle Rust Case Study
🔍 Bioprotection Aotearoa – Big Picture 🍃 Myrtle Rust Case Study

📌 Basics
• Holistic approach = beyond just
pathogens. • From South America. Fungus attacking living
• Uses science + mātauranga Māori + tissue.
Pasifika + community voices. • Hosts = Myrtaceae (e.g. pōhutukawa, mānuka,
• Aims for environmental, societal, and eucalyptus).
economic impact. • Spreads via wind, rain, insects, animals.
• Spores survive 2–3 months.
Mission: Train bioprotection leaders through
collaborative research for NZ’s environmental 📍 NZ Incursion
issues.

• Arrived 2017 (Raoul Island).

• Thrives in 14–25°C + moisture.
• Now impacts native ecosystems + mānuka
honey industry.

🏠 “Our Whare – Te Taiao A Rangi” Framework

Pou Focus Key Ideas

Titirangi (Defining) Landscape health Ecosystem resilience, NZ-specific frameworks

Tokomanawa (Defending) Pests & pathogens Microbiota protection, biocontrol, molecular tools

Nuku-a-Rangi (Designing) Future resilience Soil, forestry, governance

Recloaking Papatūānuku Restoration & wellbeing Indigenous flora, wetlands, mātauranga Māori

🌏
⚠ Key Impacts - 🌿 Native Species Ecosystems

• ~48 native Myrtaceae species. • Australia: >400 spp. affected.

• Ramarama = most affected. • Reduces reproduction + regeneration.
• Pōhutukawa = dieback. • Threatens restoration efforts in NZ.
• Mānuka = varies by provenance –
economic risk to honey. 🚨

Response

🛡
🔎Surveillance & Response • Team: MPI, DOC, Iwi, industry.
Surveillance • Key actions:
o Eradication
o Seed banking
• Led by DOC in areas like Taranaki, o Research/tech advice
Coromandel, Wairarapa. o Māori-led solutions

🧪
Nursery Impact
🧠 Quick Facts to Remember

• New plant propagation guidelines.

• Disease Triangle = Host + Pathogen + Right
• More info Environment.
• Feijoa = Not affected – good for local crops.

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AGRI321 EXAM NOTES GEORGIE HOLLAND STUDENT ID: 7102893
LECTURE THREE: Inclusion of Sustainable Nutrition in Sustainable Agriculture

🎯 Learning Objectives 🏙 Country Level

• Understand Key Strategies:

sustainable food
systems (individual, • Reduce food loss and waste (esp. on-farm, unharvested crops)
country, global) • Support SDG 12.3 – Halve food waste by 2030
• Learn global • Understand consumer food waste patterns
nutritional needs • Add value to wasted/unharvested commodities
• Balance healthy diets
with environmental 📊 NZ: 157,000+ tonnes food waste/year
protection
• Key factors for
sustainable nutrition
🧍 1. Sustainable Food Systems – Individual Level

🌍 2. Global Nutrition Food Security Dimensions:

Needs • Availability – Production, storage, distribution

• Access – Affordability, price effects
• Poor diets contribute • Utilisation – Nutrition, cooking, health
to non- • Stability – Continuous access over time
communicable
diseases (NCDs) Issues:
• Global 2025 targets:
Improve • Rising food prices = reduced affordability
maternal/child • NZ: Net exporter, must keep production sustainable + improve
nutrition access to nutrients
• Problem:
Overproduction of NZ Actions:
some foods,
underproduction of • Promote regenerative agriculture
key nutrients • Shift land use toward nutritious, plant-based foods (e.g.,
Leaft Foods)
• Support Māori agribusiness
• Build resilient food systems (climate, supply chain shocks)
🥦 3. Healthy Diets vs • Encourage local, ethical, plant-based diets
Environment

Planetary Health Diet: 🌱 4. Sustainable Nutrition – Key Factors

• Mostly plant-based,
• No one-size-fits-all solution
small optional
• Need to feed 8.5 billion people by 2030
meat/dairy/fish
• Requires responsible production, waste reduction, equity,
• Supports health +
innovation
environmental
sustainability
🟢 Future Goal:
• Best results when
combined with food “Plant-based and animal-optimised” systems to balance nutrient
waste reduction supply and sustainability.
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AGRI321 EXAM NOTES GEORGIE HOLLAND STUDENT ID: 7102893
LECTURE FIVE: Climate, Food, and Land System Interlinkages

🎯 Learning Outcomes 🌱 1. Environmental Impacts of the Food System

• Understand how the climate system, food system, and • Food systems = major GHG emitters (~1/3 of total
land system are connected global emissions)
• Learn how climate change affects food security • Key sources: production, land use, livestock,
• Explore adaptation and mitigation strategies deforestation, transport, waste
• Climate & human activities worsen desertification &
land degradation
o Impacts: ↓ carbon sinks, ↑ GHG emissions,
🔗 2. Interlinkages: Climate, Food, Ecosystems, Socio- degraded soils
Economics

• Climate change ↔ food systems ↔ land, water, oceans ✅ Response Options

↔ human systems
• Land use, agricultural expansion, poor forest • Land mgmt. (regenerative practices)
management = climate drivers
• Value chain mgmt. (reduce loss/waste)
• Market shocks (e.g., food price spikes) worsened by
• Risk mgmt. (insurance, safety nets)
weather extremes & poor resilience

🌾 3. Climate Change & Food Security Impacts

🔹
Availability

• ↓ yields, pollination failure, pests, spoilage

• ✅ Solutions: New tech/varieties, better storage, reduce waste, close yield gaps
🔹
Accessibility

• ↓ income, ↑ prices, disrupted trade/transport

• ✅ Solutions: Supply chain efficiency, resilient systems, local production, insurance
🔹
Utilisation

• ↓ food safety & nutrition (toxins, microbes, CO₂ impacts)

• ✅ Solutions: Cold chains, sanitation, diverse healthy diets
🔹
Stability

• Price shocks, crop failure, migration, conflict

• ✅ Solutions: Diversified systems, insurance, infrastructure, market reform
🔹
Systemic Impacts

• More undernourishment, obesity from poor diets, ecosystem damage

• ✅ Solutions: Climate-smart systems, reduce emissions, shift consumption

💡 Take-Home Message

• Food, land, climate & people are deeply interlinked

• Consumers play a crucial role: diet choices influence emissions & land use
• Achieving food security under climate change requires joint action across all systems

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AGRI321 EXAM NOTES GEORGIE HOLLAND STUDENT ID: 7102893
LECTURE SIX: Life Cycle Sustainable Assessment (LCSA) - Summary

Key Impacts of Food Systems Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

• Uses ~50% of habitable land • Measures environmental impact from farm

• Causes biodiversity loss, overfishing, to fork
water depletion • Tracks resource use, emissions, and waste
• Produces ~25% of global GHG • Prevents burden shifting and identifies
emissions hotspots
• Yet billions still face hunger and
malnutrition

LCA Steps:

1. Goal & Scope – Define purpose, system boundaries, and functional unit
2. Inventory (LCI) – Data on inputs and outputs
3. Impact Assessment (LCIA) – Translates data into impacts (GHG, land use, etc.)
4. Interpretation – Identify improvements

Combines:
LCA Example
• LCA (environment)
• High-impact foods: meat & dairy • LCC (cost)
• High-impact stage: agriculture • SLCA (social)
• Cutting animal products reduces
emissions Goal: Support balanced decisions for a sustainable
future
LCSA = Full Sustainability Challenge: Hard to measure all 3 pillars accurately

LECTURE SEVEN: Linear vs Circular Economy – Towards Sustainable Goals

🔁 Why Move from Linear to Circular? 1. Linear economy = Take 🌱 Circular Economy Principles
→ Make → Dispose
➤ Assumes infinite resources, creates pollution & waste 1. Eliminate waste and pollution
➤ Prioritizes profit, short product lifespan 2. Circulate products/materials (reuse, recycle,
refurbish)
2. Circular economy = Closed loop 3. Regenerate nature
➤ Encourages eco-effective, ethical, and innovative
➤ Eliminate waste, reuse materials, regenerate nature production
➤ Reduces emissions, protects resources, supports ➤ Boosts jobs, local services, and resilience
ecosystems
🇳🇿 What is Aotearoa Doing?

🍊 Agri-Food Sector Examples 1. On-farm circularity: cows

• Promoting product design for reuse/recycling
graze on local grass, manure fertilizes land ✓ Low input cost,
• Supporting local circular initiatives
low emissions, higher quality milk ✗ Needs lots of land 2. Food • Government accreditation in progress
waste reuse: orange peels → essential oils 3. Material recovery: • Still early stage – needs expansion and inclusion of
plastic toys recycled if parts are separable 4. Barriers: logistics, Māori values (Te Tiriti)
legislation, cost, infrastructure

⚠ Challenges 1. Lack of regulation, slow cultural change 2. Skills gap:

✅ Take-Home Message 1. Circular economy supports sustainability, but need graduates trained in sustainable systems & innovation 3.
must be whole-system focused 2. Success depends on science, Requires collaboration: government, industry, academia, consumers
innovation, policy, and mindset shifts 4. Focus on both bio-cycle and techno-cycle improvements

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AGRI321 EXAM NOTES GEORGIE HOLLAND STUDENT ID: 7102893
LECTURE EIGHT: Cellular Agriculture – Disruption Technologies & Sustainability Challenges

1. What is Cellular Agriculture? 2. Product Types:

A. Acellular Products (Made by cells) 1. Produced via precision
• Involves using biotechnologies (e.g., tissue engineering, fermentation using microbes like yeast or bacteria. 2.
synthetic biology) to grow agricultural products from Examples: insulin, rennet, vanillin, animal-free collagen. 3.
cells, not whole animals.
Only the target molecule is in the final product, not the cells. 4.
• Aims to reduce environmental and ethical impacts of
conventional agriculture. Genetic engineering enables microbes to produce proteins,
fats, etc.
B. Cellular Products (Made of cells) 1. Use animal cells (e.g.,
3. Global & NZ Industry Players:
muscle) grown on sca<olds in bioreactors to form meat-like
tissues. 2. Examples: lab-grown meat, fish, eggs, milk. 3.
• Companies like Aleph Farms, GOOD Meat, Mosa DiWerent from plant-based meat, which uses only plant
Meat, Shiok Meats, etc., are leading developments materials.
globally.
• NZ’s own company: Opo Bio (est. 2022) is creating
livestock-derived cell lines. 5. Technical Components:

4. Limitations & Challenges: • Cells: Must self-renew and differentiate properly.

• Culture Media: Provides nutrients for growth.
Technical: 1. Optimizing cell lines, growth media, and
• Bioreactors: Ensure optimal growth conditions.
bioreactor conditions. 2. Need non-GM cells and a<ordable,
• Scaffolds: 3D structures for texture and tissue
ethical feedstocks (e.g., alternatives to Fetal Bovine Serum). 3. development.
Creating 3D-structured meat with realistic texture is still • Post-processing: Enhances flavor, texture, and
diWicult. presentation using methods like fermentation and
extrusion.
Scalability & Cost: 1. Large-scale production is not yet cost-
e<ective. 2. Requires process optimization and innovation in
bioreactors and scaWolding.
Consumer Acceptance: 1. Skepticism around taste, texture,
Conclusion:
and the idea of lab-grown food. 2. Varies by region and age
group. Cellular agriculture offers promising sustainable
Food Safety & Regulation: 1. Potential risks: bacterial alternatives, but it faces major technical,
contamination, allergens, chemical residues, and genetic economic, and regulatory hurdles. While still in
instability. 2. FSANZ and other global regulators are working on its early stages, it's a rapidly advancing field with
appropriate approval pathways. 3. In NZ/Australia, no significant implications for the future of food
approved cell-based meat products yet; classified under systems.
novel foods.

PART 2 – Animal Based Food Production LECTURE ONE: Meat Quality and Consumer
Acceptability

Learning Objectives The Importance of Meat

• Understand the importance of the meat industry • Meat is a major global food source, varying by culture,
(esp. for NZ). religion, and region.
• Learn key meat quality attributes: sensory, • Top 3 global meats: Pork (pigs), Beef (cattle), Lamb/Mutton
technological, nutritional, safety, and ethical. (sheep). Others include goat (chevon), deer (venison), and
• Explore factors affecting meat quality (e.g. breed, even exotic meats.
diet, stress, post-slaughter handling). • NZ Meat Industry:
• Understand muscle structure and nutritional value o Second to dairy in export earnings.
of meat. o Major markets: North Asia (sheepmeat), North
America (beef), Europe (sheepmeat).

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AGRI321 EXAM NOTES GEORGIE HOLLAND STUDENT ID: 7102893

What is Meat? Muscle Structure & Protein Types

• Meat = primarily muscle tissue, • Total protein = 20–24% of lean meat;

includes offal (organs). divided into:
• High in bioavailable protein, vitamins, o Myofibrillar (actin, myosin) – 12–
and minerals. 14%: contractile function.
• Expensive cuts can be extremely o Sarcoplasmic (enzymes, pigments) –
valuable (e.g. Wagyu steak). 6%.
o Connective tissue (collagen, elastin)
– 2–4%.
• Collagen type and amount affect meat
tenderness.
o Type I: stability; Type III: elasticity.
Post-Slaughter Factors

• Conversion of muscle to meat:

o Rigor mortis and pH drop must Factors A\ecting Meat Quality
be well managed.
• Aging: Proteolytic enzymes break down A. Categories of Meat Quality
proteins → tender meat.
• Processing: Mincing, marinating, 1. Sensory: Color, appearance, flavor,
mechanical tenderization. tenderness.
• Cooking methods: Affect final texture 2. Technological: Water holding capacity
and flavor. (WHC), pH, emulsifying/gelling ability.
3. Nutritional: Protein, fat, moisture, vitamins,
minerals.
4. Product Safety: Microbes, chemical
residues, hormones.
5. Ethical: Welfare, handling, farming
systems, slaughter methods.

Summary Points B. Biological & Environmental Factors

• Meat = nutritionally rich food with • Species/Breed: Affects fat content,

complex structure and variable myoglobin levels, muscle structure.
quality. • Age: Older = more connective tissue =
• Quality influenced by animal factors tougher meat.
(age, breed, diet, stress), and • Diet & Nutrition: Alters fat and muscle
processing factors (slaughter, aging, composition.
cooking). • Exercise/Work: Changes fat location and
• Consumer acceptability of meat muscle oxygen needs.
depends on cultural, ethical, • Stress: Affects pH and meat color/juiciness.
financial, and personal values.

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AGRI321 EXAM NOTES GEORGIE HOLLAND STUDENT ID: 7102893
LECTURE TWO: Meat Quality and Sustainable Productivity
1. Meat Quality = Physiology + Chemistry + 2. Factors Affecting Tenderness & Texture
Management
• Muscle structure and connective tissue
• Species/Breed: Affects muscle structure, • Rigor mortis: Post-mortem stiffening →
fat, and color (via myoglobin). max toughness.
• Age: Older animals → more connective • Aging: Natural enzyme breakdown → softer
tissue → tougher meat. texture.
• Diet: Impacts fat amount/location and • Processing: Mincing, marinating, cooking
muscle composition. methods matter.
• Exercise: Changes fat distribution and • Post-slaughter care: pH control, chilling,
muscle fiber type. electrical stimulation.
• Stress (fear, starvation): Lowers muscle
pH → affects color & juiciness. 4. Meat Grading Systems

3. Meat Quality Concerns • USA: Prime, choice, select etc. (based on

marbling, maturity, KPH fat).
• Consumers: Want safety, health, animal • Australia/Japan: Include meat color, fat
welfare, sustainability. color, texture.
• Industry: Focus on tenderness, color • NZ: Graded by sex/maturity (steer, cow,
stability, process efficiency. bull, heifer), fat depth, muscle.

5. Defective Meat 6. Tenderization & Innovation

• Bruises, blood splash, and toughness • Conventional: Aging, marinating, proper

due to: slaughter/processing.
o Poor genetics • Novel: Hormonal growth promotants,
o Stress ultrasound, high pressure, SmartStretch™,
o Age electrical shock waves.
o Disease
o Poor handling 8. Key Recommendations

7. On-Farm & Off-Farm Value • Slaughter animals <30 months old

• Avoid stress, disease, and injections
• On-farm: Genetics, feeding, health, • Ensure proper chilling, stimulation, and
management → impact quality. aging post-harvest
• Off-farm: Processing, storage, grading,
marketing add value.

LECTURE
🐄 THREE: Milk Quality and Consumer Acceptability
🐐
Importance of Milk & Dairy Industry Sources of Milk

• Major global food; NZ exports ≈ $20 • Most common: cow, then goat and
billion/year. sheep.
• Nutrient-rich: proteins, minerals, fats, • Others: buffalo, camel, horse, yak, deer,
vitamins. etc.
• Functional in food tech: emulsifier, • Cow milk = ~81% of global production
stabilizer, gelling agent, etc. (2021).

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AGRI321 EXAM NOTES GEORGIE HOLLAND STUDENT ID: 7102893

🧬 Milk Composition
• Water: ~85–88%
• Milk solids: ~13% = fats (2.4–5.5%), proteins, carbs (mainly lactose), vitamins, minerals.
• Proteins:
o Caseins (80%): αS1, αS2, β, κ, γ – give milk its white color.
o Whey proteins (18%): include lactoglobulin, lactalbumin.
• Lipids: variable, influenced by species, feed, lactation; source of flavor and fat-soluble vitamins
(A, D, E, K).
• Enzymes: lipase, plasmin, catalase, phosphatase, etc. — important for spoilage, cheese flavor, or
health indicators.

🍶 Milk Quality Aspects 🧪 Milk Quality Tests

• Microbiological: hygiene-critical; • Alcohol & alcohol-alizarin test: heat

sources include mastitis, feces, stability/pH.
poor refrigeration. • Clot-on-boiling: detects spoilage.
• Chemical: fat, protein, lactose, • Resazurin test: pH indicator (freshness).
mineral content. • Gerber method: fat content.
• Somatic Cell Count: indicates • Lactometer: specific gravity/lactose.
animal health (mastitis). • Freezing point test: checks for water adulteration.
• Contaminants: antibiotics, • Inhibitor tests: antibiotics/preservatives.
chemicals. • Organoleptic tests: smell, taste, appearance.

🦠 🌿
Pathogens in Raw Milk Milk as Functional Food

• Bacteria: E. coli, Listeria, • Contains bioactive compounds:

Salmonella, Brucella, Staph. o Antibacterial, antiviral, anti-parasitic &
aureus, Campylobacter. anti-fungal properties.
• Viruses: HSV, HBV, HIV, etc. • Colostrum boosts immunity.
• Parasites: Toxoplasma gondii, • Oligosaccharides help gut health.
Cryptosporidium.
• Sources: systemic infection,
mastitis, environmental
🔬
contamination. Technological Functions of Milk in Foods

📈 • Water-binding: meats, bakery, frozen foods.

• Viscosity: soups, yoghurts.
Factors AHecting Milk Quality • Emulsification: ice cream, dressings.
• Foaming: whipped cream, desserts.
• Species, breed, age, lactation stage, • Gelation: custards, yoghurts.
milking method, nutrition, animal • Solubility: stable under processing.
health, season. • Flavor/Color: Maillard reaction in baking,
caramel, dairy.

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AGRI321 EXAM NOTES GEORGIE HOLLAND STUDENT ID: 7102893
LECTURE FOUR: Achieving Quality, Sustainability and Innovation

🐄 1. Producing High-Quality Milk 🏠 2. Cow Housing & Welfare

• Key Aspects: Microbiological quality, • Cows graze outdoors in summer;

composition, low somatic cell count, and no housed in winter with sheds designed
antibiotic/chemical residues. to meet the Five Freedoms (no hunger,
• Starts on-farm: Good farm management, discomfort, pain, fear, and can show
cow health, housing, and genetics are normal behavior).
essential. • Housing increases mastitis risk –
• Common cow health issues like mastitis and especially environmental mastitis from
lameness are costly and affect milk quality. dirty bedding, crowded areas.

🧪 3. Milk Defects & Prevention ✅ Prevention:

• Good udder prep, clean equipment, fast

• Absorbed (e.g. feedy, barny) – from feed or
cooling (<7.2°C), and avoiding
poor storage.
contaminants.
• Bacterial (e.g. sour, rancid) – due to poor
• Mastitis Control: Milking hygiene,
sanitation or cold storage failure.
post-milking teat dipping, dry cow
• Chemical (e.g. rancid, oxidized) – from
therapy, vaccines, and nutrition (Vit E,
mastitis, ketosis, poor handling, or light
Se).
exposure.
🌿 🥛
4. Environmental Sustainability 5. Innovation in Dairy

• Reduce waste, improve • Product Innovation: lactose-free milk, low-sugar

efficiency, and lower costs yoghurt, iced coffee drinks.
through on-farm • Nutritional upgrades: more protein/calcium, less sugar
innovation. and fat.
• Smart tech and data use • Child nutrition: products like Anmum™ for
(e.g., cow health development.
monitoring) to boost • Traceability: Over 99% of NZ milk is electronically
productivity. traceable.

LECTURE FIVE: Antibiotics in Agriculture

💊 📈
1. What Are Antimicrobials? 2. History & Use in Agriculture

• Substances (natural or synthetic) • 1930s–1960s: Rise of antibiotics (e.g. penicillin,

that kill/inhibit microorganisms sulfa drugs); found to improve animal growth →
(e.g., antibiotics, antivirals, AGPs (Antibiotic Growth Promoters).
antifungals). • Widespread use led to antibiotic residues in
• Do not include disinfectants or food and rising concern about resistance.
macro-organism killers. • Use extended to plants too.
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AGRI321 EXAM NOTES GEORGIE HOLLAND STUDENT ID: 7102893

🧬 3. Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) 📍 4. How Does Resistance Spread?

• Bacteria mutate or acquire genes that help • From animals → humans via:
them survive antibiotics. o Direct contact (farm workers,
• Horizontal gene transfer: major pathway for families)
resistance spread. o Environment (neighbourhood,
• Resistance = antibiotic becomes ineffective, water, soil)
reducing treatment options. • Example: Tetracycline resistance
spread beyond farms.

📉 5. Global Regulatory Response ⚠ 6. Why AMR Matters

• 1990s–2020s: Multiple countries ban AGPs (e.g., EU, USA, • 1.27 million deaths (2019) due to AMR (Lancet).
China). • Makes infections harder to treat.
• WHO (2012): AMR declared a global emergency. • Threatens medical procedures, food security, public
• 2024: UN political declaration on AMR reduction. health.
• Resistance to critical antibiotics (e.g., vancomycin,
MRSA) rising.

🛡 🇳🇿
7. Antimicrobial Stewardship 8. NZ Regulations

• Responsible use of antibiotics to preserve • Growth promotion with human-critical antibiotics is banned.
their effectiveness. • Mandatory withholding periods to limit residue in food.
• One Health approach: human, animal, and • Goal by 2030: No need for antibiotics to maintain animal health (set
environmental health are interconnected. by NZ Vet Association).
• Goals:
o 30% reduction in inappropriate ✅
animal antibiotic use. Summary
o Prioritise AWaRe classification:
§ Access (low resistance • Antibiotics used for more than treating disease (e.g., growth,
risk) prevention).
§ Watch (serious
infections)
• Misuse contributes to AMR, though not the sole cause.
§ Reserve (last-resort only) • Stewardship, regulation, innovation, and surveillance are key to
protecting antibiotics.

LECTURE SIX: The Future of Antibiotics in Animal Agriculture with just the most important points

• Antibiotic use in animals is mainly for growth promotion, preventing, and treating infections.
• High-density farming drives antibiotic use; NZ uses fewer antibiotics due to pasture-based systems.
• Reducing meat consumption and shifting farming practices, like better vaccination and nutrition, can reduce antibiotic reliance.
• Vaccines are promising but not always as effective or available as antibiotics.
• Alternatives to antibiotics include:
o Phytochemicals (herbal extracts)
o Probiotics
o Enzymes
o Hormonal promotants (restricted use)
• Reducing antibiotic use helps lower antimicrobial resistance (AMR), but resistant bacteria may still persist in the environment.
• Animal-only antibiotics (like ionophores) could help—but risk promoting complacency in animal welfare.
• New strategies include:
o Redesigning antibiotics to limit exposure of gut bacteria
o Developing new antibiotics (e.g. Lariocidin)
o Antimicrobial peptides, bacteriophages, gene editing
• Challenges: drug development is expensive, time-consuming, and may lack incentive for companies.
• Global issue: needs collaboration across sectors to manage resistance and support sustainable animal production.

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AGRI321 EXAM NOTES GEORGIE HOLLAND STUDENT ID: 7102893
PART 3 – Plant Based Food Production
LECTURE ONE: An introduction to “edible plant” food systems: past, present and future

🔁 What is a Food System? 📈 Key Food & Ag Facts

• A food system includes all steps: • Food demand has exploded since 10,000 BC.
production → processing → transport → • In 1940, one US farmer fed ~10 people.
consumption. In 2020, one fed >150 people.
• Can be global, national, or local, and is • Finance & large corporations now drive food systems.
underpinned by supply chains. • Agriculture uses massive energy (e.g. 1 burger = 20 miles of car fuel).

🧪 Agricultural Revolutions & Innovations

🌎 Global Challenges
1⃣ First Agricultural Revolution
• Population growth, famine, climate change, and
undernutrition are all real concerns. • Early crop domestication (e.g. teosinte →
• 1 in 9 people go hungry; many lack key vitamins & maize).
minerals. • Simple tools, bulk transport & storage, early
• The Climate Change Commission warns of food shortages human intervention in ecosystems.
by 2050 if farming doesn't change.
2⃣
Second Agricultural Revolution
🧠
Malthusian Theory • Scientific breeding (Mendel, Darwin), better
plant propagation.
• Malthus (1798) predicted famine due to • Hybrid vigour (heterosis) → higher crop
yields (e.g. hybrid corn).
population > food supply.
• Partially true: famines still occur, especially 3⃣
Third Agricultural Revolution / Green Revolution
with climate + economic instability.
• Combo of genetics + mechanization
(tractors, fertilizers, pesticides).
• High-yielding semi-dwarf crops (e.g. IR8
🥗 Food Security Today “miracle rice”).
• Cold chains & global logistics developed.
• We need food to provide: ⚠
o Macronutrients (carbs, fats, protein, Drawbacks of Green Revolution
fibre)
o Micronutrients (vitamins, minerals) • Requires oil-based inputs (fertilizers,
o Phytonutrients (protective plant pesticides).
compounds) • Encourages monocultures → low disease
• Water scarcity a growing threat (3000L/day resistance.
• Benefits wealthy farmers, can lead to debt
per person for food).
and urban migration.
• Land availability is shrinking; must • Environmental impacts: erosion, pollution.
prioritize use.

🥩 What About Meat? 🚀 The Future: A Plant-Based Focus?

• Humans evolved to seek high-energy foods like meat & • Innovation is key to food security.
sugar. • Could we be entering a Fourth Agricultural
• But excess consumption raises health, environmental, and Revolution through:
ethical concerns. o Biotech
• Meat production uses more land, water, and energy than o AI / precision farming
plant foods. o Sustainable plant-based systems

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AGRI321 EXAM NOTES GEORGIE HOLLAND STUDENT ID: 7102893
LECTURE TWO: Apples
Origins & History Post-Harvest Handling

• Malus sieversii (wild apple from • Hydrocooling, waxing, sorting, packing in packhouses.
Kazakhstan) is the main ancestor of • Apples are climacteric fruits – high respiration and ethylene during ripening.
today’s domestic apple (Malus • Storage conditions aim to reduce respiration and ethylene to slow ripening.
domestica).
• Introduced to NZ by Europeans;
Storage
first exported in 1888 (Chile), then
to England in 1890s.
• Ideal temp: 0–1°C (some varieties 3–4°C).
Biology • Controlled Atmosphere (CA) storage lowers oxygen to ~2%, reducing
spoilage and extending shelf life.
• Use of 1-MCP to inhibit ethylene effects.
• Deciduous tree, 1.8–4.5 m tall.
• Flowers: Perfect (5 petals, 5
sepals); ovary develops into fruit. Distribution
• Pollination: Mostly cross-
pollinated; honey bees are key
pollinators. • Requires a cold chain to maintain quality from orchard to consumer.

Future Innovations
On-Orchard Practices

• New cultivars with better disease resistance and shelf life.

• Planting in rows; pruning &
training to improve fruit quality • Increased automation (thinning, harvesting, sorting).
and sun exposure. • Waste reduction through better storage, packaging, and processing.
• Requires irrigation and balanced
fertilization.
• Susceptible to diseases (e.g., fire Growing Conditions
blight, scab) and pests (e.g., codling
moth). • Soil: Well-drained, fertile loams.
• Climate: Cool temps, winter chill needed; frost, hail, strong winds harmful.
Harvesting
Genetics & Breeding 1. 7,500 cultivars exist; breeding focuses on yield, disease
• Picked by hand to avoid bruising; resistance, appearance, storage. 2. Low genetic diversity in high-performing
maturity judged by days since cultivars is a challenge.
bloom

LECTURE THREE: Kiwifruit

🌱 🌿
Origin & History Biology

• Native to China (Yangtze River • Genus Actinidia (60 species); key types:
Valley); known as Yang Tao or
o A. deliciosa (green), A. chinensis (gold), A.
Chinese Gooseberry.
• Introduced to NZ in 1904 by Isabel arguta (kiwiberry), A. purpurea (red).
Fraser. • Dioecious (separate male/female plants).
• ‘Hayward’ cultivar bred in NZ (1927); • Pollination via bees, birds, or artificial methods.
became the main export. 🧬
🧪
Growth & Harvest
Propagation
• Require chill hours; best in warm summer/cool winter
• Mainly by grafting (not seeds) to
climates.
clone cultivars.
• NZ volcanic soils are ideal (pH 5.0–6.8).
• Grafted onto rootstocks with
• Harvest when dry matter is 10–14 °Brix (sugar
desirable traits (disease
content).
resistance, soil tolerance).
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AGRI321 EXAM NOTES GEORGIE HOLLAND STUDENT ID: 7102893

Varieties & Breeding Orchard Practices

🧫 🚜
• Green (Hayward): No license needed, • Planted in spring, trained on T-bar/pergola
widely grown. systems.
• Gold (Hort16a → Gold3): Zespri licensed, • Pruned to manage canopy and light.
resistant to Psa-V.
• Irrigation: ~42L water/fruit; avoid frost with
• Red19 (Red kiwifruit): Tender process
through Zespri.
sprinklers.
• Kiwiberry: Small, grape-sized, cold-hardy. • Fertilizers: NPK + trace elements, seaweed
sprays.

🦠 Pests & Diseases 📦 Post-Harvest Chain

• Psa-V: Bacterial disease; major 2010 outbreak.

• Transport/Curing: 2–3 days at 10°C; gold
• BMSB: Major biosecurity threat.
• Disease control: Copper sprays, resistant cultivars.
fruit may be degreened.
• Packing: Labour-intensive; done in
🧹 Thinning & Harvest trays/boxes.
• Storage: Kiwifruit are climacteric (ethylene-
• Remove low-quality/shaded/lateral fruit (focus on producing).
king fruit). o Damaged fruit ripen others.
• Hand-picked for quality, with increasing o Temperature management is key.
mechanisation.

LECTURE FOUR: Grapes

2. Biology of the Grape Vine

1. Introduction & History
• Plant Type: Deciduous woody climbing vine; up to 35m.
• Grapes belong to genus Vitis (about 12 • Structure:
cultivated species). o Trunk: Main stem.
o Cordons: Horizontal extensions.
• Vitis vinifera is the most commercially o Canes: Shoots from winter buds.
important species. o Tendrils: Help the vine climb.
• Origin: Primarily Asia, with 25 species o Flowers & Fruit: Grow opposite leaves on the
shoot.
in North America and V. vinifera in
• Growth Stages:
Eurasia. o Budburst → Flowering → Fruit Set → Veraison
• Cultivation began ~8000 years ago, for (ripening) → Harvest
fruit and wine. o Veraison: Pigment develops, sugars increase,
acidity decreases.
• First NZ planting: Samuel Marsden, • Eichhorn-Lorenz system describes stages of vine
Kerikeri, 1819. development.

4. NZ Cultivation
3. Subspecies: sylvestris vs. vinifera
• Grapes grown from latitude 37°S to 45°S (Northland
• sylvestris: Wild, separate male/female to Central Otago).
flowers, smaller leaves/berries. • Climate needs: Cold winters (dormancy), warm
• vinifera: Domesticated, hermaphrodite summers (fruit development).
flowers, larger berries, more sugar. • Soil: Loams/sandy loams, organic matter, pH 5.5–6.5.
• Pollination: Self-fertilizing, wind- • Needs full sunlight.
• Asexually propagated by grafting onto disease-
pollinated. resistant rootstocks.

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AGRI321 EXAM NOTES GEORGIE HOLLAND STUDENT ID: 7102893

5. Varieties 6. Vineyard Practices

• Wine Grapes (Red): Cabernet Sauvignon, • Planting: Spring, weed-free tilled soil.
Merlot, Pinot Noir, Cabernet Franc. • Trellising: VSP (Vertical Shoot Positioning).
• Wine Grapes (White): Chardonnay, Sauvignon • Pruning: Winter – 90% of last year's growth removed.
Blanc. • Canopy Management: Balance sunlight/shade/air.
• Table Grapes (Red/Purple): Flame Seedless, • Crop Thinning: Ensures ripeness of remaining
Concord, Ruby Seedless, Moon Drop. bunches.
• Table Grapes (White): Thompson Seedless. • Irrigation: Drip irrigation preferred.

7. Fertilisation
8. Pests & Diseases
• Needs NPK and trace minerals.
• Application varies by growth stage. • Phylloxera: Root-feeding aphid, combated via
• Both soil and foliar application used. resistant rootstocks.
• Mealybugs: Transmit viruses.
10. Storage & Uses
• Birds/rabbits: Use netting/guns.
• Fungal Diseases:
o Powdery & Downy Mildew: Blotches on
• Stored at 0 to –1°C for up to 60 days.
• Uses: leaves.
o Fresh fruit, wine, raisins, juice, jam, o Botrytis: Grey mold; managed via
vinegar, grape seed oil/extract. pruning and fungicides.

9. Harvesting

• Table Grapes: Hand-picked to prevent damage.

• Wine Grapes: Hand/machine.
• Indicators of ripeness: Color change, waxy layer, soft berries, sugar levels.
• Post-harvest: Washed (citric acid/salt), precooled (4°C), sulphur dioxide treatment, packed within
4–6 hours.
LECTURE FIVE: Grain Crops

🌾 1. Introduction to Grain (Cereal) Crops 🥖 3. Nutritional Value

• Definition: Cereal = grain used for food. • Complex carbohydrates, high protein, low fat, fiber-rich
• Major grains: Maize (corn), wheat, rice, barley, • Provide B vitamins (thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, folic acid) and
sorghum, oats, rye, millet. iron
• Uses: Staple foods—bread, pasta, cereals. • Staple for global diet: maize, wheat, rice = top 3 by
consumption

🌍 2. Origins and History b. Field Cultivation

• Agriculture independently arose in: • Maize: cross-pollinated by wind, spring planting, 2.5–3.5
o Southeast Asia months
o Mesopotamia • Wheat: mostly self-pollinating
o Central America o Winter wheat: planted in autumn, harvested next
• Timeline: ~10,000–7,000 BC summer
• Grains were among the first domesticated crops.
o Spring wheat: planted spring, harvested late summer
• Benefits:
• Rice:
o Easy to store o Requires flooded fields, then drained for harvest
o Grow in poor soils and dryland o 3–6 month growing season
o High in carbs and protein
o Good feed for animals

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AGRI321 EXAM NOTES GEORGIE HOLLAND STUDENT ID: 7102893

🌱 4. Grain Production Chains: Overview

c. Post-Harvest

a. Genetics & Breeding

• Requires a dry chain for transport & storage
• Transport: truck (dry), bulk ship
• Maize: highly diverse, developed from wild ancestors • Stored in grain silos (prevent pests, moisture)
o Types: dent (field), sweet, flint, popcorn, flour, pod
• Wheat:
o Developed from landraces d. Processing to Flour (Wheat)
o Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) = allopolyploid
from hybridization (A, B, D genomes)
o Six major classes: • Steps:
1. Cleaning
§ Soft White & Soft Red Winter – low protein,
2. Tempering
used in pastries
3. Grinding
§ Hard Red Winter – all-purpose flour, bread 4. Sifting
§ Hard White – yeast breads, tortillas 5. Purification
§ Hard Red Spring – highest protein, specialty
baking
• Outputs: flour, screenings, middlings, germ, red
dog
§ Durum – pasta (semolina)
• Rice: long-term continuous selection; self-pollinated
💡 Genetic Innovations

🔮 5. Future Innovations
• Optimum AQUAmax (DuPont Pioneer):
🚨 Climate Challenge o ~5% yield increase under drought
o Launched 2013 (US, approved China)
• DroughtGuard Maize:
• Droughts increasing → lower yields, higher food prices o 10–15% increase under drought
• Less than 1% of Earth’s water is available for plant use o Trade-offs: cost vs drought tolerance

🌽 ✅ 💧
Alternative Crops Good Management Water-Saving Irrigation
Practices
• Sorghum: • Variable rate irrigation for water
o Drought & heat tolerant • Move from crisis- efficiency
o Native to Africa, grown in arid based to risk- • Soil moisture sensors
areas based drought • Satellites:
o Used for food, fodder, biofuels policy o Monitor drought via
o Requires ~332 L water/kg • Plan for water use, images
grain crop selection, o VegDRI combines
• Wheat: needs ~1000 L/kg grain yield management vegetation/climate/drought
data

LECTURE SIX: Agrichemicals and Pesticides

1. Definitions: 2. Types of Agrichemicals:

• Agrichemicals: Substances used in • Fertilisers, Herbicides, Insecticides, Fungicides,

managing plants/animals or land to and others.
influence health, productivity, or
pest control.
• Pesticides: A type of agrichemical 3. Benefits:
specifically used to manage pests
in agriculture, horticulture, • Improve crop yield and quality.
forestry, and public spaces. • Help crops reach genetic yield potential.

4. Risks:

• Harm to human health and environment.

• Persistent residues (e.g. Chlorpyrifos – broad-spectrum, potentially toxic).

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AGRI321 EXAM NOTES GEORGIE HOLLAND STUDENT ID: 7102893
5. Application & Effectiveness: 6. Regulations:

• Methods: spraying, pellets, granules. • International:

• Affected by timing, life stage of o WHO/FAO Code, Stockholm
pests, environmental conditions Convention (POPs), Rotterdam, Basel
(light, temp, pH). – global standards for safe pesticide use,
waste control, and trade risk reduction.
7. MRLs (Maximum Residue Limits):
- NZ Laws:
• MRLs vary by country; MPI
database provides levels. • HSNO Act (1996) – Approves agrichemicals;
• Based on Acceptable Daily Intake manages risks, buffer zones.
(ADI), detection limits, and Good • ACVM Act (1997) – Protects public health,
Agricultural Practice (GAP) trials. trade, food residues.
• HSW Act (2015) – Worker safety during
8. Alternatives to Synthetic agrichemical use.
Agrichemicals: • RMA (1991) – Prevents environmental harm;
managed by councils.
• Organic: e.g. Spinosad (low
mammal toxicity, degrades fast), 9. NZ Case Studies:
Rotenone (natural, but human health
concerns). • Argentine Stem Weevil: Controlled with
• Biological Controls: parasitoid wasp & ryegrass endophytes.
o Trichoderma fungi: Attacks • Tomato/Potato Psyllid: Managed via timing,
other fungi, boosts crop yield. mesh, parasitoids, selective sprays.
o Serratia entomophila: Kills • Kiwifruit PSA: Copper sprays, Actigard, and
grass grubs (causes ‘amber bacteriophages in development.
disease’).
• Integrated Pest Management **10. Key Challenge:
(IPM): Combines multiple methods
(biological, chemical, timing, • Resistance: Pests/diseases adapt, requiring
barriers). constant innovation.

PART 4 – Value Addition and Waste Reduction

LECTURE ONE: Food Waste Innovation Auahatanga Parakai

Key Learning Objectives
📚 Definitions & Importance
1. Define food loss and food
waste, and understand • Food Loss: Occurs from harvest/slaughter to
why clear definitions processing/manufacturing.
matter. • Food Waste: Occurs from wholesale/retail to consumption
2. Identify and explain the stages.
drivers of FLW on-farm • These definitions are important as they:
o Shape research and policy focus (e.g., SDG 12.3).
and in households.
o Influence who is held responsible and what counts
3. Explore prevention
strategies for FLW with as waste.
o Are often subjective (e.g., cultural views of what is
practical examples.
‘edible’).

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AGRI321 EXAM NOTES GEORGIE HOLLAND STUDENT ID: 7102893

⚠ Challenges with Definitions 🚜 Drivers of FLW

✅ On-Farm
• “Loss” implies accident rather than
choice → can lead to underestimation of
farm waste. • Market-driven waste (due to cosmetic
• What is “ready to harvest” and “edible” specs, overproduction).
is contextual and subjective. • Operational risks (weather, pests, lack of
• Shame and reputational risk around market power).
food waste → people may avoid • Often caused by downstream stakeholders
reporting it accurately. (retailers/processors).

🏠 In Households

♻ FLW Hierarchy (NZ MfE version) • Subjectivity on edibility, especially with

kids.
• Misunderstanding date labels (e.g. best
• Top priority = Prevention before vs. use by).
• Followed by: Redistribution → Animal • Higher income = usually more waste.
feed → Composting → Energy recovery • Children increase unpredictability and lead to
→ Landfill (least preferred). overprovisioning.

✅ Prevention Strategies 🛠 Further Solutions

On-Farm:
• Policy change (e.g.
banning food waste from
• Mechanisation (e.g. harvesting platforms).
landfills).
• Animal health monitors (reduce loss via early disease
• Changing retailer cosmetic
detection).
standards.
• Selling imperfect produce (e.g. “ugly” veg).
• Improved data collection
• Business collaboration (e.g. shared logistics/processing).
and sharing across supply
chains.
Household:
• Opportunities for
innovation,
• Meal planning (reduces over-buying and impulse entrepreneurship, and
orders). better consumer behaviour.
• Proper storage (extends shelf life and reduces spoilage).

LECTURE TWO: Upcycled Foods

🌱 What is Upcycled Food? 📊 Food Waste Suitable for

Upcycling
Upcycled foods are value-added products made from
ingredients that would otherwise go to waste. They:
• Unsold bread, dairy, meat, fresh
• Are for human consumption produce
• Use verifiable supply chains • Surpluses caused by weather events
• Aim to have a positive environmental impact or retailer limitations
• Are labeled with their upcycled content • Seasonal gluts (e.g. too many
tomatoes ripening at once)

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AGRI321 EXAM NOTES GEORGIE HOLLAND STUDENT ID: 7102893

✅ Benefits of Upcycled Food ⚠ Challenges of Upcycled Food

• Environmental: Reduces food • Consumer concerns: The "ick" factor, food

waste, GHG emissions safety, neophobia
• Economic: Adds value to unsellable • Processing: More energy may be required; some
food, creates a unique selling point consumers prefer less processed food
(USP) • Premium pricing: Not all consumers willing to
• Consumer appeal: Taps into pay more
demand for sustainable, ethical • Environmental trade-offs: Upcycling happens
products after food has already been wasted
• Growing market: $54.5B USD in • Greenwashing risk: Buzzword misuse by
2022 with 5.7% CAGR companies

🔒 Upcycled Food 🇳🇿 NZ Examples of Upcycled Food

Certification 🔍 SWOT Analysis Highlights
• Rescued Kitchen: Upcycles bakery &
• Third-party • Strengths: Sustainable image, waste citrus waste into baking mixes and
verified scheme reduction, market growth crackers
• Ensures • Weaknesses: Consumer hesitancy, • Citizen Collective: Turns ugly cherries
transparency, inconsistent supply into soda/RTDs; bread into beer
builds consumer • Opportunities: Innovation, global • Dunedin Craft Distillers: Converts
trust expansion, new partnerships bread waste into spirits
• Certifies products • Threats: Greenwashing, scalability • EatKinda: Makes vegan ice cream from
that meet clear challenges, regulation surplus cauliflower (now moving to
upcycling USA)
standards

LECTURE THREE: Value Addition and Innovation of Plant-Based Byproducts

🔄 Why Valorise Plant Byproducts? 🌿 What Are Plant Byproducts?

• Valorisation = turning low-value • Inedible parts of crops removed before or during manufacturing.
plant waste into high-value • Often discarded or used in low-value applications like animal feed or
products. compost.
• Helps build a circular economy, • But they contain valuable bioactive components:
reduces waste, and supports o Vitamins, proteins, dietary fibre
sustainability. o Polyphenols (antioxidants), carotenoids, alkaloids
• Aligns with consumer values o Can aid gut health, act as antimicrobials, antioxidants, etc.
(natural, clean-label, sustainable
ingredients).
🧪 Technologies Enabling Valorisation 🇳🇿 NZ Examples

♻ Current Uses of Plant Byproducts

Used to extract bioactive compounds • NZ industry mostly uses
from plant byproducts: water extraction, then
• Animal feed: Most common, but filtration + freeze-drying.
not always ideal (e.g. some fruit • Supercritical fluid extraction • Used to produce
waste is toxic). pharmaceutical and
• Ultrasound/microwave-
• Composting/land application: assisted extraction cosmetic ingredients (e.g.
Improves soil health. grape pomace).
• Enzyme-assisted extraction
• Anaerobic digestion: Produces • Green Spot Technologies:
biogas and digestate (fertiliser). • Pressurised liquid extraction
Fermentation + drying to
• Low-value and may not maximise • Membrane separation make food powders.
the potential of the byproducts. technology
• Pulsed Electric Field (PEF) for
cell disruption

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AGRI321 EXAM NOTES GEORGIE HOLLAND STUDENT ID: 7102893

💡 Opportunities ⚠ Challenges

• Environmental: Reduced food waste, lower emissions, • Variability in byproduct composition

sustainable supply chains. • Bitterness of some compounds
• Economic: New revenue from waste, IP development (e.g. • Scaling from lab to industry is hard
extraction processes). • High investment costs
• Health: Customised nutrition or pharmaceutical benefits • Transport costs (wet, heavy materials)
(e.g. precision fermentation, personalised dosing). • Need for drying to preserve shelf life

🚀 Future Directions: Food Industry 4.0 ❓ Is It Worth It?

• Smart sensors & IoT: Better monitoring and efficiency To be worthwhile, plant byproduct valorisation must be:
• AI & machine learning: Predict bioactive content and best
extraction methods • Economically viable
• Precision fermentation: Uses byproducts as feedstock • Better for sustainability than current options (like
• Decentralised processing: Smaller-scale, local animal feed)
valorisation solutions • Safe and ethical

LECTURE FOUR: Value Addition of Animal Byproducts

🔹 Why are they important?
🔹 What are animal byproducts?
Animal byproducts are parts of the
• Nutrient-rich (e.g., liver, brain)
animal not used as the main food
• Contain bioactive compounds (e.g., collagen, blood peptides)
product (e.g., organs, blood, bones, • Reduce waste and disposal costs
whey). When they are upgraded to • Create extra income for processors
valuable, profitable products, they are • Growing markets, especially in petfood, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics
called co-products.

🔹 Value Hierarchy 🔹 Milk Byproducts (Whey)

Processors prioritise byproducts based on:
• Created during cheese/yoghurt production
• Nutrient content • Can be processed into whey protein products or fermented into
• Bioactivity ethanol
• Quality (impacted by animal health and • Once a waste issue, now a value opportunity
processing)
🔹 Challenges
🔹 Common Uses
• Infrastructure and processing costs
• Petfood (follows human food trends) • Meat still takes priority in production
• Supplements (e.g., collagen for joints/skin, whey • Societal shifts away from animal products
protein) • Competition from cellular agriculture and precision
• Biomedical/Pharma (e.g., serums, peptides) fermentation
• Ethanol (from whey waste)

🔹 Key takeaway
Animal byproducts, once seen as waste, can add significant economic, nutritional,
and functional value — but only if processed e\ectively and aligned with market
demands and societal values.

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AGRI321 EXAM NOTES GEORGIE HOLLAND STUDENT ID: 7102893
LECTURE FIVE: Insects and Worms as Alternative Proteins
🔹 Food Security & 🔹 Why Insects?
Biodiversity Benefits Insects and worms are a nutritious, sustainable, Examples of Edible Species
and efficient protein source.
• Over 2,000 edible • Crickets: All essential amino
species known • High in protein, omega-3, fibre, and acids, easy to farm
• Mostly free from micronutrients • Huhu Grubs (NZ): Potential
major zoonotic • Require less land, water, and feed local industry
diseases (unlike • Produce fewer greenhouse gas emissions • Snails: High protein, easy to
livestock) • Can be used for both human and animal rear
• Can diversify global feed • Earthworms: High in
food supply (currently • Feed on food/agricultural waste, helping antibacterial peptides, but may
dominated by few close the loop in food systems accumulate toxins
crops/livestock)

Risks and Challenges Opportunities

• Food safety: Potential for allergens, parasites, chemical/toxic • Global population growth increasing protein
accumulation demand
• Biosecurity risks: Industrial farming may introduce invasive • Potential for automation, NZ-specific
species products (like Huhu grubs)
• Consumer acceptance: ‘Ick factor’, neophobia, cultural norms • Fortification in elderly/children’s nutrition
• Not vegan/vegetarian and concerns over ethical farming • Edible insect companies like Entomo Farms
• Supply chain issues (especially in NZ: strict import rules, limited in Canada and NZ-based startups are gaining
local production) traction

Key Takeaways

• Insects and worms are promising alternative protein sources offering nutritional,
environmental, and food security benefits.
• Widespread adoption in Western countries is limited by social, regulatory, and logistical
barriers — but this is slowly changing.

PAST EXAM QUESTIONS AND HOW TO ANSWER THEM:

1. Compare and contrast meat quality grading systems: Japan, USA, Australia, NZ.
Focus on NZ's system and its value internationally.

• Japan: Marbling score (BMS), meat colour, firmness, fat colour. Very focused on intramuscular fat
(Wagyu).
• USA: Marbling, maturity, meat colour. Grades like Prime, Choice, Select.
• Australia (MSA): Consumer-focused. Marbling, pH, fat depth, ageing, ossification.
• NZ: No formal national grading. Focus on yield (lean meat %, carcass weight) and processing specs.

NZ system in markets:

• Emphasises grass-fed, hormone-free, natural = premium in markets valuing health & environment.
• Exporters (e.g. Silver Fern Farms) develop in-house grading for eating quality.

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AGRI321 EXAM NOTES GEORGIE HOLLAND STUDENT ID: 7102893
2. Opportunities for adding value to meat co-products

• Blood: High-protein supplements, fertilisers, medical products (e.g. plasma).

• Bones: Gelatine, stock, pet food.
• Organs: Export delicacies (e.g. liver, tripe), nutraceuticals.
• Hide/skin: Leather, collagen.
• Innovation: Bioactive compounds, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals.

Explore via:

• R&D partnerships
• Market analysis (Asia, nutraceuticals)
• Processing tech upgrades

3. Key innovations for high-yielding crop plants (last 150 years)

• Mechanisation: Tractors, combine harvesters = faster, more land use.

• Synthetic fertilisers: Major boost to soil nutrients.
• Plant breeding: HYVs, disease resistance (e.g. wheat, maize).
• GMOs/biotech: Pest-resistant crops, drought-tolerant varieties.
• Precision ag: GPS, drones, soil monitoring = targeted inputs.

4. Wheat production chain + sustainability improvements

Chain:

1. Input supply → 2. Planting → 3. Growth & crop care → 4. Harvesting → 5. Processing → 6.

Distribution

Sustainability improvements:

• Use conservation tillage, crop rotation

• Reduce chemical input with IPM, precision tools
• Improve soil health, reduce water use
• Shift to low-emission machinery, local supply chains

5. Managing antibiotics in livestock & 2 key strategies

• Overuse = resistance → threat to human and animal health

• Better management: Use only when necessary, with vet oversight
• Improve animal health: hygiene, biosecurity, vaccination

Two key strategies:

1. Ban prophylactic use (especially in feed)

2. Surveillance & regulation (monitor usage and resistance)
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AGRI321 EXAM NOTES GEORGIE HOLLAND STUDENT ID: 7102893

6. Challenges with phages, probiotics, antiseptics as antibiotic alternatives

• Phages: Very specific → hard to match to all bacteria; regulatory hurdles.

• Probiotics: Mixed results; need tailored strains and dosing.
• Antiseptics: Limited to surface use; can damage tissues; resistance risk.

General issues:

• Costly development, slow approvals, lack of awareness in farming sector.

7. Food safety, biosecurity, and links to sustainable ag + food security

• Food safety: Prevents contamination, ensures market access.

• Biosecurity: Protects from pests/diseases → vital for export reliability.
• Sustainable ag: Maintains long-term production, resource use.
• All three work together to ensure stable, safe, and resilient food systems.

POSSIBLE EXAM QUESTIONS:

✅ PART 1 – Agricultural Production & Food Security

1. Discuss how the Te Taiao a Rangi framework can guide sustainable bioprotection strategies in New
Zealand agriculture.

💡 Focus: Myrtle rust case study, indigenous frameworks, soil/forest governance, microbiome.

2. How can sustainable nutrition be integrated into agricultural policy and practice to improve food system
outcomes?

💡 Lecture 3 themes — link to food security and climate change resilience.

3. Compare the linear and circular economy models in food production. How does transitioning to a
circular model support sustainability goals?

💡 Use examples from LCSA and cellular agriculture lectures.

✅ PART 2 – Animal-Based Food Production

4. Compare different countries’ meat quality grading systems and discuss how NZ's approach affects its
global beef market position.

💡 Common past exam question – include marbling, processing specs, grass-fed branding.

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AGRI321 EXAM NOTES GEORGIE HOLLAND STUDENT ID: 7102893
5. How can sustainable productivity be balanced with meat quality and environmental outcomes in livestock
production?

💡 Reference Lecture 2: genetics, feed, stress, sustainability.

6. Discuss two key strategies for reducing antibiotic resistance in animal agriculture.

💡 Tie in with Lecture 5 & 6 – vet control, phasing out prophylactic use.

✅ PART 3 – Plant-Based Food Production

7. Using kiwifruit or apples as examples, explain how value is added across the plant-based production
chain.

💡 Include innovation, quality grading, export strategy.

8. Critically evaluate the role of agrichemicals and pesticides in modern crop production. What sustainable
alternatives exist?

💡 Discuss risks vs benefits and link to integrated pest management.

9. Discuss major innovations in cereal crop (e.g. wheat) production and how the system can be made more
sustainable.

💡 Precision ag, reduced tillage, breeding.

✅ PART 4 – Value Addition & Waste Reduction

10. Discuss potential uses for meat co-products and how these can add value in a circular bioeconomy.

💡 Tie in with Lecture 4 and sustainability goals.

11. How can upcycled food innovations reduce food waste and contribute to food security?

💡 Include examples (e.g. spent grain crackers, fruit pulp snacks).

12. Evaluate the potential and challenges of using insects and worms as alternative protein sources in
human or animal diets.

💡 Mention lifecycle impacts, feed conversion efficiency, consumer acceptance.

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