Chapter two

LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction

Clayey soil has a fine texture, is water-holding capacity, and is impermeable. In general,
clayey soil is rich in nutrients. Because clayey soils are so malleable, their consistency varies
according on the amount of moisture they contain. Because the particles in clayey soil are so
minute, they are packed tightly at the structural level. The distance between these particles is
quite small. Consequently, water drainage through this soil becomes quite challenging. It is
often smooth and gluey when wet, or when the moisture content is high; when the moisture
content is low, it becomes brittle and loses its plastic qualities. Minerals such as
phyllosilicate, which have variable water content in their mineral structure, make up clayey
soil deposits. (Saini and Garg n.d.)

Table 1: Various clayey soil qualities employed qualities

Values
Properties Values
Specific Gravity 2.49
Liquid Limit (%) 23.8
Plastic Limit (%) 14.8
Plasticity Index 8.02
Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) % 14
Maximum Dry Density (MDD) (g/cc) 1.57

Fly ash, mostly from thermal power plants, is regarded as a waste raw material that is
produced from the gasses that emerge from coal furnaces. In the past, volcanic ashes were
mostly utilized as hydraulic cements, and fly ash shares characteristics with volcanic ashes.
With these kinds of qualities, these ashes are employed all over the world as pozzolans,
which are binding agents. The rise in urban and industrial growth in this age has increased the
need for electrical supplies. This development has also led to a rise in the number of thermal
power plants, which generate electricity. This has increased the amount of coal that is burned
and the amount of fly ash residue that accumulates. The Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP) filter,
which is used in these power plants, aids in the collection of fly ash particles.
(Saini and Garg n.d.)

Table 2: Chemical properties of fly ash

Component Bituminous Subbituminous Lignite

 SiO2 (%) 20-60 40-60 15-45
Al2O3 (%) 5-35 20-30 20-25
Fe2O3 (%) 10-40 4-10 4-15
CaO (%) 1-12 5-30 15-40
LOI (%) 0-15 0-3 0-5
Clay soil was assessed using a series of laboratory tests. Samples of fly ash-stabilized clay
soil were subjected to compaction, unconfined compressive strength, consolidated-undrained
triaxial, one-dimensional consolidation tests, and scanning electro microscopy examination
following 1, 7, and 28 days of curing. (Turan et al., 2022a) Moreover, the clay mixtures with
class C or class F fly ash, which ranged from 0% to 30% of the soil, were used in the testing.
The addition of fly ash and an increase in curing days increased the stabilized soil's strength
characteristics and permeability while decreasing its compression and swelling indices,
according to the experimental data. An industrial by product produced when coal is burned in
thermal power plants is fly ash (Noaman et al. 2022) In several nations, it is produced in
significant quantities. Landfills are where more than 65% of the fly ash produced is dumped.
Fly ash is a waste product that can cause major health and environmental issues if it is not
properly managed. Nonetheless, fly ash has a number of qualities that make it useful for
enhancing the properties, including low compressibility, high shear resistance, high strength,
and pozzolanic qualities. in geotechnical applications of soil. In addition to addressing the
environmental concerns associated with fly ash disposal, stabilizing soft soils with fly ash
addition can offer technological options for soil [Link], the use of fly ash to
stabilize various soil types has prompted a number of researchers to conduct fieldwork or
experimental studies. Table 1 provides an overview of the body of research on fly ash-
stabilized clay soils

These studies have typically shown that adding fly ash can enhance the structure and
properties of the soil in a number of ways, such as compressibility, permeability, strength, and
stiffness. The outcomes of the SEM analysis and the mechanical test findings were in
agreement. According to the findings, class C fly ash could effectively stabilize the soil.
When class C fly ash was used instead of class F fly ash, the stabilized soil's strength,
swelling, and permeability properties improved more. (Turan, Javadi, and Vinai 2022a)

Shear strength test

Shear strength is one of the most important geotechnical soil characteristics since it is
essential for assessing and resolving stability problems (e.g., determining earth pressure, the
bearing capacity of footings and foundations, slope stability, or stability of embankments and
earth dams). The shear strength of soils is commonly determined by laboratory testing
employing triaxle, direct shear, and torsional direct shear tests. Goldscheider (2003),
Lindemann (2003), Stoewahse et al. (2001), and Shibuya, Mitachi, and Tamate (1997) have
all shown how many elements, including the assembly of the upper The results of direct shear
testing can be impacted by the box and the related wall friction effects. One effective method
to reduce these effects is to lubricate the soil-to-steel interface (see, for example, Shibuya et
al. 1997; Lindemann (2003) They recommend using a direct shear device with a load cell
placed in the lower half, beneath the specimen, to detect vertical tension. (Stoewahse et al.
2001) proposes a direct shear device with a vertically adjustable upper half to counteract the
effects of wall friction. This characteristic was taken into consideration by the DIN 18137-
3(2002) standard, which suggests a direct shear apparatus with a vertically movable upper
part of the box as a standard equipment for the performance of direct shear [Link]
However, only the cohesiveness and friction angle values have been considered in the
comparisons of different apparatuses. (2015).
(Abdisamad Abdirahman Haidar, Abdirahman Haidar, and En

Important soil compaction test

Creating a soil mass that meets three basic criteria—a reduction in settlement, a reduction in
permeability, and an increase in shear strength—is the aim of compacting earth fills. It is
essential to alter the site's soils to enhance its engineering qualities for a variety of
applications, including the construction of roads, railroad undergrads, airport pavements, and
earthen and earth-retaining structures. Compaction is also necessary to create a good
compacted soil liner waste impoundment site that is reasonably resistant to leachates,
reducing the possibility of groundwater contamination. To successfully attain the necessary
strength Mechanical compaction is utilized to determine the compressibility and hydraulic
conductivity properties of the utilized soils. The two key compaction characteristics—the
maximum dry density (Ydmax) and the optimal moisture content (OMC)—are determined by
a laboratory compaction test, such as the Proctor test. After extensive fieldwork, it has been
determined that the Proctor compaction test is now a crucial tool for determining Ydmax and
OMC. But it requires a lot of time and work. due to the vast amounts of soils and borrow pit
regions that need to be examined for possible usage as compacting material. Index and
further basic tests have been tried to get a sense of the compaction properties of so
(Abdisamad Abdirahman Haidar et al. 2023)

Unconfined Compressive Strength Tests

Figure 7a,b shows how the fly ash concentration and unconfined compressive strength (qu)
relate to one another over various curing times. For both types of fly ash, the test findings
unequivocally show that the compressive strength rose as the curing period increased.
However, compared to class F fly ash, the impact of class C fly ash on the soil's strength after
7 and 28 days of curing was significantly greater. Seyrek reported a similar tendency.
Generally speaking, the stronger the fly ash's CaO/SiO2 ratio, the greater the unconfined
compressive strength and resilient [Link] a CaO/SiO2 ratio of 32.4%/28.3%, the class
C fly ash utilized in this study had a higher compressive strength than the class F fly ash,
which had a ratio of 2.2%/46.8%. Additionally, the class C fly ash was found to include a
non-negligible amount of lime, which has self-cementing capabilities, according to
mineralogical research. Additionally, class C fly ash's anhydrite combines with water to form
gypsum, which possesses binding properties. However, class F fly ash does not react strongly
with soil because of its low calcium content, which prevents it from having sufficient
cementitious qualities. With the exception of combinations including class C fly ash at one
day of curing, the maximum value of unconfined compressive strength was observed with
25% fly ash for both fly ash types and all curing times. It then decreased from 25% to 30% of
fly ash. These findings align with those published by Seyrek and Dahale et al. At 1, 7, and 28
days of curing, the maximum axial stresses of the unstabilized (control) soil samples were
175 kPa, 180 kPa, and 204 kPa, respectively. The maximum pressures for the class C fly ash-
stabilized soils were 294 kPa with 30% fly ash on the first day of curing, 506 kPa with 25%
fly ash on the seventh day, and 593 kPa with 25% fly ash on the twenty-eighth day. Peak
stresses for the soils stabilized with 25% class F fly ash were 246 kPa after one day of curing,
259 kPa after seven days, and 325 kPa after twenty-eight days. The highest axial strains
dropped when the class C fly ash content was raised from 25% to 30%. After seven and
twenty-eight days of curing, respectively, the highest axial stresses dropped from 506 kPa to
490 kPa and from 593 kPa to 503 kPa. The maximum axial stresses of the soil stabilized with
class F fly ash fell from 246 kPa to 212 kPa after one day of curing, from 259 kPa to 187 kPa
at seven days of curing, and from 325 kPa to 274 kPa at 28 days of curing, with the same
increase in fly ash content (from 25% to 30%).

It can be inferred that class C fly ash outperformed class F fly ash in increasing the soil's
compressive strength. Furthermore, because of their pozzolanic properties, the curing time is
a useful parameter for enhancing the strength and behavior of stabilized soil containing class
C and class F fly ash The values of elastic modulus (E) for the soils stabilized with class C
and class F fly ash, obtained from the results of the UCS tests at 1, 7 and 28 days of curing
are presented in Table 3. The elastic modulus was determined as the slope a tangent line of
the linear part of the stress-strain [Link] results indicate that, in general,
(Turan, Javadi, and Vinai 2022b)

Atterberg test
Two of the most commonly specified tests in the field of geotechnical engineering, the liquid
limit (LL) and plastic limit (PL) tests, are derived from the Atterberg original research, which
was later standardized for use in civil engineering applications and adopted for the
classification of fine-grained soils. These Atterberg limits have been used in a variety of
applications, including the estimate of shear strength, deformation, and critical-state
parameter values for soil mechanics. The comparability of Atterberg limit values obtained
using different testing methods has been the subject of numerous discussions. The definition
of the several consistency limit parameters, their measurement techniques, and related issues
are covered first in this work. Using certain known correlations with the consistency
limitations, the importance of variations in operator performance and judgment in PL
determinations from the rolling out of soil threads is evaluated. Several fall-cone strategies
are evaluated as alternative methods for calculating PL. These shear strength-based methods,
however, are unable to identify the true PL since they do not assess the onset of brittleness.
The significance of potential differences in the strain-rate dependency on mobilized fall-cone
shear strength for different test soils is demonstrated. Several correlations between LL values
obtained using the principal measurement techniques and standards are constructed in order
to account for discrepancies between the various LL measures when they are substantial. To
determine how shear strength changes as water content and other indexes change, the study
concludes with, suggestions for extending the application of the fall-cone technique as
suitable for mild to medium-stiff clays and standardizing international codes.
(Abdisamad Abdirahman Haidar et al. 2023)

Specific gravity

According to the British Standards (BS), the soil was characterized using specific gravity and
standard proctor tests. The results showed that the soil had a liquid limit of 49%, a plastic
limit of 25%, and a plasticity index of 24%. The soil was categorized as clay with
intermediate plasticity (CI) based on the British system-based plasticity chart. The standard
proctor test also revealed the soil's compaction characteristics. The tiny pycnometer test
revealed that the soil's specific gravity was 2.6. Using a Bruker D8 advanced XRD apparatus
(Exeter, UK), X-ray diffraction (XRD) examination was performed to acquire the soil's
mineralogical characterisation. (Turan et al. 2022b)

Compaction Tests
 Standard proctor compaction tests were carried out in accordance with BS [20] to determine
the ideal moisture content and maximum dry unit weight of the control sample and the soil
samples stabilized with 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, and 30% fly ash (based on weight of the
dry soil). These percentages were specifically chosen in accordance with the literature's
recommendations. [7,9,10,13–15,17]. A 2.5 kg rammer was used to provide 27 blows to each
of the three layers of compressed samples in a 1 L mold. The samples were first mixed, and
then the compaction was applied right away. This is because compaction delays may have an
impact on Gdmax. Compaction was immediately applied. This is because compaction delays
may have an impact on [Link] ash can form loose bindings with soil particles as a result of
its rapid hydration reaction, which might disturb the materials, according to Mahvash et al.
(Turan, Javadi, and Vinai 2022c)

Advantages of soil test I site

a) Stresses, strains, drainage, fabric, and particle arrangement can all be negatively
impacted by tests that are conducted in the natural setting without sampling
disruption.
b) It is possible to acquire continuous profiles of engineering properties and
stratigraphy.
c) It is more feasible and probable to identify areas of vulnerability and flaws.
d) Typically, methods are quick, reproducible, yield a lot of data, and are reasonably
priced.
e) Without the need for costly specialized techniques, tests can be conducted in soils
that are either impossible or challenging to sample.
f) It is possible to test a larger volume of soil than is typically feasible for laboratory
testing.
Perhaps this is a better representation of the soil.

Reference
Abdisamad Abdirahman Haidar, B., Abdirahman Haidar, A., & Eng Abdirahman
Mohamed dhimbil, A. (2023). ANALYSIS AND COMPARISON OF SOIL
PROPERTIES kaxda and dayniile Title A ANALYSIS AND COMPARISON OF
 SOIL PROPERTIES kaxda and dayniile Author Program Bachelor of Civil
engineering.

Noaman, M. F., Khan, M. A., Ali, K., & Hassan, A. (2022). A review on the
effect of fly ash on the geotechnical properties and stability of soil.
Cleaner Materials, 6, 100151
Turan, C., Javadi, A. A., & Vinai, R. (2022a). Effects of Class C and Class F Fly
Ash on Mechanical and Microstructural Behavior of Clay Soil—A
Comparative Study. Materials, 15(5). [Link]

(Saini and Garg n.d.)