Module 3

INTELLIGENCE

WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE?

Intelligence has been defined as inborn all-round mental efficiency ‘and also as ‘mental
energy capable of being transferred from one activity to another’. People have different
standards of judging it. A teacher might consider her student intelligent if he masters the school
curriculum and if he can show good result in the examination.

David Wechsler (1944) defines intelligence as “The aggregate or the global capacity of the
individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his
environment.”

David G. Myers (2004) defines it as “the mental quality consisting of the ability to learn
from experience, solve problem, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations”.

THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

Some researchers have suggested that intelligence is a single, general ability, while others
believe that intelligence encompasses a range of aptitudes, skills and talents. As such, there
are many theories explaining the nature of intelligence.

1. Spearman’s two-factor theory

Charles Spearman (1927) proposed a theory of two factors: ‘g’ or General factor and‘s’
or Specific factor. The performance of any cognitive activity depends on g and one or
more specific factors. The general factor represents what all mental tests have in
common. Individuals differ in ‘g’ which can be thought of in terms of information
processing power. Psychologist who follows this approach say that intelligence can be
described as a single measure of cognitive ability or ‘g’ and it underlies test requires
and it differs from test to test. Spearman and his followers place much more importance
on general intelligence than on the specific factor.
2. Thurstone’s theory of primary mental abilities
Leon Luis Thurstone disagreed with Spearman’s idea that intelligence is a single,
general mental capacity. He identified eight clusters of ‘primary mental abilities’, which
are independent factors. They are:
(i) Verbal fluency : the ability to think of words rapidly as in extemporaneous
speech
(ii) Numerical ability: the ability to do arithmetic problems
(iii) Verbal comprehension : the ability to define and understand words
(iv) Memory : the ability to memories and recall
(v) Perceptual speed; the ability to grasp visual details and to see differences and
similarities among objects
(vi) Spatial relations: the ability to visualize designs
(vii) Reasoning : the ability to find principal and rules to understand and solve
problems
3. Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence
Rober J. Sternberg described three different kinds of intelligence in his model:
(i) Analytical thinking deals with problem- solving abilities and focuses on
planning, monitoring, reflection and transfer.
(ii) Creative thinking focuses on developing, applying new ideas and creating
solutions.
(iii) Practical thinking can be called ‘common sense’ and focuses on the ability to
adapt to a changing environment and experiences.
This theory views intelligence from a winder perspective than Spearman’s
theory views intelligence from a winder perspective than Spearman’s theory and
explain why some people, who have very high IQ , often fail to succeed in life.
4. Cattell’s theory
Raymond Cattell (1963) believed that ‘g’ is composed of fluid and crystallized
intelligence. He considered fluid intelligence to be based on the ability to see the
relationship between fluid intelligence to be based on the ability to see relationship
between things and be think logically and in the abstract. It refers to our inherited and
to think logically and in the abstract. It refers to our inherited abilities to think and
reason. In contract It refers to our inherited abilities to think and reason. In contrast,
crystallised intelligence is based on think acquired knowledge and skills. While fluid
intelligence declines with age, crystallised intelligence dose not.

5. Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner)

Gardner thinks there are eight types of intelligence. He believes each of us have all of the eight
types of intelligence to varying degrees. These multiple intelligences are related to how an
individual prefers to learn and process information.

Verbal skills : The ability to think in words and use language to express meaning ,
Sensitivity to the meanings and sounds of words, mastery of syntax, appreciation of the
ways language can be used (authors, journalists, speakers, poets, teachers)
Mathematical skills : The ability to carry out mathematical operations, Understanding of
objects and symbols and of actions that be performed on them and of the relations
between these actions, ability for abstraction, ability to identify problems and seek
explanations (scientists, engineers, accountants)
Spatial skills : The ability to think three-dimensionally, Capacity to perceive the visual
world accurately, to perform transformations upon perceptions and to re-create aspects
of visual experience in the absence of physical stimuli, sensitivity to tension, balance, and
composition, ability to detect similar patterns (architects, artists, sailors, chess masters)
Bodily-kinesthetic skills : The ability to manipulate objects and be physically adept ,Use
of one’s body in highly skilled ways for expressive or goal-directed purposes, capacity to
handle objects skillfully (surgeons, craftspeople, dancers, athletes, actors)
Musical skills : A sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone ,Sensitivity to individual
tones and phrases of music, an understanding of ways to combine tones and phrases into
larger musical rhythms and structures, awareness of emotional aspects of music
(musicians, composers, sensitive listeners)
 Interpersonal skills : The ability to understand and effectively interact with others ,Ability
to notice and make distinctions among the moods, temperaments, motivations, and
intentions of other people and potentially to act on this knowledge (teachers, mental
health professionals, parents, religious and political leaders)
Intrapersonal skills : The ability to understand oneself ,Access to one’s own feelings,
ability to draw on one’s emotions to guide and understand one’s behavior, recognition of
personal strengths and weaknesses (theologians, novelists, psychologists, therapists)
Naturalistic skills : The ability to observe patterns in nature and understand natural and
human-made systems ,Sensitivity and understanding of plants, animals, and other aspects
of nature (farmers, botanists, ecologists, landscapers, environmentalists)

ASSESSMENT OF INTELLIGENCE

One of the achievement of modern psychology is the development of scientific devices

of measuring general mental ability or intelligence. These have been called intelligence
tests.
They are the result of a belief that intelligence exists in a certain amount that varies in
individuals, and everything that exists in a certain amount can be measured.
1. Stanford – Binet Intelligence Scale: The first practical scale for measuring
intelligence was developed by two French psychologists, Alfred Binet and Theodor
Simon, Their scale consisted of question and problems, graded in difficulty, for
different age groups from three to 15 years. Their aim was to develop an objective
test to identify children likely to have difficulty in regular classes. The Binet –
Simon test was adapted by lewis Terman and became known as the Stanford –Biner
Intelligence Scale. These scales have been revised and adapted for use in different
countries. Originally designed for children, the fifth edition(2003)of the test can be
used on anyone older than two years of age .The test covers six areas – general
intelligence, knowledge , fluid reasoning , quantitative reasoning , visual – spatial
processing and working memory .The number of correct responsed is converted to
a standard age score which is based on the chronological age of the individual. An
India adaptation called the Binet – Kamat test of Intelligence has been extensively
used . The test extends from age three to 22.
2. The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) is used to test adults. The
WAIS-R, the 1981 revision of the original Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, is
designed for adults aged 16-74 years. The scale has two parts –a verbal scale with
six subtests including information, digit span, vocabulary, arithmetic,
comprehension, similarities and a performance scale with five subtests including
picture completion, picture arrangement, block design, object assembly and digit
symbol. Based on the results, verbal IQ, performance IQ and a composite full scale
IQ can be obtained .The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) is an
individual test that can be used from six to years and all the subtests – symbol search
and mazes. The Wechsler Preschool and primary Scale of Intelligence ( WPPSI)is
designed for children from the age of two years six months to seven year three
months.
 CONCEPT OF IQ
Intelligence Quotient (IQ): Measure of intelligence that takes into account a child’s
mental and chronological age
IQ Score = MA / CA x 100
Mental age (MA): the typical intelligence level found for people at a given
chronological age
Chronological age (CA): the actual age of the child taking the intelligence test
People whose mental age is equal to their chronological age will always have an IQ
of 100. If the chronological age exceeds mental age – below-average intelligence
(below 100). If the mental age exceed the chronological age – above-average
intelligence (above 100).

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE

Individual differ from one another amount and quality of intelligence. In
psychology, one of the ways of classifying people is according to the amount of
intelligence they possess. Thus we speak of genius, near genius, superior, normal,
near normal, borderline and mental retardation. These differences may result from
one or more of the following factors:
(iv) Heredity: The limits of an individual’s intellectual development are determined
by the genes which he has received from his parents. Intelligence test score of
identical twice reared together have been found to be very similar- it is almost
as if the same person was taking the test twice. Research has shown that 50
percent of intelligence score variation can be attributed to genetic variation.
(v) Environment: The environment includes the type of home and school training,
physical condition of living and socio-economic status. It has been found that children
born and raised in poor environmental conditions, where training is inadequate,
where stimulation to learn is almost absent and where nutrition is poor, do not
develop their intelligence to learn is almost absent and where nutrition is poor, do
not development their intelligence to the degree to which they could if the
environmental conditions were favorable. But the environment alone cannot work
miracles. Favorable conditions can only encourage the cultivation of the intelligence
which the individual really has.
TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE TESTS
Tests of intelligence can be classified as follows:
1. Individual vs Group tests
i) Individual tests are administered on a single individual by the tester.
They allow direct observation of the rest – taking behaviours, and
thus serve a diagnostic purpose. It is important to establish a good
rapport before the test so that valid results can be obtained . However
, It can be time consuming and may increase the cost of testing . The
skill and experience of the tester is also an important factor. The
Stanford – Biner and the Wechsler scales are examples of individual
tests.
ii) Group testing was developed during world war I to recruit people
into the army . The Army Alpha test was designed and administered
to recruits who were literate and proficient in English, While the
Army Beta test was administered to foreign-and proficient in
English , While the Army Beta test was administered to foreign
born recruits or those who could not read with proficiency. The main
advantages of group tests are that they can be administered to very
large numbers simultaneously . It also simplifies the examiner’s role
and scoring is more objective. Examples of other group tests are the
MENTAL RETARDATION

At one extreme are those whose intelligence test scores fall below 70. They are generally classified
as mentally retarded (the preferred term is currently ‘mentally retardation is charactrised by a
significantly below – average score on a test of intelligence and/or deficits in adaptive, self-care and
getting along in social situation and school activities.

Table 11.3 Degrees of mental retardation

Level IQ score % of Adaptation to demands of life with retardation

persons
Mild 50-70 85 May learn academic skills up to to the 6 th grade; can
achieve social and vocational skills with supports

Moderate 35-49 10 May reach the 2nd grade level ; can work in sheltered
workshops
Severe 20-34 3-4 May learn to talk and perform simple tasks with
supervision, but may not profit from vocational
training
Profound Below 1-2 Requires constant help and care

GIFTEDMNESS
While mental retardation occupies one end of the bell-shaped curve showing the
distribution of intelligence, at the other end are ‘the gifted’ or those who score
exceptionally high-130 and above on IQ scores. Giftedness has been defined in terms
of specific talents and academic abilities,by general intellectual characteristic
(including curiosity ,motivation, ability to see relationship and long attention span )and
personality traits such as leadership ability ,independence and intuitivencess. In general
, gifted children are creative and innovative thinkers who are able to arrive at unusual

solutions to problems. they can often master concept with few repetitions and may be
also physically and emotionally sensitive and are perfectionists.
In the early 1920’s Lewis Terman, an America psychologist, identified
gifted children in terms of academic talent and IQ scores of 140 and above. He did a
Follow-up of about 1500 among them .Almost 25 years later, he found that many of
 them were holding important position or had received recognition for their outstanding
achievement .He found that gifted children were in good health and had normal
personalities. Most of them had lower divorce rates later in life and were generally
successful in their outstanding achievement .He found that gifted children were in
good health and had normal personalities. Most of them had lower divorce rates later
in life and were generally successful in their careers. The study did not support the view
that giftedness is accompanied by emotional maladjustment .However,a few of these
gifted children did not reach their potential as adults, perhaps because of personal
obstacles, insufficient education or lack of opportunity.

CREATIVE THINKING

Creative thinking is the ability or tendency to generate or recognise ideas, alternatives or

possibilities, useful in solving problems, communication, entertaining ourselves and others.
Creative thinking is a vital life skill that enhances problem-solving, innovation, and
adaptability, enabling individuals to generate novel solutions and navigate complex situations
effectively. Strategies to cultivate creative thinking include embracing exploration, challenging
assumptions, and celebrating mistakes as learning opportunities. The focus on creativity and
innovation is important because most problems might require approaches that have never been
created or tried before. It is a highly valued skill to have individually and one that businesses
should always aspire to have among their ranks. After all, the word creativity means a
phenomenon where something new is created.

Creative thinking is a skill and, like any other, it needs constant exercise to stay sharp. You
need to regularly expose yourself to situations in which a new idea is needed and surround
yourself with like-minded people to achieve this goal.

Nature of Creativity

1. Universal: Creativity is a human trait found across all cultures and ages.

2. Involves Originality: Creativity requires novel, unique ideas.

3. Goal-Oriented: Creative work serves a purpose.

4. Related to Intelligence, but Distinct: Creativity involves divergent thinking.

5. Emerges from Imagination: Uses cognitive processes like memory and reasoning.

6. Influenced by Environment and Culture: Supportive environments enhance creativity.

7. Can be Developed: Creativity can be nurtured with practice and motivation.

Characteristics of Creative Individuals

1. Originality: Producing new and uncommon ideas.

2. Fluency: Generating many ideas quickly.

3. Flexibility: Adapting thinking styles and perspectives.

4. Elaboration: Expanding on ideas with detail.

5. Curiosity and Imagination: Desire to explore and question.

6. Risk-taking: Willingness to break rules and challenge norms.

7. Problem-Sensitivity: Recognizing issues others overlook.

8. Persistence: Continuing despite failure

Convergent Thinking
Definition:

Convergent thinking is a cognitive process in which an individual focuses on finding a single,

correct solution to a problem by narrowing down multiple options.

Characteristics:

• Logical and analytical

• Involves problem-solving with established rules
• Goal-oriented and structured
• Often used in standardized testing
• Emphasizes accuracy and speed

Examples:

• Solving a math problem with one correct answer

• Choosing the best option in a multiple-choice question
• Completing a crossword puzzle
• Diagnosing a patient using established medical tests
 Divergent Thinking
Definition:

Divergent thinking is a creative process used to generate many possible solutions or ideas
from a single starting point.

Characteristics:

• Open-ended and imaginative

• Encourages exploration of multiple possibilities
• Involves brainstorming and free-flowing thought
• Often used in artistic and innovative tasks
• Focuses on originality and flexibility

Examples:

• Brainstorming uses for a brick other than building

• Writing a short story from a random prompt
• Creating multiple designs for a logo
• Thinking of different ways to improve a product

Definition:
Emotional Intelligence (EI) refers to the capacity to perceive, understand, manage, and
regulate emotions — both in oneself and in others — and to use this information to guide
one’s thinking and actions.

“Emotional intelligence is the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions,
to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions.”
— Salovey and Mayer (1990)

Later popularized by Daniel Goleman (1995), who broadened the concept and linked it to
success in work, leadership, and relationships.
 Five Key Components of Emotional Intelligence
(Goleman’s Model)
Component Description Example
Realizing you’re getting angry
1. Self- Recognizing your own emotions and their
and knowing why
awareness effects
Controlling impulses or stress
2. Self- Managing emotions in healthy ways and
before reacting
regulation adapting to changing circumstances

Using emotions to pursue goals with Staying committed despite

3. Motivation
energy and persistence setbacks

Understanding others’ emotions and Noticing a friend is upset and

4. Empathy
responding appropriately offering support
Managing relationships and building Collaborating effectively,
5. Social skills
rapport resolving conflicts gracefully