CHAPTER 5.

ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF LIFE

Origin of life: (Protobiogenesis)
A. Theory of special creation:
It is the oldest theory and is based on religious belief without any scientific proof. It states that
all living organisms are created by a super-natural power.
B. Cosmozoic theory/Theory of Panspermia:
Life did not arise on the planet Earth. Life may have descended to the earth from other planets in
the form of spores or micro-organisms, called cosmozoa/ panspermia. Recently, NASA has
reported fossils of bacteria-like organisms on a piece of Martian rock recovered from Antarctica.
C. Theory of spontaneous generation (Abiogenesis):
According to this theory, life originated from non-living material spontaneously. This theory was
disproved by Louis Pasteur.
D. Theory of biogenesis:
According to this theory, living organisms are always produced from pre-existing living forms, by
process called reproduction. Theory of biogenesis only the continuity of life.
Redi’s Experiment?
Louis Pasteur’s Experiment?
Chemical Evolution of Life (Self-assembly theory of origin of life) Russian scientist Alexander I.
Oparin (1924) and British biologist J. B. S. Haldane (1929).:
According to this theory, life originated on earth by combinations of several chemicals through constant
chemical reactions over a long period of time.
The process of chemical evolution can be divided into following steps:
A. Origin of Earth and Primitive atmosphere:
1. The origin of universe was explained by the Big-Bang theory of Georges Lemaitre (1931).
2. Universe originated about 20 billion years ago by a single huge titanic explosion.
3. Milky Way is one such galaxy of which our solar system is one small part.
4. Earth is originated about 4.6 billion years ago.
5. When Earth is formed, it was a rotating cloud of hot gases and cosmic dust called Nebula.
6. The condensation and cooling resulted in stratification with heavier elements like nickel and iron
passing to the core and lighter ones like helium, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, etc. remaining
on the surface.
7. Atmosphere of the earth reducing type, devoid of free oxygen.
B. Formation of ammonia, water and methane:
1. Primitive atmosphere slowly cooled, the lighter elements started to react with each other.
2. The early atmosphere was rich in hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen and sulphur of which hydrogen being
more active, it reacted with other elements to form chemicals on earth like CH4, NH3, H2O and
H2S.
C. Formation of simple organic molecules:
1. As temperature of the earth decreased, steam condensed into water that resulted in heavy rain fall
and the earth gradually cooled.
2. Rain water got accumulated on the land to form rivers, streams, lakes, seas and oceans.
3. The atmosphere then did not contain ozone layer, molecules of hydrocarbons, ammonia, methane and
water underwent reactions like condensation, polymerisation, oxidation and reduction due to ultra-
violet rays, radiations, lightening and volcanic activities,
4. These reactions forms molecules like monosaccharides, amino acids, purines, pyrimidines, fatty
acids, glycerol, etc.
5. All these simple organic molecules accumulated at the bottom of water bodies. Haldane described it
as the ‘‘hot dilute soup’’ or ‘‘primitive broth’’.
6. It did not show any degradation due to absence of free oxygen and enzymes
D. Formation of complex organic molecules:
1. Polymerisation took place and simple organic molecules aggregated to form new complex organic
molecules like polysaccharides, fats, proteins, nucleosides and nucleotides.
2. Polymerisation of amino acids formed protoproteins which later formed proteins, considered as
landmark in the origin of life.
3. Proteins (enzymes) accelerated the rate of other chemical reactions.
E. Formation of Nucleic acids:
1. Nucleotides may have been formed by the reaction between phosphoric acid, sugar and nitrogenous
bases (purines and pyrimidines).
2. Number of nucleotides join together to form nucleic acids (RNA, DNA).
3. Nucleic acids acquired self-replicating ability which is a fundamental property of living form.
F. Formation of Protobionts or Procells:
1. Nucleic acids along with inorganic and organic molecules formed the first form of life called
protobionts.
2. Oparin (1924) called them coacervates and Sidney Fox called protenoids or microspheres.
3. Coacervates are colloidal aggregations of hydrophobic proteins and lipids (lipoid bubbles).
4. Coacervates grew in size they became thermodynamically unstable and split into smaller units,
comparable to daughter cells of budding organisms.
5. Microspheres from colloidal hydrophilic complexes surrounded by water molecules.
6. Diffusion and osmosis may have occurred across the membrane, more stable than coacervates.
7. These colloidal aggregations turned into first primitive living system called eobionts or protocell.
G. Formation of first cell:
1. When RNA or DNA system developed within protocells, they look like bacteria or viruses.
2. They regulated various metabolic activities.
3. First cell was anaerobic, heterotrophic and obtained energy by chemoheterotrophic processes.
Urey and Miller’s Experiment:
Stanley L. Miller and his teacher Harold C. Urey provided the first experimental evidence in support of
chemical evolution theory of Oparin.
They designed a glass-apparatus called spark-discharge apparatus.
1. The apparatus was first sterilized and evacuated.
2. Methane, ammonia and hydrogen gases were pumped in the proportion of 1:2:2 into the glass
chamber.
3. A tube carrying water vapour was also connected to the chamber.
4. Lightning effect was mimicked by electric discharge carbon arc spark in the chamber.
5. The mixture of CH 4, NH 3, H 2 was exposed continuously to electric discharge for several days
causing the gases to interact, after which these were condensed.
6. The liquid collected in the U-tube turned brown.
7. Chemical analysis of this liquid reported the presence of simple organic compounds. (Urea, amino
acids, lactic acid, etc).
8. This experiment strongly supports that the simple molecules present in the earth’s early atmosphere
combined to form the organic building blocks of life.
RNA World Hypothesis:
1. First proposed by Carl Woese, Francis Crick and Leslie Orgel in 1960
2. Sidney Altman and Thomas Cech independently found out that RNAs can also act as biocatalysts,
called Ribozymes.
3. RNA self- replicates (via ribozymes)
4. RNA forms from inorganic sources
5. Double stranded stable structure DNA, might have been formed from RNA
6. Chains of RNA can evolve or undergo mutations, replicate and catalyse reactions, all support this
hypothesis.
Organic Evolution:
1. Evolution- the gradual and orderly changes occur in next generation called evolution. These changes
result in descendants becoming different from the ancestors.
2. Organic evolution- slow or gradual, continuous and irreversible changes occur in simple pre-existing
forms to form complex forms of the life.
3. Charles Darwin define evolution is ‘descent with modification’.
4. Lamarck’s theory defines, the traits are acquired due to internal force, changes in environment,
new needs and the use and disuse of organs.
5. After several generations, it gives rise to new species.
6. Lamarck’s theory was disproved by a German biologist August Weismann.
August Weismann of Germplasm
1. He cut the tails of many rats for several generations but could not find any change in size of tail even
after 21 generations.
2. He concluded that variations produced in somatic cells (somatoplasm) are not inherited.
3. Variations produced in germ cells (germplasm) are inherited to next generation and he proposed the
theory of Germplasm.
Darwinism:
1. Based on his collections of living and fossil material he published a book ‘‘The origin of species by
Natural Selection.
2. C. Lyell (Geologist) pointed out the natural forces that existed in the past are same as those existing at
present.
3. He observed variety of strange plants and animal and variations between the tortoises and finches in
Galapagos islands.
4. R. Malthus state that increases in human population lead to competition and struggle for existence of
human species
Darwinism is based on five main postulates:
1. Overproduction (Prodigality of nature)- It is the natural tendency to produce more number of
progenies in geometric ratio, for continuation (perpetuation) of the species. (Salmon fish produces
about 28 lakh eggs in a single season. In a span of 750 years single pair of elephants would produce
19,000,000 elephants.)
2. Struggle for existence- Tendency of over production leads to the struggle for existence between the
members of population for limited supply of food, space or to escape from enemies etc.
3. Organic variations- The variations occur in morphology, physiology, nutrition, habit behavioural
patterns to form new species. Darwin recognized these variations as raw material for evolution.
4. Natural selection – some organisms have better adapted to survive under existing environmental
conditions than the others, called natural selection. H. Spencer named this process survival of
fittest
5. Origin of new species (speciation)- favourable variations are transmitted from generation to
generation become fixed and give rise to new species.
Evidences Darwinism include –
1. Evolution of long-necked Giraffe to pluck and eat more leaves from tall trees and woody climbers.
The Giraffe borne tall could survive in famine heat areas.
2. Black colour peppered moths evolved gradually as new species.
3. DDT spraying destroyed all types of mosquitoes. However, some mosquitoes developed resistance to
DDT and survived the on slaught of DDT spray.
Drawbacks and Objections to Darwnism -
1. He considers minute fluctuating variation as principal factors which are not heritable and not part of
evolution.
2. He also did not distinguish somatic and germinal variation and considered all variations are heritable.
3. He did not explain the ‘arrival of the fittest’.
4. He also did not explain the cause, origin and inheritance of variations and of vestigial organs.
5. He could not explain the extinction of species.
6. He could note explain about intermediate species
7. He could not explain existence of neutral flowers and the sterility of hybrids.
Mutation Theory (1901):
1. Hugo de Vries proposed mutation theory based on observation of evening primrose (Oenothera
Lamarckiana).
2. He found that some of the offsprings show the appearance of sudden or spontaneous variation clearly
different from the parent called mutations or discontinuous variations.
3. The variant offsprings produced variants and not normal plants.
The main features of mutation theory are:
1. Mutations are large, sudden and discontinuous variations in a population. These changes are
inheritable.
2. Mutations provide the raw material for organic evolution. ‘
3. Mutation may be useful or harmful. Useful mutations are selected by nature.
4. Accumulation of these mutations over a period of time leads to the origin and establishment of new
species.
5. Harmful mutation may persist or get eliminated by nature.
Objections to Mutation Theory:
1. The large and discontinuous variation observed by Hugo de Vries were actually due to chromosomal
aberrations were as gene mutations usually bring about minor changes.
2. Rate of mutation is very slow as compared to the requirement of evolution.
3. Chromosomal aberrations have little significance in evolution as they are quite unstable.
Modern Synthetic Theory of Evolution:
R. Fischer, J. B. S. Haldane, T. Dobzhansky J. Huxley, E. Mayr, Simpson, Stebbins, Fisher, Sewall
Wright, Medel, T. H. Morgan etc. are the main contributors of modern theory of evolution.
Stebbins give five key factors for contributed in the evolution of new species such as gene mutations,
mutations in the chromosome structure and number, genetic recombination, natural selection and
reproductive isolation.
All individuals of the same species constitute a population.
Small interbreeding group of a population is referred as ‘Mendelian population’.
The total collection of different genes within a population of a specific species (Mendelian population) is
called gene pool.
Factor affecting gene pole- The migration of population effectively alters the gene pool. The
replacement of one generation by another in the Mendelian population alters the gene pool.
The proportion of an allele in the gene pool, to the total number of alleles at a given locus, is called gene
frequency.
Factors of Modern synthetic theory-
comprises five main factors that are broadly divided into three main concepts
A. Genetic variations- mutation, recombination and migration.
B. Natural selection and
C. Isolation
I. Gene Mutation:
1. Sudden permanent heritable change in DNA is called mutation.
2. Mutation can occur in the gene, in the chromosome and in chromosome number
3. Mutation that occurs within the single gene, is called point mutation or gene mutation.
II. Genetic recombination:
1. During gamete formation, exchange genetic material between non-sister chromatids of chromosome,
called crossing over, in sexually reproducing organisms.
2. Crossing over and matting of opposite gamete cause genetic recombination.
III. Gene flow:
Gene flow is movement of genes into or out of a population in the form of migration of organism, or
gametes (dispersal of pollens) or segments of DNA (transformation). Gene flow also alters gene
frequency causing evolutionary changes.
IV. Genetic drift:
1. Any random fluctuation (alteration- like earthquakes, floods, fires,) in allele frequency, occurring in
the natural population by pure chance, is called genetic drift.
2. Smaller populations have greater chances for genetic drift.
3. Genetic drift is also an important factor for evolutionary change.
V. Chromosomal aberrations:
The structural, morphological change in chromosome due to rearrangement, is called chromosomal
aberrations.
It changes the genes arrangement (order or sequence) that results in the variation.
Chromosomal aberrations occur due to -
a) Deletion: Loss of genes from chromosome.
b) Duplication: Genes are repeated or doubled in number on chromosome.
c) Inversion: A particular segment of chromosome is broken and gets reattached to the same
chromosome in an inverted position due to 180-degree twist.
d) Translocation: Transfer (transposition) of a part of chromosome or a set of genes to a non-
homologous chromosome is called translocation. It is affected naturally by the transposons present in
the cell.
B. Natural selection:
1. According to Darwin, natural selection is the main driving force behind the evolution.
2. Natural selection is the process by which better adapted organisms grow and produce more number of
offsprings in the population.
3. Industrial melanism in black-winged moth (Biston carbonaria) is example of natural selection.
C. Isolation:
Isolation is the separation of the population of a particular species into smaller units which prevents
interbreeding between them.
Types
Geographical isolation and reproductive isolation.
I. Geographical Isolation:
It is also called as physical isolation. It occurs when an original population is divided into two or more
groups by geographical barriers such as river, ocean, mountain, glacier etc. These barriers prevent
interbreeding between isolated groups. E.g. Darwin’s Finches.
II. Reproductive Isolation:
Reproductive isolations occur due to change in genetic material, gene pool and structure of genital organs.
Types of Isolating Mechanisms:
Pre-mating or pre-zygotic isolating mechanism: This mechanism prevent fertilization and zygote
formation.
a) Habitat isolation or (Ecological isolation): Members of a population living in the same geographic
region but occupy separate habitats so that potential mates do not meet.
Seasonal or temporal isolation: Members of a population living in the same geographic region but are
sexually mature at different years or different times of the year.
b) Ethological isolation: Due to specific mating behaviour the members of population do not mate.
c) Mechanical Isolation: Members of two population have difference in the structure of reproductive
organs.
Post-mating or post-zygotic barriers:
a) Gamete mortality - Gametes have a limited life span. If union of the two gametes does not occur in
the given time, it results in the gamete mortality.
b) Zygote mortality - Here, egg is fertilized but zygote dies due to one or the other reasons.
c) Hybrid sterility - Hybrids develop to maturity but become sterile due to failure of proper
gametogenesis (meiosis). e.g. Mule is an intergeneric hybrid which is sterile.
Industrial melanism
1. Industrial melanism is one of the best example for natural selection.
2. In Great Britain, before industrialisation (1845) grey white winged moths (Biston betularia) were
more in number than black-winged moth (Biston carbonaria).
3. These moths are nocturnal and during day time they rest on tree trunk.
4. White-winged moth can camouflaged (hide in the background) well with the lichen covered trees that
helped them to escape from the predatory birds. And black-winged moth easy victims for the
predatory birds.
5. During industrial revolution, the industries released black sooty smoke that covered and killed the
lichens and turn the tree black due to pollution.
6. Now black-winged moth that camouflaged well with the black tree trunks and their number increased
while the white-winged moth becomes victims to predatory birds and number decrease.
Mechanism of organic evolution:
The following are the basic processes which bring about evolution-
Mutations, gene recombination, gene flow (migration), genetic drift, natural selection, isolation and
speciation.
1. Mutations - These are sudden, discontinuous and permanent heritable changes in the genetic material
of an organism. Gene mutations produce new alleles which are added to gene pool.
2. Gene recombination - Gene recombination occurs due to random mating of gametes, anaphasic
separation of chromosomes and crossing over. These are variation produce due to coming together of
alleles during sexual reproduction.
3. Gene flow - It is the transfer of gene during interbreeding of populations that are genetically different.
Gene flow is due to emigration and immigration. It brings about changes in the allele frequency.
4. Genetic drift – alternation in allele frequency in the natural population by chance, is called genetic
drift.
Genetic drifts are random or directionless. The effect of genetic drift is more significant in small
population than in large population.
Bottle neck effect- when much of a population is killed due to a natural disaster and only a few
remaining individuals are left to begin a new population.
5. Natural selection - It is a process by which better adapted individuals with useful variations are
selected by nature and leave greater or more number of progenies.
6. Isolation - It is separation of a single interbreeding population into subunits due to geographical
barriers and reproductive barrier.
7. Speciation - The sub units of single interbreeding population due to the geographical barriers (river,
mountains, desert, sea) become isolated lead to origin of new species
Type of Natural selection:
A. Stabilizing selection: (Balancing selection)
1. It tends to favour the intermediate forms and eliminate both the phenotypic extreme.
2. For e.g. More number of infants with intermediate weight survive better as compare to those who
are over-weight or under-weight. Average number of egg lying is selected.
3. Always operates in constant environment.
4. It reduces variations.
5. It does not lead to evolutionary change but tend to maintain phenotypic stability within population.
6. After this natural selection mean value never changed.
7. Genetically stabilizing selection represents a situation where a population is adapted to its
environment.
B. Directional selection:
1. Natural selection eliminate one of the extremes of the phenotypic range and favour the other
extreme. e.g. systematic elimination of homozygous recessives.
2. Always operate in changing environment.
3. Directional selection operates for many generations; it results in an evolutionary trend within a
population.
4. After this natural selection mean value never changed.
5. Shifting a peak in one direction.
6. e.g. Industrial melanism, DDT resistant mosquito etc.
C. Disruptive Natural selection:
1. Nature selects extreme phenotypes and eliminates intermediate.
2. Two peaks are formed in distribution of traits.
3. This kind of selection is rare.
4. After this natural selection mean value changed.
5. Example - It was observed in the different beak size of African seed cracker finches.
Hardy-Weinberg’s principle or Hardy-Weinberg’s equilibrium law:
1. The law states that ‘at equilibrium point both the gene (allele) and genotypic frequency remain
constant from generation to generation’.
2. It occurs only in the diploid, sexually reproducing, large, free interbreeding population in which
mating is random and no selection. e.g. A single locus has two alleles (A and a).
3. The frequencies of these allele are p and q respectively.
4. The allele frequency for any locus is always one. i.e. P + Q = 1.
5. The genotypic frequencies of both the alleles are represented by (p + q) 2 = 1. The binomial expansion
of this is P2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 i.e. AA=P 2, aa=q2 and for 2Aa= 2pq.
6. There are few factors such as gene migration (gene flow), genetic drift, mutation, genetic
recombination, natural selection, non- random mating, etc. which affect or change the Hardy-
Weinberg equilibrium.
Adaptive Radiation:
1. The process of evolution in which transformation of original species into many different varieties, is
called, adaptive radiation.
2. Darwin’s Finches is one of the best example of adaptive radiation he noticed in Galapagos Islands.
3. American main land seed eating bird evolve into many forms such as insectivorous features.
4. Another example of adaptive radiation is Australian Marsupials who evolved from common
ancestor.
Evidences of organic evolution:
The theory of organic evolution states that the present day complex organisms have originated from
earlier simpler forms of life.
The process of evolution is supported by evidences provided by various branches of biology such as :
Palaeontology, comparative anatomy, embryology and molecular biology.
A. Palaeontology:
1. The study of ancient life with help of fossils is called palaeontology.
2. Fossils are the dead remains of plants and animals that lived in past in various geological layers.
3. Fossils are formed in sedimentary rocks, amber (yellowish fossils resin), ice, peat bogs etc.
4. During fossilization, the primitive forms of organisms occupy the older, lower layers and the
advanced forms occupy the upper, more recent layers of the earth.
Types of fossils:
1. Actual remains: The plants, animals and human bodies got embedded in permafrost of arctic or
alpine snow remain preserved in the actual state, e.g. Wooly Mammoth in Siberia. Amber or
hardened resin contains preserved bodies of many insects and arthropods.
2. Moulds: These are the hardened encasements formed in the outer parts of organic remains which
later decayed leaving cavities. For example Foot – prints are formed in this manner.
3. Cast: They are hardened pieces of mineral matter deposited in the cavities of moulds.
4. Compressions: Internal structure is absent but a thin carbon film indicates the outline of external
features.
Significance of Palaeontology:
1. It is useful in reconstruction of phylogeny.
2. It helps in studying of extinct plants and animals.
3. It provides record of missing link between two groups of organisms.
4. It helps in the study of habits of extinct organisms.
Palaeontology provides the following types of evidences.
Connecting link (missing link):
1. These are transitional or intermediate form of fossils between two groups of organisms.
Archaeopteryx lithographica: (missing link or connecting link between reptiles and birds)
1. It is fossilized crow size toothed bird found from Jurassic rocks in Germany.
2. Huxley justified this by calling birds as glorified reptiles.
Reptilian characters:
1. Presence of long tail, claws and scales on the body.
2. Single headed ribs.
3. Abdominal ribs are present which look like ribs of crocodile.
4. Jaws with homodont teeth.
5. Sternum without keel.
6. Bones are solid (nonpneumatic).
7. Hind limbs had four clawed digits.
Avian (bird) characters:
1. Feathery exoskeleton.
2. Forelimbs are modified into wings.
3. Jaws are modified into beak.
4. Skull bone is completely fused.
5. Large rounded cranium.
6. Cranium with large orbits and a single condyle.
7. Limb bones are bird like.
8. Hind limbs with four toes first toe is opposable.
Connecting link:
 Balanoglossus Connecting link between chordates and non-chordates.
 Seymouria connecting link between amphibians and reptiles.
 Peripatus connecting link between Annelida and Arthropoda.
 Lung fishes connecting link between fish and amphibians
 Duck-billed platypus connecting link between reptiles and mammals.
 Ichthyostegia connecting link between fishes and amphibia
B. Morphological evidances:
Homologous organs:
1. The organs, which are structurally similar but perform different functions.
2. Forelimbs of vertebrates such as lizard, bird, bat, horse, whale and man, all of them have humerus,
radius-ulna, carpals, metacarpals and phalanges in their forelimbs, but perform different functions.
3. Vertebrate heart and brain.
4. In plants, thorns of Bougainvillea and tendrils of Cucurbita represent homology.
5. Homologous organs indicates that they have a common ancestry.
6. Homologous organs lead to divergent evolution.
Analogous organs:
1. The organs which are structurally (anatomically) dissimilar but perform same function.
2. Wings of butterfly (insects), birds and patagium of Bat functionally same but anatomically not
similar.
3. they perform similar functions.
4. Eye of the octopus (mollusca) and of mammals. They differ in their retinal position, structure of lens
and origin of different eye parts.
5. The flippers of penguins (birds) and dolphins (mammals).
6. Sweet potato (root modification) and potato (stem modification) store food in form of starch.
7. Analogous organs lead to convergent evolution.
Vestigial organs: (Rudimentary organs)
1. Vestigial organs are imperfectly developed and non-functional, degenerate structures which were
functional in some related and other animals or in ancestors.
2. Presence of vestigial nictitating membranes (third eyelid).
3. Presence of wisdom teeth (third molars).
4. Coccyx (tail bone) is greatly reduced in man since the tail is of no use due to erect posture.
5. Vermiform appendix and the caecum. It is functional in herbivorous mammals for digestion of
cellulose.
6. Presence of these vestigial organs provide evidence that man has (evolved) descended from simple
primates.
Molecular Evidences:
1. Cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life in all organisms.
2. Similarities in proteins and genetic material performing a similar function among diverse organisms
gives evidence of a common ancestry.
3. Basic metabolic activities also occur in a similar manner in all organisms.
4. ATP is the energy source in all living organisms.
Speciation:
The process of formation of a new species from the per-existing species is called speciation.
Species is a group of similar organisms that can interbreed and produce a fertile offspring in nature. New
species are formed by the following modes.
A. Intraspecific Speciation:
I. Allopatric speciation:
1. Formation of a new species due to separation of a segment of population from the original population
by geographical barrier is called Allopatric speciation.
2. Creeping glaciers, development of mountains, migration of individual also causes allopatric
speciation.
3. The mode of evolution here is called adaptive radiation.
4. 14 different species of finches in Galapagos islands and several marsupial species in the Australian
continent.
II. Sympatric speciation:
1. Formation of new species within single population due to reproductive isolation (no geographical
isolation).
2. Cichlid fishes in Lake Victoria.
3. Mutations are helpful in sympatric speciation.
B. Interspecific Speciation:
Hybridisation:
1. Crossing of different species belonging to same genus called hybridisation.
2. Hybridisation may give rise to a new species.
3. Mule is a hybrid produced by interbreeding between a male donkey and a female horse.
4. Hinny is offspring of male horse and female donkey.
Geological time scale:
1. Geological time scale is divided into six major ‘Eras’ Eras ended with major environmental changes
on earth.
2. The first life appeared on the earth some 2000 million years ago.
3. Life began in the sea water and plants were the first living beings to adapt to terrestrial life.
4. The first true land vertebrates Reptiles evolved from amphibians.
5. About 200 million years ago (mya) some reptiles moved back to aquatic life and form Ichthyosaurs
6. Around 65 million years ago Dinosaurs extinct.
7. Decline of giant reptiles marked the beginning of dominance of mammals (viviparous more
intelligent).
8. Early mammals were small shrew like organisms, but this group diversified.
9. Human beings are the most evolved animals on the earth.
Human Evolution:
Human evolved from a tree dwelling shrew like animal began in Palaeocene epoch.
Arboreal mammals to adapt to life on land.
The major evolutionary trends in transition from ape to man.
Major changes that took place in evolution of man:
1. Increase in size and complexity of brain.
2. Enhanced intelligence, increase in cranial capacity,
3. Bipedal locomotion, erect posture and development of lumbar curvature.
4. Opposable thumb,
5. Shortening of forelimbs and lengthening of hind limbs.
6. Development of chin, broadening of pelvic girdle, social and cultural development (articulated
speech, art, development of tools,etc).
7. Development of high forehead.
Important stages in the origine of man:
 Dryopithecus- Ape like (semi erect)
 Ramapithecus- Man like (erect)
 Australopithecus- Connecting link between Ape and man. (erect) Cranial capacity 450 to 600 cc.
 Homo habilis- Handy man like (erect), Cranial capacity 650 to 800 cc.
 Homo erectus- Ape man (erect) Cranial capacity 900 cc
 Neanderthal man- Advanced prehistoric man (erect) Cranial capacity 1400 cc
 Homo sapiens- Modern man (erect) Cranial capacity 1450 cc
Write nots on Dryopithecus, Ramapithecus, Australopithecus, Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Neanderthal
man and Homo- sapiens
New world monkeys Long non-prehensile tail e.g. squirrel monkey, spider monkey
Old world monkeys’ Short non-prehensile tail e.g. Baboons, macaques, langur, etc
Era Dominating group of animals
Cenozoic Mammals
Mesozoic Reptiles
Palaeozoic Fishes
Precambrian Invertebrates

Column- I Column – II
August Weismann Germplasm theory
Hugo de vries Mutation theory
Charl Darwin Theory of natural selection
Lamark Theory of acquired characters