AALIM MUHAMMED SALEGH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

EE3701 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING LTPC

3 00 3
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
Various types of over voltages in power system and protection methods.
Generation of over voltages in laboratories.
Measurement of over voltages.
Nature of Breakdown mechanism in solid, liquid and gaseous dielectrics.
Testing of power apparatus and insulation coordination.
UNIT I oVERVOLTAGES IN ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS
Causes of over voltages and its effects on power system - Lightning, switching surges and temporary
over voltages - Reflection and Refraction of Travelling waves- protection against over voltages_
Insulation Coordination.

UNIT II DIELECTRIC BREAKDOWN

Properties of Dielectric materials - Gaseous breakdown in uniform and non-uniform fields -Corona
discharges Vacuum breakdown - Conduction and breakdown in pure and commercial liquids,
Maintenance of oilQuality - Breakdown mechanisms in solid and composite dielectrics- Applications
of insulating materials inelectrical equipment.
UNIT II GENERATION AND MEASUREMENTS OF HIGH VOLTAGES AND HIGH
CURRENTS
Generation of High DC, AC, impulse voltages and curents - Analysis of DC/AC and Impulse generator
circuits - Tripping and control of impulse generators, Measurement of High voltages and High currents
- High Resistance with series ammeter - Dividers Resistance, Capacitance and Mixed dividers -
Peak Voltmeter, Generating Voltmeters, Electrostatic Voltmeters - Sphere Gaps, High current shunts
Digital techniques in high voltage measurement.

UNIT IV HIGH VOLTAGE TESTING & INSULATION COORDINATION

High voltage testing of electrical power apparatus- International and Indian standards - Power
frequency, impulse voltage and DC testing of Insulators, circuit breakers, bushing. isolators and
transformers - Insulation Coordination.

UNIT V APPLICATION IN INDUSTRY

Introduction - electrostatic applications- electrostatic precipitation, separation, painting / coating.
spraying, imaging, printing, Transport of materials - manufacturing of sand paper - Smoke particle
detector - Electrostatic spinning, pumping, propulsion - Ozone generation - Biomedical applications.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
 Unit- 01

OVER VOLTAGES IN ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS

Causes of over voltages and its effects on power system - Lightning, switching surges and
temporary over voltages, Corona and its effects Bewley lattice diagram- Protection against
over voltages.

Part -A

Causes of over voltages and its effects on power system:

1. Why protection of transmission line important? May-2018, 2011

It is essential for electrical power engineers to reduce the number of outages and preserve the
continuity of service and electric supply. Hence the transmission line should be protected.

2. How transmission lines are classified?

. Lines with no loss or ideal lines.
Line without distortion or distortion less lines.
Line with small losses.
Lines with infinite and finite length defined by all the four parameters.

3. What are the causes of over voltages in electric Power system? DeC- 2020, 2014, 2011
What are the various abnormalities in power system? May
2015,Nov/ Dec 2024,April/May 2025
Lightning Strikes
" Switching Operations

4. Mention the different kinds of over voltages. May-2013,2024

Lightning overvoltage
Switching overvoltage

5. Mention the effects of overvoltage.

Insulation Damage
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 Reduced Equipment Lifespan
 Voltage Instability
 Loss of Synchronization
 Equipment Malfunction
 Safety Hazards
 Operational Disruptions

Lightning phenomenon:

6. Define lightning phenomenon. Dec-2012

Lightning phenomenon is a peak discharge in which charge accumulated in the clouds discharge
in to a neighboring cloud or to the ground.

7. Mention the different charge formation theory in lightning.

 Willson’s theory of charge separations
 Simpson’s theory
 Reynold and Mason theory

8. Classify the lightning strokes. Dec-2019, May-2014

 Direct lightning strokes
 In direct lightning strokes

9. List the types of lightning streamers.

 Pilot streamer
 Stepped leader
 Return stroke
 Second charge center
 Dart leader
 Multiple stroke

10. What is stepped leader stroke? May-2013

 A lightning stroke begins with a pre discharge, called the leader, which flow from the cloud to
the ground.
 Depending upon the state of ionization of the air surrounding the streamer, leader is branched
to several paths.
 This is known as stepped leader.
 The leader steps are of the order of 50 m in length and are accomplished in about a microsecond.
 The charge is brought from the cloud through the ionized path to earth.

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11. Draw the mathematical model for lightning discharges. May-2018, 2014, Dec-
2020,(April/May 2025)

𝐼𝑜 − 𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑍𝑜 − 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑍 − 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑍
𝑍0
= 𝐼0 𝑍
𝑍0 + 𝑧

𝑍
= 𝐼0
𝑍
1+𝑍
0

12. Draw the equivalent circuit model for lightning.

Fig 1.2 Equivalent circuit model for lightning

13. What are the factors that influence the lightning induced voltage on transmission lines?
Dec-2019, 2015
 The ground conductivity
 The leader stroke current

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 Corona

14. What is Iso-keraunic level or thunderstorm days? May-2019, 2011, Dec-2017,

2015,Dec 2023
Iso keraunic level is defined as the number of days in a year when thunder is heard or recorded
in particular location.

15. what is back flashover? Dec-2016

When a direct lightning stroke occurs on a tower, the tower has to carry huge impulse currents.
If the tower footing resistance is considerable, the potential of the tower rises to a large value, steeply
with respect to the line and consequently a flashover may take place along the insulator strings. This is
known as back flashover.

Switching surges:

16. What are the components of switching surges?

 High natural frequencies of the system
 Damped normal frequency voltage component
 Re-striking and recovery voltage of the system

17. How does switching surges cause damage to circuit breaker? May-2008
In circuit breaking operation, switching surges with a high rate of rise of voltage may cause
repeated re-striking of the arc between the contact of a circuit breaker, thereby causing destruction of
the circuit breaker contacts.

18. What are the factors of origin of switching surges? Dec-2021, 2012
List the sources of switching over voltage in power system. Dec-2020, 2018
 Open and closing the switch gears.
 High natural frequency of the system.
 Damped normal frequency voltage components.
 Re-striking and recovery voltage with successive reflective wave form terminations.
 Repeated re-striking of the arc between the contacts of circuit breaker.

19. Give the situation that give rise to switching over voltages of short duration and lower
magnitude.

 Single pole closing of circuit breaker.

 Interruption of fault current when the L-G or L-L fault is cleared.
 Resistance switching used in circuit breakers.

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 Switching lines terminated by transformer.
 Series capacitor compensated lines.

20. List the characteristics of switching surges.(Nov/Dec 2024)

Switching surges arise from any one of the following sources:
 De-energizing of transmission lines, cables, shunt capacitor, capacitor bank, etc.
 Disconnection of unloaded transformer, reactors, etc.
 Opening and closing of protective devices connected to lines and reactive loads.
 Switch off the loads suddenly.
 Short circuits and fault clearances.
 Ferro-resonance, arcing grounds.

21. What are the different method by which switching over voltages of short duration and
long magnitude be calculated?
 Mathematical modeling of a system using digital computer.
 Scale modeling using transient network analyzers.
 By conducting field tests to determine the expected maximum amplitude of the over voltages
and their duration at different points on the line.

22. What are the different measures to control or reduce over voltages?
Dec 2023
What are the methods to control over voltages due to switching?
 One or multi-step energization of lines by inserting resistors.
 Phase controlled closing of circuit breaker with proper sensors.
 Drain the trapped charges before reclosing of the lines.
 Using shunt reactors.
 By using lightning arresters or surge diverters.

23. What are the causes for power frequency and its harmonic over voltages? Dec-2017, 2013

 Sudden load rejection

 Disconnection of inductive loads or connection of capacitive loads
 Ferranti effect
 Unsymmetrical faults
 Saturation in transformer, etc
 Tap changing operations
24. A 3-phase single circuit transmission line is 400 km long. If the line is rated for 220 kV
and has the parameters, R = 0.1 ohms/km, L = 1.26 mH/km, C = 0.009 μF/km. Find the
surge impedance.

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Corona and its effects:

25. What is meant by corona? Dec-2020
The ionization of air surrounding the high voltage transmission lines causing the conductors to
glow, producing a hissing noise, is called Corona Discharge or Corona Effect.

26. Define Corona Critical Disruptive Voltage. Dec-2022, May-2017

Critical Disruptive Voltage is defined as the minimum phase to neutral voltage required for the
Corona discharge to start.

27. What are the effects of corona on power system? May-2023

 Changes in Electricity Demand
 Fluctuations in Load Patterns
 Supply Chain Disruptions
 Renewable Energy Integration
 Financial Challenges
 Grid Stability and Resilience

Bewley lattice diagram:

28. What is Bewley Lattice Diagram? Dec-2014

 This is a graphical representation of the time-space relation, which shows the position and
direction of motion at any instant of incident, reflected and transmitted current or voltage surges
in the Lattice Diagram.
 Horizontal axes represent the distance travelled along the system and vertical axis represent
the time taken to travel.
 At each instant of change in impedance, the reflected and transmitted values (current or voltage)
can be calculated my multiplying incident wave values with reflected and transmitted
coefficients.

29. What are the principles observed in the lattice diagram?

 All waves travel downhill, (ie) into the positive time.

 The position of the wave at any instant is given by means of the time scale at the left of the
lattice diagram.
 The total potential at any instant of time is the super position of all the waves which arrive at
that point until that instant of time, displaced in position from each other by time intervals equal

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to the time difference of their arrival.
 Attenuation is included so that the amount by which a wave is reduced is taken care.
 The previous history of the wave, can be easily traced.
Protection against over voltages:

30. What is the use of protective device? Dec-2021

Protective devices are used to protect the power system components against the travelling
waves caused by lightning.

31. Give the factors by which over voltages due to lightning strokes can be minimized or
avoided in practice.
What are the different methods employed for protection of overhead lines against
lightning? Dec-2022, 2021, 2023 May-2017
 Using ground wires above the phase wires.
 Using ground rods.
 Using counter-poise wires.
 Using protective devices like rod gap, expulsion type and valve type surge arrester, etc.

32. How can the tower footing resistance be varied?

 Varying the spacings of the rod.
 Varying the number of rods.
 Varying the depth to which they are driven.

32. Where is surge arrester placed in substation?

 Surge arresters are devices used at substations and at line terminations to discharge the
lightning over voltages and short duration switching surges.
 These are usually mounted at the line end at the nearest point to the substation.
 They have a flash over voltage lower than that of any other insulation or apparatus at the
substation.

34. What is counterpoise wire? Dec-2012

Counter- Poise Wires are buried in the ground at a depth of 0.5 to 1m, running parallel to the
transmission line conductors and connected to the tower legs. Wire length may be 50 to 100 m long.

35. What are the basic requirements of a lightning arrester? May-2023

 It should not pass any current to the system component which is to be protected at abnormal
conditions.
 It should break down as quickly as possible when abnormal condition occurs.
 It should discharge the surge current without damaging it.
 It should interrupt the power frequency, follow current after the surge is discharged to ground.

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36. Define the term Insulation coordination Nov/Dec 2024

 Insulation coordination means the correlation of the insulation of the various equipments in a
power system to the insulation of the protective devices used for the protection of those
equipments against over-voltages.

Part - B

Causes of over voltages and its effects on power system:

1. Explain briefly the causes of over voltage and its effect on power system.

Causes of over voltages:

Lightning Strikes:
 Lightning discharges can induce voltage surges in power lines due to electromagnetic coupling.
 These surges can propagate through the system and cause over voltages.

Switching Operations:
 Rapid switching of circuit breakers, capacitors, and other power system devices can lead to
transient over voltages.
 The sudden change in current can cause voltage spikes.

Faults:
 Faults such as short circuits lead to over voltages.
 When a fault occurs, the normal impedance of the system is changed, which can cause voltage
to increase.

Load Shedding:
 If large loads are disconnected abruptly, the system's voltage can rise due to reduced demand
and increased generation.

Resonance:
 Resonance occurs when the natural frequency of a system matches the frequency of a
disturbance.
 This can lead to amplification of voltages, causing over voltages.

Generator and Motor Energization:

 When large generators or motors are started or connected to the system, they cause voltage
spikes due to the initial high inrush currents.

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Effects of over voltages:

Insulation Damage:
 Over voltages can cause insulation breakdown in power equipment like transformers, cables,
and switchgear.
 This can lead to short circuits, equipment failure, and even fires.

Reduced Equipment Lifespan:

 Frequent exposure to over voltages significantly reduce the operational lifespan of power system
components, leading to increased maintenance and replacement costs.

Voltage Instability:
 Over voltages can disrupt the balance between supply and demand in the power system,
potentially causing voltage instability and affecting the quality of power supply.

Loss of Synchronization:
 Severe over voltages can lead to loss of synchronization in generators, which can result in
cascading failures and blackouts.

Equipment Malfunction:
 Delicate electronic equipment connected to the power system can be damaged by over voltages,
leading to malfunctions, data loss, and downtime.

Safety Hazards:
 Over voltages can pose safety risks to personnel working on the power system, as equipment
failures and electrical incidents become more likely.

Operational Disruptions:
 Over voltages can trigger protective relays and cause unnecessary tripping of circuit breakers,
leading to disruptions in power supply and inconvenience to customers.

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Lightning:

2. Explain briefly various charge formation theory and also explain briefly the lightning
mechanism. Dec- 2017, 2013, 2012, May-2018, 2017
Explain the two theories of charge formation in a thunder clouds. Dec-
2020,Dec-2024,April- 2025

 Lightning phenomenon is a peak discharge in which charge accumulated in the clouds discharge
in to a neighboring cloud or to the ground.

Charge formation in the clouds:

 During thunderstorms, positive and negative charges become separated by the heavy air
currents with ice crystals in the upper part and rain in the lower part of the cloud.
 This charge separation depends on the height of the clouds which range from 0.2 to 10 km.
 Charge centers probably at a distance of about 0.35 to 2 km as shown in Fig 1.3.

Fig 1.3 Distance between clouds

Charge inside the clouds - 1 to 100 coulomb

Potential of the cloud - 107 to108 Volt
Energy associated with the cloud - 250 kWhr

Upper region of the clouds - positively charged

Lower region of the clouds - negatively charged except the local region near the base and head which
is positive as shown in Fig 1.4.

Fair weather conditions - Maximum gradient = 1 V/cm.

Bad weather conditions - Maximum gradient = 300 V/cm.

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Fig 1.4 Charge distribution in cloud

Charge Distribution Theory:

 Willson’s theory of charge separations
 Simpson’s theory
 Reynold and Mason theory

Wilson’s theory:

 Large number of ions are present in the atmosphere.

 Many of these ions attach themselves to small dust particles and water particles.
 Electric field exists in the earth’s atmosphere during fair weather which is directed downwards
towards the earth as shown in Fig 1.5 (a).

Fig 1.5 Charge formation by Wilson’s theory

 A relatively large raindrop (0.1 cm radius) falling in this field becomes polarized, the upper side
acquires a negative charge and the lower side a positive charge.

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 Subsequently, the lower part of the drop attracts –ve charges from the atmosphere, leaving
positive charges in the air.
 The upwards motion of air currents tends to carry +ve air and smaller drops to the top of cloud.
 The falling heavier raindrops which are negatively charged settle on the base of the cloud.
 Thus, according to Wilson’s theory the lower base of the cloud is negatively charged and the
upper region is positively charged as shown in Fig 1.5 (b).

Simpson’s theory:

 Based on the temperature variations in the various regions of the cloud.

 When water droplets are broken due to air currents:
 Water droplets - positive charge
 Air - negatively charge
 When ice crystals strike with air:
 Air - positively charge
 Crystals - negatively charge

Fig 1.6 Charge formation by Simpson’s theory

 Let the cloud move in the direction from left to right.

 If the velocity of the air currents is about 10 m/sec in the base of the cloud,
 When air currents collide with the water particles in the base of the cloud, the water drops are
broken and carried upwards.
 Few water particles combine together and fall down in a pocket as shown by a pocket of positive
charges (right bottom region) as shown in Fig. 1.6.
 These negative charges in the air are immediately absorbed by the cloud particles which are
carried away upwards with the air currents.
 The air currents go still higher in the cloud where the moisture freezes into ice crystals.
 The air currents when collide with ice crystals the air is positively charged and it goes in the
upper region of cloud.
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 The negatively charged ice crystals drift gently down in the lower region of the cloud.
 Once the charge separation is complete, the conditions are now set for a lightning stroke.

Reynold and Mason theory:

 Thunder clouds are developed at heights 1 to 2 km above the ground level and may extend up
to 12 to 14 km above the ground.
 For thunder clouds and charge formation air currents, moisture and specific temperature range
are required.
 The air currents controlled by the temperature gradient move upwards carrying moisture and
water droplets.
 The temperature is 0°C at about 4 km from the ground and may reach −50°C at about 12 km
height.
 Water being ionic in nature has concentration of H+ and OH− ions.
 The ion density depends on the temperature.
 Thus, in an ice slab with upper and lower surfaces at temperatures T1 and T2, (T1 < T2), there
will be a higher concentration of ions in the lower region.
 However, since H+ ions are much lighter, they diffuse much faster all over the volume.
 Therefore, Lower portion - net negative charge density
 Upper portion - net positive charge density

Mechanism of lightning:

3. Discuss about the mechanism of lightning strokes.

May-2019, 2012, 2008, Dec-2017, 2016, 2013
What are the mechanisms by which lightning strokes develop and induce overvoltage
on overhead power lines? Dec-2021
Explain with neat sketches the mechanism of lightning discharge. May-2023

 The cloud and the ground form two plates of a gigantic capacitor and the dielectric medium is
air.
 Since the lower part of the cloud is negatively charged, the earth is positively charged by
induction. Lightning discharge will require breakdown of the air between the cloud and the earth.
 Electric field required is 30 kV/cm (peak)
 Electric field required is 10 kV/cm (If the moisture content of the air is large)

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Types of lightning streamer:
 Pilot streamer
 Stepped leader
 Return stroke
 Second charge center
 Dart leader
 Multiple stroke

Pilot streamer:
 After a gradient of approximately 10 kV/cm is set up in the cloud, air surrounding gets ionized.
 At this a streamer starts from the cloud towards the earth as shown in Fig 1.7(a).
 Current in the streamer = 100 A.
 Speed of streamer = 0.16 m/µs.
 This streamer is known as pilot streamer.
 It leads to the lightning phenomenon.

Stepped leader:
 Depending upon the state of ionization of the air surrounding the streamer, it is branched to
several paths.
 This is known as stepped leader as shown in Fig. 1.7(b).
 The leader steps are of the order of 50 m in length and are accomplished in about a microsecond.
 The charge is brought from the cloud through the ionized path to earth as shown in Fig. 1.7(c).

Return stroke:
 Once the stepped leader has made contact with the earth, a power return stroke as shown in
Fig. 1.7 (c) moves very fast up towards the cloud through the already ionized path by the leader.
 This streamer is very intense where the current varies between 1000 amps and 200,000 amps
and speed is about 10% that of light.

Second charge center:

 The –ve charge of the cloud is being neutralized by the positive induced charge on the earth as
shown in Fig 1.7 (d).
 It is this instant which gives rise to lightning flash.
 There may be another cell of charges in the cloud near the neutralized charged cell.

Dart leader:
 Second charged cell will try to neutralize through this ionised path.
 This streamer is known as dart leader as shown in Fig. 1.7 (e).
 The velocity of the dart leader is about 3% of the velocity of light.
 The effect of the dart leader is much more severe than that of the return stroke.

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Fig 1.7 Lightning mechanism

Multiple stroke:
 Cold lightning stroke: The discharge current in the return stroke is relatively very large but it
lasts only for a few microseconds, energy contained is small.
 Hot lightning stroke: The discharge current during dart leader is relatively smaller but it lasts
for some milliseconds and energy contained is larger.
 It is found that each thunder cloud may contain as many as 40 charged cells and a heavy lighning
stroke may occur.
 This is known as multiple stroke.

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Rate of charging of thunder clouds

Let λ - conductivity of the medium
E - Electric field intensity
V - Velocity of separation of charges.
ρ - Charge density. Electric field intensity E is given by
𝑑𝐸
+ 𝜆𝐸 = 𝜌𝑣
𝑑𝑡
Solution of the equations is
𝐸= 𝜌𝑣𝑑𝑡 + 𝑐
λt
Multiply e on both sides
𝐸𝑒 𝜆𝑡 = 𝜌𝑣𝑒 𝜆𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑐
𝜌𝑣 𝜆𝑡
𝐸𝑒 𝜆𝑡 = 𝑒 +𝑐
𝜆
𝜌𝑣
𝐸 = 𝜆 + 𝑐𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
…………………………………………………(1)
To find c, substitute E=0;t=0; in equation (1)
𝜌𝑣
0= +𝑐
𝜆
𝜌𝑣
𝑐=−
𝜆
𝜌𝑣 𝜌𝑣 𝜆𝑡
∴𝐸= − 𝑒
𝜆 𝜆
𝜌𝑣
𝐸= 1 − 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝜆
Let Qs = separated charges; Qg=generated charge
𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑄𝑔
𝜌= =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴𝑕

Where A-cloud area ,h-height of the charged region.

𝑄𝑠
𝐸=
𝐴𝜀0
Where 𝜀0 − 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
𝑄𝑠
𝐴=
𝜀0 𝐸

𝑄𝑠
𝑄𝑔=𝜌𝐴𝑕 = 𝜌 𝑕
𝜀0 𝐸
𝜌𝑄𝑠 𝑕
= 𝜌𝑣
𝜀0 1 − 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝜆
𝑄𝑠 𝑕
𝑄𝑔= 𝑣
𝜀0 1 − 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝜆

Mathematical model of lightning:

4. Draw the mathematical model for lightning discharge and explain.

How is the lightning mathematically modeled? Dec-2022

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Give the mathematical model for lightning discharges and explain them. Dec-
2021,April/May 2024

Consider cloud is as a non-conductor under charge formation process.

𝐼0 − 𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑍0 − 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑍 − 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)

Fig 1.8 Model for lightning

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡, 𝑉 = 𝐼 𝑍

𝑍0 𝑍
= 𝐼0 ( )𝑍 = 𝐼0 ( )
𝑍0 + 𝑍 𝑍
1+
𝑍0
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 = 1000 Ω 𝑡𝑜 3000 Ω 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = < 500 Ω
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 = 100 Ω 𝑡𝑜 150 Ω
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 10 Ω 𝑡𝑜 50 Ω

Value of 𝑍 < 0.1, so can be neglected.

𝑍0

𝑉 = 𝐼0 𝑍
Suppose direct stroke occurs on top of an unshielded line, then current wave divide into two
branches.
𝐼0
𝑉 = 𝑍
2
 When a transmission line is nearer to the stroke channel, there will be a coupling between line
and stroke channel.
 The voltage at any length x = L can be computed from equivalent circuit as shown in Fig 1.9.

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L - Length of line
R0 - Source resistance
RL - Load resistance
L’ - Impedance of line per unit length
C’ - Capacitance per unit length
u’(x, t)- Voltage developed at any distance x
i’(x, t)- Current through the line at any distance x
E’(x, h, t) - Electric field in x direction at a heigh h
Zg - Equivalent ground impedance

Fig 1.9 Equivalent circuit model for lightning

Factors influencing the lightning induced voltages on transmission lines:

 Ground conductivity
 Leader stroke current
 Corona

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Switching surges and temporary over voltages:

5. Write shorts on Switching Surges and temporary overvoltage.

Dec-2019, 2018, 2015, 2013, 2011, May-2019
Explain the methods of switching surge formation in detail. Dec-2022

 For transmission voltages (400 kV and above) the over voltages generated due to switching
issame as that of the magnitude of lightning over voltages.
 This over voltages exists for a long time so it’s dangerous to the system.
 Switching over voltages increases as the system voltage increases.
 In extra high voltage line, switching over voltages determine the insulation levels of the lines
and their dimensional and cost.

Origin of switching surges:

 Open and closing the switch gears.
 High natural frequency of the system.
 Damped normal frequency voltage components.
 Re-striking and recovery voltage with successive reflective wave form terminations.
 Repeated re-striking of the arc between the contacts of circuit breaker.

Characteristics of switching surges:

Switching surges arise from any one of the following sources:
 De-energizing of transmission lines, cables, shunt capacitor, capacitor bank, etc.
 Disconnection of unloaded transformer, reactors, etc.
 Opening and closing of protective devices connected to lines and reactive loads.
 Switch off the loads suddenly.
 Short circuits and fault clearances.
 Ferro-resonance, arcing grounds.

Shape of switching surges:

 Irregular
 Power frequency with its harmonics
 Relative magnitude = 2.4 pu for transformer energizing
= 1.4 to 2.0 pu for switching transmission line

Switching over-voltages in EHV and UHV systems:

 Switching over voltages in EHV and UHV systems are generated when there is a sudden release
of internal energy stored in the form of electrostatic or electromagnetic form.

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 This may happen due to:
 Interruption of low inductive currents by high-speed circuit breakers.
 Interruption of small capacitive currents by switching off the unloaded lines.
 Ferro-resonance condition.
 Energization of long EHV or UHV lines.
 Interruption of fault current when the fault is cleared.
 Single pole closing circuit breakers.
 Switching operations of series capacitor connected to line for compensation.
 Sparking of the lightning arrester located at receiving end of line.

Control of over-voltages due to switching:

6. Explain the techniques to be used for controlling the switching over voltages in a power
[Link]-2020, 2015, 2013,Dec 2023

The overvoltages due to switching and power frequency can be controlled by,
 One or multi-step energization of lines by inserting resistors.
 Phase controlled closing of circuit breaker with proper sensors.
 Drain the trapped charges before reclosing of the lines.
 Using shunt reactors.
 By using lightning arresters or surge diverters.

One or multistep energization of lines by inserting resistors:

 During switching on of circuit breaker, insert a series resistance in series with circuit breaker
contacts and short circuit this resistance after a few cycles.
 This will reduce the transients due to switching.
 If the resistance is inserted for a long time, successive reflections take place and the overvoltage
reaches high value.
 By inserting resistor overvoltage can be limited.

Phase controlled closing of circuit breakers:

 Overvoltage can be avoided by closing the three-phases exactly at the same instant by using
phase-controlled technique.

Drain the trapped charges before reclosing the lines:

 If transmission line is suddenly closed or switched off the electric charge will be left in capacitor
and line conductors.
 These charges are drained by leakage path of insulator or through potential transformer.
 But the effective method is connecting temporary resistor to ground or in series with shunt
reactors.

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 Remove the resistance before the closure of switches.

Using shunt reactors:

 Shunt reactors are used to limit voltage rise due to Ferranti effect in EHV lines.
 They also reduce surges due to sudden switching.
 But it will give oscillation with the capacitance of the system.
 Connecting resistors are in series with reactors will suppress the oscillation and limit overvoltage.

Power frequency overvoltage in power system:

7. Write short notes on power frequency over voltage in power system.

Dec-2019, 2018, 2012, May-
2013,2024
What are the causes for power frequency over voltage? How are they controlled in
power system? Dec-2019, 2013, May-2017, 2014
Explain the causes of power frequency overvoltage in transmission line. Dec-2020
Discuss briefly about the various causes of power frequency overvoltage in power
system and methods to control them. May-2023

 In EHV lines (400 kV and above) power frequency over voltages occurs.

Causes for power frequency over voltages:

 Sudden load rejection
 Disconnection of inductive loads or connection of capacitive loads
 Ferranti effect
 Unsymmetrical faults
 Saturation in transformer, etc
 Tap changing operations

Sudden load rejections:

 When there is a sudden load rejection in the system, speed of the generator and hence the
system frequency will rise.
 The speed governing system will respond by reducing the mechanical power generated by the
turbines.
 But initially both the frequency and voltage increases.
 The approximate voltage rise is given by

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𝑥𝑠 - Reactance of the generator
𝑥𝑐 - Capacitive reactance
𝐸′ - Voltage generated before over operating and load rejection.
f - Increased frequency.
f0 - normal frequency.

 This increase in voltage may go to as high as 2.0 per unit with 400 kV lines.

Disconnection of inductive loads or connection of capacitive loads:

 For improving voltage in transmission lines, inductive loads are disconnected or capacitive loads
are added.
 Due to these switching operations, power frequency over voltages may occur.

Ferranti effect:
 In long transmission lines, the receiving end voltage is greater than the sending end voltage
during light load or no-load operation.
 Due to Ferranti effect, the power frequency over voltage may occurs.
 Shunt reactors are used to limit voltage rise due to Ferranti effect in EHV lines.

Unsymmetrical faults:
 Unsymmetrical faults are single line to ground fault, line to line fault, double line to ground fault.
 Consider a single line to ground fault occurs at phase ‘a’.
𝑉𝑎 = 0
 Voltage at healthy phase b and c increases.
 For solidly grounded system,
𝑋0 𝑅0
≤3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ≤1
𝑋1 𝑋1
Where,
𝑋𝑜 - zero sequence reactance

𝑅0 - Zero sequence resistance

𝑋1 - Positive sequence reactance
Rise in voltage 𝑘 1.4 𝑝. 𝑢

Saturation in transformer:
 When voltage applied to the transformer is more than the rated value or saturation value,
magnetizing currents increases rapidly.
 These current produces harmonic which produces over voltages.

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Tap changing transformer:
 Tap changing operations are required when the voltage changes due to load variation.
 So, during these operations power frequency over voltages occurs.

Corona and its effects:

8. Explain corona and its effect. May-2018, Dec-2019

 If the field is uniform, then an increase in voltage (AC) directly leads to breakdown without any
preliminary discharge.
 However, in non-uniform geometry, the increase in AC voltage will cause a luminous discharge
with the production of hissing noise at points with highest electric field intensity.
 This form of discharge is termed as corona discharge.
 It is accompanied by the formation of ozone, as is indicated by the characteristic order of this
gas.

 If the voltage is DC, then the appearance will be different.

 The positive wire will be having a uniform glow and negative wire has a more patchy glow often
accompanied by streamers.

 Corona is accompanied by a loss of power and this means that there is a flow of current to the
wire. The current waveform is non-sinusoidal.
 The non-sinusoidal drop of volts caused by corona is more important than loss of power.
 It gives rise to radio interference.

Attenuation due to corona:

The effect of corona is to reduce the crest of the voltage wave under propagation, limiting the peak
value to the critical corona voltage.
Hence, the excess voltage above the critical voltage will cause power loss by ionizing the surrounding
air.
Practical importance of Corona (Effects) :
1. Under normal conditions, the loss of power due to corona is of no importance, and consequently
corona calculations do not enter directly into transmission line design.

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2. The non-sinusoidal corona current causes a non-sinusoidal drop of volts and these may cause some
interference with neighbouring communication circuits due to electromagnetic and electrostatic
induction. The current contains large third harmonic.

3. Average corona loss on several lines from 345 kV to 750 kV gave 1 to 20 kW/Km in fair weather.
In foul-weather the losses can go upto 300 kW/Km.

4. When a line is energized and no corona is present, the current is a pure sine wave and capacitive as
shown in Fig 1.10.

without corona voltage and current with corona voltage and current

Fig 1.10 Current waveform with corona

5. An advantage of corona is that it reduces transients, since charges induced on the line by lightning
or other causes will be partially dissipated as a corona loss. In this way it acts as a safety value.

6. Audible noise generation and characteristics:

When corona is present on the conductors of EHV lines, it generates audible noise which is
especially high during foul weather. The noise is in broad band, which extends from a very low frequency
to about 20 KHz.

Corona discharges generate positive and negative ions which are alternatively attracted and
repelled by the periodic reversal of polarity of the ac excitation.

The audible noise generated by a line is a function of the following factors:

 The surface voltage gradient on conductor.
 The number of sub conductors in the bundle.
 Conductor diameter.
 Atmospheric conditions.
 The lateral distance (aerial distance) from the line conductors to the point where noise is
to be evaluated.
 Radio interference.

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There are in general two types of corona discharge from transmission line conductors
1. Pulse less or glow corona
2. Pulse type or streamer corona.

Protection against over voltages:

9. Explain the different methods employed for lightning protection of overhead [Link]-
2021, 2017, 2016, 2011, May-2013,Dec 2023
What are the requirements of a ground wire for protection of transmission line against
direct lightning stroke? Explain how they are achieved in practice. Dec-2020, May-2018
Explain how overvoltage in transmission line due to lightning can be minimized by
ground rods and counterpoises. May-2023, Dec-2019
What is tower footing resistance? Discuss the two methods to reduce this resistance.
May-2023
Explain briefly about expulsion type arrester. Dec-2022, May-2017

Protection of equipments in the power system from over voltages due to lightning can done by:
 Using ground wires above the phase wires.
 Using ground rods.
 Using counter-poise wires.
 Using protective devices like rod gap, expulsion type and valve type surge arrester, etc.

(a) Ground wires:

 Ground wire is a conductor run parallel to the main conductor of the transmission line, supported
on the same tower.
 Earthed at every equally and regularly spaced towers.
 The different arrangement of ground wires is as shown in Fig 1.11.

Important considerations of ground wires are:

 Ground wire selection should be based on mechanical considerations rather than electrical
considerations.
 It should have high strength and non–corrosive.
 Ground resistance, insulation and clearances between the ground wire and the lines are
important in the design.

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Fig 1.11 Arrangement of ground wire

Shielding angle or Protection angle θs :

The angle between the vertical line drawn through the vertical of tower and a line through
the ground wire and the shielded conductor.

Fig 1.12 Shielding angle

Protection of line using Ground Wire:

 Assuming positively charged cloud is present above the line, it induces a negative charge near
the line conductors and ground wire.
 Ground Wire is earthed at regular intervals, so that the negative charges are drained to the
Earth.
 As the ground wire is nearer to the line conductor, the induced charges on it will be much less
and the potential rise is small.
 A single ground wire reduces the induced voltage to one half of that without ground wire.
 For two ground wires, the reduction is one third of that without ground wire.

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 Effective protection depends on:

 h (height)
 θs (shielding angle) = 30ᵒ

Material used: Galvanized stranded steel conductors.

Uses:
 It is used for direct stroke protection of lines for voltage of 110 KV and above.
 To protect lines from attenuation of travelling waves set up in the lines.

(b) Using ground rods:

 Ground rods are used to reduce the tower footing resistance.
 These are buried into the ground surrounding the tower structure.
 Ground rods are a number of rods about 15 mm diameter and 3 m long driven into the ground.
 The tower footing resistance can be varied by:
 Varying the space of the rod.
 Varying the number of rods.
 Varying the depth to which they are driven.

Material used: Galvanized iron or copper bearing steel.

(c) Using counter – poise wires:

 Counter-poise wires are used to reduce the tower footing resistance.
 Counter- Poise Wires are buried in the ground at a depth of 0.5 to 1 m, running parallel to the
transmission line conductors and connected to the tower legs.
 Wire length may be 50 to 100 m long.
 The arrangement of counter – poise is as shown in Fig 1.13.

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Fig 1.13 Arrangement of counter-poise wires

 When the lightning stroke incident on the tower, discharges first through the tower to the ground
and discharges through the counter – poise wires.
 For proper operation,
Leakage resistance of counter poise < Surge impedance
 If lightning strikes a tower, current is injected and potential rises and flash over of insulator disc
takes which results in a Line-Ground faults.
 So, the tower footing resistance value should be low.

Material used: Galvanized steel wire.

Using Protective Devices:

Discuss the surge arresters and its characteristics(April/May 2024)
 Protective devices are used to protect the power system components against the travelling
waves caused by lightning.

 The basic Requirements of a Lightning Arrester or Surge Diverter are:

 It should not pass any current to the system component which is to be protected at
abnormal conditions.
 It should break down as quickly as possible when abnormal condition occurs.
 It should discharge the surge current without damaging it.
 It should interrupt the power frequency, follow current after the surge is discharged
to ground.

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 The main types of surge diverters are
 Rod gap
 Expulsion type lightning arrester or protector tube
 Valve type of lightning arrester

Rod Gap:
 Rod Gap is used to protect the system from lightning or thunderstorm.
 A plain air gap usually between 1 inch square rods cut at right angles at the ends, connected
between line and earth.
 The rod gap arrangement is as shown in Fig 1.14.

Advantages:
 Simple in construction.
 Cheap.
 Rugged construction.

Fig 1.14 (a) Rod gap (b) Volt-Time characteristics

Disadvantages:
 It does not interrupt the power frequency follow current.
 Every operation of the rod gap results in Line–Ground fault and the breakers must operate to
isolate the faulty section.
Uses:
 It is used as back – up protection.

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Expulsion Type Lightning Arrester:

 It consists of a spark gap together with an arc quenching device which extinguishes the current
arc when the gaps break over due to over voltages.
 The expulsion type lightning arrester is as shown in Fig 1.15.
 When lightning incidents, the series gap and the gap in the tube spark and provide low
impedance path for power current to flow.
 The voltage across the terminals of the arrester drops to a low value after spark over occurs.
 Arrester exerts little opposition to the flow of follow current.
 The arc struck in the tube volatizes some of the fiber and emitting gas.
 This gas rushes out through the vent and is interruption takes place at zero current.

Advantages:
 Cheap
 To protect small rural transformers where valve type arresters are expensive.
Disadvantages:
 It is not suitable for protection of expensive station equipment because of poor volt – time
characteristics.

Fig 1.15 (a) Expulsion type lightning arrester (b) Volt-time characteristics

Uses:
 To protect transmission line insulators (transmission line type).
 To protect distribution transformer (distribution type).

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Valve Type Lightning Arrester (Non – Linear Type):
 Used to protect substations and at line terminations to discharge the lightning over voltages and
short duration switching surges.
 A valve type lightning arrester is as shown in Fig 1.16.

Fig 1.16 Valve type lightning arrester

 A number of non – linear resistor elements made of silicon carbide are stacked one over the
other into two or three sections.
 They are separated by spark gaps.
 Spark gaps and resistors are protected by water tight housing.
 Non – linear resistor possesses low resistance to high currents and high resistance to low
currents.

Volt – ampere characteristics is given by,

𝑰 = 𝑲 𝑽𝒏
Where,
I - discharge current
N - value lies between 2 and 6
K - constant
V - applied voltage across the elements

 As over voltage occurs due to lighting, the resistance of the non-linear element decreases series
gap sparks and the arrester discharges.
 If the current is more, number of series resistance can be added.

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Fig. 1.17 Volt-Time characteristics

Merits:
 To protect station equipment rated 400 KV and above.
 To protect motors and generators
 To protect distribution transformer.

Reflection and Refraction of Travelling waves:

Bewley lattice diagram:

10. Explain the various steps to draw the Bewley lattice diagram of successive reflections.
Dec-2020
Explain the procedure the to draw the Bewley lattice diagram for a two substation
system. Dec-2022
Explain with necessary equation, the theory and advantages of Bewleys lattice
[Link]-2021,April-25

 Bewley lattice diagram shows the position and direction of motion at any instant of incident,
reflected and transmitted current or voltage surges.
 Horizontal axes represent the distance travelled along the system and vertical axis represent
the time taken to travel.
 At each instant of change in impedance, the reflected and transmitted values (current or voltage)
can be calculated my multiplying incident wave values with reflected and transmitted
coefficients.

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Procedure to draw lattice diagram:

 When a voltage surge of magnitude unity reaches a junction between two sections with surge
impedance Z1 and Z2 .
 Then a part ‘a’ is reflected and a part ‘b’ is refracted back.
 In traversing the second line, on reaching the termination at the end of second line, its amplitude
= .b
 Set the ends of the lines at intervals equal to the time of transit of each line.
 If a suitable time scale is chosen, then the diagonals on the lattice diagram show the passage of
the waves.

Properties of Bewley Diagram:

 All waves travel downhill, because time always increases.
 The positions of any wave at any time can be deduced directly from the diagram.
 The total potential at any instant of time is the superposition of all waves which arrive at the
point until the instant of time, displaced in position from each other by time intervals equal to
the time difference of their arrival.
 Attenuation is included so that the wave arriving at the far end of the line corresponding to the
value entering multiplied by the attenuation factor.
 History of the wave is traced easily.

Case 1: Open ended transmission line of surge impedance Z:

𝑍1 = 𝑍, 𝑍2 = ∞
Reflection coefficient at the receiving end

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𝑍1
𝑍2 − 𝑍1 1 − 𝑍2
𝑎= =
𝑍2 + 𝑍1 1 + 𝑍1
𝑍 2
𝑍
1−∞
= =1
𝑍
1−∞
Reflection coefficient at the sending end
0−𝑍
𝑎′ = = −1
0+𝑍

 Assume T is the time taken for a wave to travel from one end to the end of line and α is the
attenuation factor. Assume amplitude is unity.

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 At time t=0, the magnitude is +[Link] wave is attenuated and reaches at T with magnitude
+1× 𝛼 = +𝛼
 At time T, the wave is reflected and the amplitude is +𝛼 × 𝑎 = +𝛼 and the wave is again
attunated and reaches at 2T with magnitude+α2
 At time 2T,the wave is reflected and the amplitude is +𝛼 2 𝑎′ = 𝛼 2 × −1 = −𝛼 2 and the wave is
again attenuated and reaches at 3T with magnitude −𝛼 3
 At time 3T, the wave is reflected and the amplitude is – 𝛼 3 × 𝑎 = −𝛼 3 and the wave is attenuated
and reaches at 4T with magnitude−𝛼 4 and so on.
 Voltage at the receiving end

= 2 𝛼 − 𝛼 3 + 𝛼 5 + ⋯ + 𝛼 2𝑛 −1 𝑢(𝑡)

1 − 𝛼 4(𝑛+1)
= 2𝛼 × 𝑢(𝑡)
1 + 𝛼2
2𝛼
At t=∞, 𝑉∞ = 1+𝛼 2 . 𝑢 𝑡

2
[
𝛼

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Fig 1.19 Lattice diagram

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11. A long transmission line is energized by a unit step voltage 1.0 V at the sending end and
is open circuited at the receiving end. Construct the Bewley lattice diagram and obtain the
value of the voltage at the receiving end after a long time. Take the attenuation factor  =
0.8.
Dec-2019, 2015, 2014, May-2023, 2019, 2018
Solution:
Let the time of travel of the wave = 1 unit

At the receiving end,

𝑍2 − 𝑍1  − 𝑍
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑎 = = = 1.0
𝑍2 + 𝑍1  + 𝑍

𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 1 + 𝑎 = 2.0

At the sending end,

0 − 𝑍
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = = − 1.0
0 + 𝑍

𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 1 + 𝑎 = −1 + 1 = 0

Since the source impedance ZS= 0 and Z2, the open receiving end impedance is  (infinity), as shown

in the lattice diagram of Fig 1.20.

From the lattice diagram, the wave magnitudes are tabulated as shown below:

At the receiving end At the Sending end Time unit

1 0 0
1 1 
1+2 2 2
1 3 2-3
1-4 4 2-23
1 5 2 - 23+5
1+6 6 2 - 23+25

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Fig 1.20 Lattice diagram

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Reflection and Refraction of Travelling waves:

12. Derive the expressions for reflection coefficient and refraction coefficient and explain the
behavior of travelling waves at short circuited line.
Whenever there is an abrupt change in the parameters of a transmission line such as an open
circuit or a termination, the travelling wave undergoes a transition, of the wave is reflected or sent back
and only a portion is transmitted forward.
At the transition point (or) junction, the voltage or current wave may attain a value which say
vary from zero to twice its initial value.
The incoming wave is called the incident wave and the other waves are called reflected and
transmitted waves are shown in Fig.1.21
𝑍𝐴 − 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑍𝐵 − 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
The total voltage across 𝑍𝐵 =V3= V1+V2
V1-Incident voltage
V2 -reflected voltage
V3 -refracted voltage
I1-Incident Current
I2 -reflected Current
I3 -refracted Current
Reflection co efficient
𝑍
reflected voltage 1−𝑍 𝐴
Kr = = 𝑍
𝐵
Incident voltage 1+ 𝐴
𝑍𝐵

Kr - reflection co efficient
𝑍𝐵 −𝑍𝐴
Kr =
𝑍𝐵 +𝑍𝐴
Kr value may be positive or negative depending upon the relative value of 𝑍𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑍𝐵
Refracted coefficient(or)Transmission coefficient
Total voltage at junction
Kt =
Incident voltage at junction
𝑍𝐴 𝑍𝐴
Total voltage at junction V3= V1+V2= (1 + )+( 1 − )
𝑍𝐵 𝑍𝐵
𝑍 𝑍
(1+𝑍 𝐴 )+( 1−𝑍 𝐴 ) 2𝑍𝐵
Kt = 𝐵
𝑍
𝐵
=
1+ 𝐴 𝑍𝐵 +𝑍𝐴
𝑍𝐵
Kt value varies from 0 to 2

Fig.1.21 Incident, reflected and refracted Waves

Case (ii):
When a wave travelling on a transmission line reaches a point where the line is joined to a second line
of different characteristic impedance.(ie) when line is divided into n other lines shown in Fig.1.22
Notation:
1-Incident wave

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2-Reflected wave
3-Refracted(or)Transmitted wave
For the refracted current wave

V3 B
I 3B 
ZB
V3c V
I 3c  ,.....I 3 N  3 N
Zc ZN
 V2 A
For the reflected wave I2A 
ZA

For continuity of current I1A  I 2 A  I 3B  I 3c  I 3D....  I 3 N

and For continuity of voltage V1A  V2 A  V3B  V3c  V3D....  V3 N

Fig.1.22 Incident,reflected and refracted Waves in two Junction

______________________________________________________________________
13. Explain the behaviour of travelling waves at line terminations.
Reflection and transmission of a travelling wave at junction points of unequal impedances in a
transmission line are of great importance in transmission system.
Depending upon the type of impedance at transition points, the travelling wave is modified and
sometimes voltage rise or build-up of voltage can occur. Line termination in various condition is shown
in Fig.1.23.
Case (i) Short Circuited line:

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Fig.1.23 Short circuit Line

When a travelling wave of voltage reaches a short circuit, the reflected voltage must precisely
cancel out the incident wave so that the refracted wave is zero.
Let,
V1 — Incident voltage wave
I1 — Incident current wave

Then Reflected voltage, V2  V1

Reflected current I 2  I1
The reflected wave of voltage is same as the incident wave as it returns, while the
reflected current wave augments the incident current wave, doubling the current flowing in the line.
Let take
Incident Voltage wave = V1

V1
Incident current wave = I1 
ZA
Surge impedances, ZA  Z
ZB  0
ZB  ZA
Coefficient of reflection a( )
ZA  ZB
a  1
Reflected Voltage wave V2  aV1
V2  V1
 V2  (V1 )
Reflected current Wave I2  
ZA ZA

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V1
I2   I1
ZA
I 2  I1
The total current at the junction point

 I1  I 2  2I
Thus the current at the junction point rises to double the value of the incident current wave. .
Case (ii) Open Circuited Line:
An open circuit at the end of a transmission line demands that the current at that point be zero
at all times. Thus when a current wave of +1 arrives at the open circuit, a current wave of -1 is at once
initiated to satisfy the boundary condition. This will travel toward the source with a voltage wave of +V.
Incident Voltage Wave = V1
Incident Current Wave = I1
ZA  Z
ZB  
ZA Z
1 1
ZB  ZA ZB  1
Coefficient of Reflection a  ( ) 
ZA  ZB Z Z
1 A 1 A
ZB 
Reflected voltage wave V2  aV1  V1
 V2  V1
Reflected current wave I 2    1
ZA ZA
I1  I 2  0
Refracted voltage wave V3  (1  a)V1  2V1
Hence the voltage at the opened rises to double its value.
Case (iii) General Terminations:
Line terminated with a resistance equal to the surge impedance of the line.

ZA  Z
ZB  R  Z
Z  ZA RZ Z Z 0
a( B )   0
ZA  ZB R  Z Z  Z 2Z
a0
Reflected Voltage Wave V2  aV1
V2  0
Reflected Voltage Wave V3  (1  a)V1
V3  V1

[Link] explain with the aid of suitable diagrams, the statistical method of insulation co-
ordination

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 Insulation coordination means the correlation of the insulation of the various equipments in a
power system to the insulation of the protective devices used for the protection of those
equipments against over-voltages.
 In a power system various equipments like transformers, circuit breakers, bus supports etc. have
different breakdown voltages and hence the volt-time characteristics. In order that all the
equipments should be properly protected it is desired that the insulation of the various protective
devices must be properly coordinated.
 Curve A is the volt-time curve of the protective device and B the volt-time curve of the
equipment to be protected.
 Thus, any insulation having a withstand voltage strength in excess of the insulation strength of
curve B is protected by the protective device of curve A is shown on Fig.1.24

Fig.1.24 Volt Time curve

The insulation design of EHV and UHV system is based on the following principles.
 The station have transformers and other valuable equipment that have non self restoring
insulation. The protective levels for lightning surges and switching surges are almost equal and
even overlap.
 BIL cannot give protection against switching impulses. So separate SIL needed. So when
controlling of switching voltage control device works fail that time surge arrester suppress
switching surges.
 The protection level provided by the protective devices like surge arresters is same as for other
apparatus difference is surge arrester absorb surge.
 The safety margin is arrived at by considering the risk factor R for the devices used for the
protection and the insulation structure to be protected.
 In normal practice the insulation level and the protective safety margin are arrived at by
i)Selecting the risk of failure(R)
ii)Statistical safety factor(𝛾)
iii)Fixing the withstand voltage and designing the insulation level of any equipment
corresponding to 90%,95% of the withstand voltage thus fixed.
Statistical approach
 The statistical methods is a very rigorous experimentation and analysis work so as to find
probability of occurrence of over-voltages and probability of failure of insulation. It is found that
the distribution of breakdown for a given gap follows with some exceptions approximately normal
or Gaussian distribution Distribution function as shown in Fig. 1.25,Fig.1.26
Suppose P0(Vk) is the probability density of an overvoltage P0 (Vk) dVk the probability of
occurrence of the over voltages having a peak value Vk.
Probability to disruptive discharges due to these over-voltages having a value between Vk and Vk
+ dVk ,their probability of occurrence P0(Vk) dVk, shall be multiplied by Pb(Vk) that an impulse of
the given type .
The resultant probability or risk of failure for overvoltage between Vk and Vk + dVk is thus,
dR = Pb(Vk) P0(Vk) dVk
 For the total voltage range we obtain the total probability of failure or risk of failure.

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Fig.1.25 Over voltage distribution and insulation breakdown property curve

Fig.1.26 Statistical distribution curve

[Link] that travelling wave moves in the velocity of light on the overhead line and
its speed is proportional to 1/ ∈𝒓 on a cable with dielectric material of permittivity
∈𝒓 April-2025

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 Reg. No. :

Question Paper Code : 40499

B.E./[Link]. DEGREE EXAMINATIONS, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2021.

Seventh Semester

Electrical and Electronics Engineering

EE 8701 — HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

(Regulations 2017)

Time : Three hours Maximum : 100 marks

Answer ALL questions.

PART A — (10  2 = 20 marks)

1. List the different methods employed for lighting protection of overhead lines.

2. A 3-phase single circuit transmission line is 400 km long. If the line is rated for
220 kV and has the parameters. Resistance R = 0.1 ohms/km. Inductance
L = 1.26 mH/km, Capacitance C = 0.009 F/km, find surge impedance value.

3. What is electro convection in liquid dielectrics?

4. Differentiate between photo-ionization and photo-electric emission.

5. Define the terms (a) Impulse voltages (b) Chopped wave.

6. Draw a simple voltage doubler circuit.

7. Why are capacitance voltage dividers preferred for high ac voltage

measurements?

8. What is a mixed potential divider? How is it used for impulse voltage

measurements?

9. List out various tests to be carried out on a circuit Breakers.

10. Compare the withstand voltage with flashover voltage.

 PART B — (5 × 13 = 65 marks)

11. (a) What are the mechanisms by which lightning strokes develop and induce
overvoltage on overhead power lines?

Or
(b) Explain clearly with necessary equation, the theory and advantages of
Bewley’s lattice diagram.

12. (a) (i) Define corona discharge. (3)

(ii) Explain clearly Anode and Cathode Coronas. Also state its
advantages and disadvantages. (10)

Or
(b) (i) Explain Thermal breakdown in solid dielectrics. (7)
(ii) How this Thermal breakdown is more significant than the other
mechanisms? (6)

13. (a) (i) Explain clearly the basic principle of operation of an electrostatic
generator. (5)
(ii) Describe with neat diagram the principle of operation, application
and limitations of Van de Graf generator. (7)

Or
(b) (i) Draw equivalent circuit of a 3-stage cascaded transformer and
explain its working.
(ii) Determine the expression for short circuit impedance of the
cascaded transformer. Hence, deduce an expression for the short
circuit impedance of an n-stage cascaded transformer.

14. (a) (i) Discuss the effect of nearby earthed objects, humidity and dust
particles on the measurements using sphere gaps. (7)
(ii) Explain how DC high voltage can be measured using series
ammeter. (6)

Or
(b) (i) Explain with neat diagram the principle of operation of an
Electrostatic Voltmeter. Discuss its advantages and limitations for
high voltage measurements. (8)
(ii) Draw a simplified equivalent circuit of a resistance potential
divider. (5)

2 40499
 15. (a) (i) Write a short note on the cable sample preparation before it is
subjected to various tests. (3)
(ii) Explain briefly the various tests to be carried out on a bushing. (10)

Or
(b) Describe the various tests to be carried out on a Circuit Breaker.

PART C — (1 × 15 = 15 marks)

16. (a) An absolute electrostatic voltmeter has a movable circular plate 8 cms in
diameter. If the distance between the plates during a measurement is
4 mm, determine the potential difference when the force of attraction is
0.2 gm wt.

Or
(b) A ten stage Cockraft-Walton circuit has all capacitors of 0.06 F. The
secondary voltage of the supply transformer is 100 kV at a frequency of
150 Hz. If the load current is 1 mA, determine (i) voltage regulation
(ii) the ripple voltage.

—————

3 40499
 Reg. No. :

Question Paper Code : 70484

B.E./[Link]. DEGREE EXAMINATIONS, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2021.

Seventh Semester

Electrical and Electronics Engineering

EE 6701 – HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

(Regulations 2013)

Time : Three hours Maximum : 100 marks

Answer ALL questions.

PART A — (10  2 = 20 marks)

1. Name the sources of switching surges.

2. What is the use of protective device?

3. What is ionization by collision?

4. Define Gas law.

5. What is a tesla coil?

6. What is cascaded transformer?

7. Mention the applications of CVT.

8. List the disadvantages of series resistance micro ammeter method.

9. What is the difference between type and routine test?

10. State the importance of insulation coordination in power system.

PART B — (5  13 = 65 marks)

11. (a) (i) Explain the mechanism of lightning stroke. (8)

(ii) Give the mathematical model for lightning discharges and explain
them. (5)

Or

(b) Explain the different methods employed for lightning protection of

overhead lines. (13)
12. (a) Explain the breakdown mechanism involving in solid dielectrics
breakdown. (13)

Or

(b) (i) Explain the Townsends criterion for a spark. (7)

(ii) List out the problems caused by corona discharges. (6)

13. (a) Explain the different schemes for cascade connection of transformers for
producing very high a.c. voltages. (13)

Or

(b) Describe with a neat sketch the working of a Vande Graff generator.
What are the factors that limit the maximum voltage obtained? (13)

14. (a) Explain the operation of electrostatic voltmeter with neat sketch.

Or

(b) Explain the factors affecting the measurement of high voltage through
sphere gap arrangement.

15. (a) Explain in detail the power frequency and impulse voltage test need to be
conducted on bushings with necessary diagrams.

Or

(b) Discuss in detail the dielectric power factor test and partial discharge
test procedures for high voltage cables.

PART C — (1 × 15 = 15 marks)

16. (a) Explain the method of determining primary and secondary ionization
coefficients with experimental setup.

Or

(b) Draw and explain the modified Marx impulse generator from the basic
impulse circuit.
————————

2 70484
*X10406* Reg. No. :

Question Paper Code : X10406

B.E./[Link]. DEGREE EXAMINATIONS, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2020
Seventh Semester
Electrical and Electronics Engineering
EE8701 – HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING
(Regulations 2017)

Time : Three Hours Maximum : 100 Marks

Answer ALL questions

PART – A (10×2=20 Marks)

1. Draw the mathematical model for lightning discharge.

2. What is meant by corona ?

3. What are the factors which affect the breakdown voltage of a gaseous dielectrics ?

4. What are the insulating materials used in power transformer ?

5. Mention the specifications of impulse current as per Indian Standards.

6. What are the advantages of high frequency transformers for generating high AC
voltage ?

7. Why are the capacitive voltage dividers preferred for high AC voltage
measurements ?

8. What are the requirements of digital storage oscilloscope for impulse and high
frequency measurements ?

9. What is Basic Impulse Insulation Level ?

10. How is salt-fog test conducted on insulators ?

X10406 -2- *X10406*

PART – B (5×13=65 Marks)

11. a) i) Explain the two theories of charge formation in a thunderclouds. (7)

ii) Explain the techniques to be used for controlling the switching over
voltages in a power system. (6)
(OR)
b) i) What are the requirements of a ground wire for protection of transmission
line against direct lightning stroke ? Explain how they are achieved in
practice. (7)
ii) Describe the various steps to draw the Bewley-Lattice diagram of successive
reflections. (6)

12. a) i) State and explain Paschen’s law. How do your account for the minimum
voltage for breakdown under a given (pd) condition ? (7)
ii) Explain the breakdown due to ‘treeing’ and ‘tracking’ process in a solid
insulating materials. (6)
(OR)
b) i) Explain any two theories which explains breakdown in commercial liquid
dielectrics. (7)
ii) Illustrate the field emission theory of breakdown mechanism in vacuum
dielectrics. (6)

13. a) i) With a neat sketch, explain the construction and working of a

Van de Graff generator. (7)
ii) Why ·is controlled tripping necessary in impulse generators ? Discuss how
is it performed using Trigatron gap ? (6)
(OR)
b) i) From the basic Marx circuit develop the modern multistage impulse
generator circuits and explain the significance of its various parameters. (7)
ii) With a neat circuit diagram, explain any one method of generating
switching surges in HV laboratory. (6)

14. a) i) Explain with neat diagram, the working principle and operation of an
electrostatic voltmeter for measuring high voltages. (7)
ii) Explain the operation of a series capacitance voltmeter to measure high
AC voltages. (6)
(OR)
b) i) What are the different type of resistive shunt used for impulse current
measurements ? Discuss their characteristics and limitations. (7)
ii) Discuss the detailed procedure for measuring peak value of very high
DC, AC and impulse voltages using standard sphere gaps. (6)
*X10406* -3- X10406

15. a) Explain in details about the procedure for conducting power frequency,
impulse voltage and thermal tests on high voltage bushings. (13)
(OR)
b) Explain in details about the procedure for conducting dielectric, impulse
voltage and short circuit current tests on high voltage circuit breakers. (13)

PART – C (1×15=15 Marks)

16. a) A ten stage Cockcroft-Walton voltage multiplier circuit has all capacitors
of 0.05 F. The secondary voltage of the supply transformer is 120 kV at a
frequency of 150 Hz. If the load current is 1.2 mA, determine the following
i) voltage regulation, ii) percentage of ripple voltage, iii) the optimum number
of stages for maximum output voltage, iv) the maximum output voltage.
(3+4+4+4)
(OR)
b) A 100 kVA, 250 V/200 kV feed transformer has resistance and reactance of
1% and 5% respectively. This transformer is used to test a cable at 400 kV
at 50 Hz. The cable takes a charging current of 0.5 A at 400 kV. Determine
the series inductance required. Assume 1% resistance of the inductor. Also
determine input voltage to the transformer. Neglect dielectric loss of the
cable. (15)
*X20497* Reg. No. :

Question Paper Code : X 20497

B.E./[Link]. DEGREE EXAMINATIONS, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2020
Seventh Semester
Electrical and Electronics Engineering
EE 6701 – HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING
(Regulations 2013)
(Common to : PTEE 6701 – High Voltage Engineering for B.E. (Part-Time)
Fifth Semester – Electrical and Electronics Engineering – Regulations – 2014)

Time : Three Hours Maximum : 100 Marks

Answer ALL questions

PART – A (10�2=20 Marks)

1. What are the causes of over voltages in power system ?

2. List the sources of switching over voltage in power system.

3. Define Paschen’s law.

4. Define uniform and non-uniform fields.

5. Distinguish electromagnetic and electrostatic generators.

6. What are called DELTATRON circuits ?

7. What are the advantages of generating voltmeters ?

8. List some advantages of Faraday generator.

9. Define withstand voltage.

10. What is meant by insulation coordination ?

X 20497 *X20497*
PART – B (5�13=65 Marks)

11. a) Explain the causes of power frequency overvoltage in transmission line.

(OR)
b) Write a detailed technical note on reflection and refraction of travelling waves.

12. a) Explain clearly breakdown in vacuum dielectrics.

(OR)

b) Explain the breakdown mechanism of liquid dielectrics.

13. a) Explain with neat diagram the generation of high DC voltage using Vande-
Graff generator. State the factors which limit the ultimate voltage developed.
(OR)

b) Explain the Marx circuit arrangement for multistage impulse generators.

How is the basic arrangement modified to accommodate the wave time control
resistances ?

14. a) With a neat diagram explain the sphere gap arrangement method of high voltage
measurement in detail and give the factors influencing the measurement.
(OR)
b) Tabulate and explain the methods used for the measurement of high voltages
and high currents.

15. a) Discuss the various tests carried out in a circuit breaker at HV labs.
(OR)
b) Explain in sequence the various high voltage test being carried out in a power
transformer.

PART – C (1�15=15 Marks)

16. a) Explain the method of determining primary and secondary ionization

coefficients with experimental setup.
(OR)

b) Draw and explain the modified Marx impulse generator from the basic
impulse circuit.

–––––––––––––
Mailam Engineering College

Mailam (Po), Villupuram (Dt). Pin– 604 304.

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to Anna University Chennai
& Accredited by NAAC, New Delhi & Tata Consultancy Services, Chennai)

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

SUB CODE & NAME: EE3701 / HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

Unit - 02
DIELECTRIC BREAKDOWN

Properties of Dielectric materials - Gaseous breakdown in uniform and non-uniform fields –

Corona discharges – Vacuum breakdown – Conduction and breakdown in pure and
commercial liquids, Maintenance of oil Quality – Breakdown mechanisms in solid and
composite dielectrics- Applications of insulating materials in electrical equipments.

Part – A

Gaseous breakdown:

1. Name few gases used as dielectric. May-2005

 N2
 CO2
 CCl2 F2 (Freon),
 SF6 (Sulphur Hexa Fluoride)

2. Name the theories explaining breakdown in gaseous insulation.

 Townsend’s Theory
 Streamer Theory

3. What are the physical conditions governing ionization mechanism in gaseous dielectrics?
 Pressure
 Temperature
 Electrode configuration
 Nature of electrode surface
 Availability of initial conducting particles
4. What are the factors which affect breakdown of gaseous dielectrics? Dec-2020, May2014,
Dec-2024
 Moisture
 Dielectric strength
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Mailam Engineering College
 Stability
 Inflammability
 Conductivity
5. What is mean free path? Dec-2022
The mean free path is defined as the average distance between collisions.
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑕, 𝜆 = 𝑘/𝑝 𝑐𝑚 where K-constant, P -gas pressure

6. What is primary ionization?

 Electron produced at the cathode by some external means, during its travel towards the anode
due to the field applied, make collisions with neutral atoms/molecules and liberate electrons &
positive ions.
 The liberated ions make future collisions and the process continues.
 The electrons and the ions constitute current.
 This process is called primary ionization.

7. What is secondary ionization?

 The liberated positive ions, during the primary ionization process migrate towards cathode
bombard and emit secondary electrons from the cathode.
 The excited atoms/molecules, got excited during the collision of initial electrons, emit photons
which bombard the cathode & emit secondary electrons
 Metastable particles (excited particles) bombard the cathode metal surface & produce
secondary electrons.
 The secondary electrons released as above make ionization collisions & produce additional
electrons. The electrons again produce ionization collisions & the process repeats. This is called
secondary ionization.

8. Name the various secondary ionization processes involved in gaseous dielectric

breakdown Dec-2015
 Electron emission due to positive ion impact
 Electron emission due to photons
 Electron emission due to Metastable and Neutral Atoms

9. Define primary ionization co-efficient (Town-sends 1st ionization co-efficient). May-

2017, Dec-2024
 The average number of ionizing collisions made by an electron per centimeter travel of the
electron in the direction of the field is called Town-sends 1st ionization co-efficient.
 It depends on the gas pressure and E/P

10. What is Town-sends secondary ionization co-efficient?Dec-2024

 The net number of secondary electrons produced per incident positive ions, photon, excited
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Mailam Engineering College
particles and the total value of all is called Townsend’s second ionization coefficient ().

11. What is Townsend’s condition for Breakdown? May-2015

During breakdown, I = .
𝐼0 𝑒𝛼 𝑑
𝐼 =
1 − 𝛾 ( 𝑒𝛼 𝑑 − 1)
1 𝐼0 𝑒𝛼 𝑑
=
0 1 − 𝛾 ( 𝑒𝛼 𝑑 − 1)
⇒ 1 − 𝛾 ( 𝑒𝛼 𝑑 − 1) = 0

⇒ 𝜸 ( 𝒆𝑎 𝒅 − 𝟏) = 𝟏 𝑇𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑑′𝑠 𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎

𝛾 𝑒𝛼 𝑑 − 𝛾 = 1 ( ∵ 𝑒𝛼 𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒, 𝛾 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑)

𝜸 𝒆𝑎 𝒅 = 𝟏

12. What are electronegative gases? May-2013, Dec-2018, 2017, 2015

The electron attachment with neutral atom or molecules removes free electron in certain gases
which leads to current growth and breakdown at low voltage. They are called electronegative gases
and have high breakdown stress.

13. What is Paschen’s Law?

Dec-2020, 2019, 2018, 2011, 2008, 2007, 2004, May-2023, 2018, 2017, 2005
The breakdown voltage of a uniform field gap is a unique function of the product of gas pressure
‘p’ and gap length ‘d’ for a particular gas and electrode material.

Fig. Breakdown voltage – pd curve (Paschen’s law)

14. What is Time lag for breakdown? Dec-2014

The time difference between the instant of applied voltage and the occurrence of breakdown.

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15. Define statistical time lag and formative time lag. May-2015
 Statistical time lag (ts): Time which lapses between the application of voltage sufficient to
cause breakdown and appearance of initiating electron.
 Formative time lag (tt): Time required for the ionization process to develop fully to cause
breakdown of the gap.

16. Define Gas law. Dec-2021, 2016

Gas law is defined as Pressure of the gas changes with temperature.
𝑃𝑉 =𝑛𝑅𝑇
Where,
n - Density of gas molecule
V - Volume of the gas
T - Temperature
R - Constant

17. What is ionization by collision? Dec-2021, 2016

The secondary ionization process by which secondary electrons are produced are the one which
sustain a discharge after it is established is called ionization by collision

18. What is streamer?

When a positive pulse is applied to a point electrode, a filamentary branch is formed by
ionization. This discharge is called as streamer.

19. Distinguish between breakdown in uniform field and non-uniform field.

May-2018, Dec-2007
 In the uniform field, increase in applied voltage produces a breakdown in the gap in the form
of a spark without any preliminary discharge.
 In the non-uniform field, an increase in applied field, first cause a discharge in the gas around
the points where the field is the highest. This from of discharge is called corona discharge,
which extends finally as the field is increased and bridges the gap between the electrodes
ultimately & cause breakdown.

Corona discharges:
20. What are the characteristics of corona discharge?
 It has bluish luminescence.
 It produces hissing noise.
 Air surrounding the corona becomes converted to ozone.
 Creates loss of Power.
 Create radio interference.
 It causes deterioration of the insulation surface.

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21. List the problems caused by corona.

 Loss of power from high-voltage transmission lines.
 Deterioration of insulation.
 Gives rise to radio interference.

22. What is Corona inception field?

 The voltage gradient required to produce visual ac corona in air at a conductor surface is called
corona inception field.

23. What is burst corona? May-2019

 When the point is positive, corona current increases steadily with voltage.
 At sufficiently high voltage, current increases rapidly with voltage, up to a current of about
10−7 A.
 After which the current becomes pulsed with repetition frequency of about 1 kHz composed of
small bursts.
 This form of corona is called burst corona.

24. Differentiate between photo-ionization and photo-electric emission. Dec-2021

 In photo-ionization process, electrons are liberated from within atoms or molecules.
 In photo-electric emission, electrons are emitted from the surface of the material.

Vacuum breakdown:

25. What is Vaccum?

Atmospheric Pressure = 760 torr
High Vacuum = 1 x 10-3 to 1 x 10-6 torr
Very high Vacuum = 1 x 10-6 to 1 x 10-8 torr
Ultra Vacuum = 10 x 10-8 torr & below
For electrical Insulation purposes
Vacuum => High
Vacuum => 1 x 10-3 torr to 1 x 10-6 torr.

26. Name the various mechanisms explaining vacuum breakdown.

a) Particle Exchange Mechanism.
b) Field emission Mechanism.
 Anode heating Mechanism.
 Cathode heating Mechanism.
c) Clump theory.

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27. What is field emission process?
When the gap voltage increases and nearer to breakdown voltage, sharp points on the cathode
surface are responsible for the existence of the pre-breakdown current. This process is called field
emission process.

28. Why should the electrode surface not have sharp points? Dec-2022
Sharp points on a charged conductor or electrode would produce a large electric field in the
region and an electric discharge could most easily take place at the point which results in breakdown.

29. What are the assumptions in clump mechanism?

 Clump mechanism is based on the following assumptions:
(i) A loosely bound particle (clump) exists on one of the electrode surfaces.
(ii) When high voltage is applied, clump particle gets charged and accelerated across
the gap.
(iii) On impact with target electrode, discharges vapour and breakdown occur.

Breakdown in pure and commercial liquids:

30. Name a few liquid dielectrics.

 Transformer oil
 Synthetic hydro carbons – (Polyolefin’s)
 Chlorinated hydro carbons: P.C.B. (Toxic)
 Silicone oils. Alternative to PCB
 Esters
 Natural Esters: Castor oil
 Organic Ester & Phosphate esters (synthetic Esters)
 Hydrocarbons tetrachloride ethylene

31. What are the qualities of good dielectrics (liquid)?

1. High heat transfer capacity
2. Good dielectric strength
3. Good chemical safety

32. What are the parameters that alter the breakdown strength of liquid dielectrics?
 Physical properties like pressure, temperature
 Dissolved impurities
 Suspended particles
 Nature & conditions of electrodes

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33. Mention the factors that influences the breakdown of pure liquid.
 Field applied
 Gap separation
 Cathode work function
 Temperature
 Density
 Viscosity
 Temperature of liquid
 Molecular structure

34. What are the various theories of breakdown of commercial dielectric liquids? Dec-2008
Name the different types of breakdown mechanism in commercial liquid dielectrics.
May-2023
 Suspended particle mechanism
 Cavitations and bubble mechanism
 Stressed oil volume theory

35. What is the principle of stressed oil volume theory in breakdown of liquids?
The breakdown of liquid dielectric depends on the region which is subjected to the highest
stress and the volume of liquid contained in the region.

36. What is electro convection in liquid dielectrics? Dec-2021

Electro convection in liquid dielectrics refers to a phenomenon where the application of an
electric field to an insulating (dielectric) liquid result in the generation of fluid flow patterns and
convection currents within the liquid.

Breakdown in solid and composite dielectric:

37. What are the characteristics of a good solid dielectric?

 low dielectric loss
 high mechanical strength
 free from gaseous inclusions
 free from moisture
 resistance to thermal & chemical degradation
 High breakdown Strength

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38. What are the various breakdown mechanisms for solid dielectrics?
(a) Intrinsic or ionic breakdown
(b) Electromechanical breakdown
(c) Failure due to treeing and tracking
(d) Thermal breakdown
(e) Electrochemical breakdown
(f) Breakdown due to internal discharges

39. What is ‘TRACKING’ and ‘TREEING’ in solid dielectric breakdown? Dec-2012

Tracking:
 Tracking is the formation of a continuous conducting paths across the surface of the insulation
due to surface erosion under voltage application.
 While in use, the insulator coated with moisture which causes increased conduction leading to
the formation of surface tracks.

Treeing:
 The spreading of spark channels during tracking, in the form of the branches of a tree is called
treeing.
 Treeing occurs due to the erosion of material at the tips of the spark.
 Due to dirt and contamination at the surface, conductivity increases resulting in breakdown.

40. What is meant by long term and short-term breakdown?

How does long-term breakdown occur in composite dielectric? Dec-2019
Short-term Breakdown:
 When the applied electric field is high, failure may occur in seconds or faster without damaging
the insulating surface is called short term breakdown.

Long-term Breakdown:
 Long-term breakdown occurs due to,
 Ageing and breakdown due to partial discharges.
 Ageing and breakdown due to accumulation of charges on insulator surfaces.

41. What are the insulating materials used in power transformer? Dec-2020
 Kraft paper
 Pressboard
 Glass fabric
 Porcelain
42. What is pure liquid dielectric? April-2025
A pure liquid dielectric is a liquid substance that acts as an insulator, preventing or rapidly quenching

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electric discharges, and is chemically pure, containing no impurities even in trace amounts

43. What is intrinsic strength of solid di-electric? April-2025

The intrinsic strength of a solid dielectric refers to its maximum dielectric strength achievable under
ideal conditions, such as high purity and short voltage application times (around 10^-8 seconds). It
represents the theoretical upper limit of a material's ability to withstand electric fields before
breakdown occurs.
Part - B

BREAKDOWN IN GASES:

1. Describe the Townsend’s theory involved in gaseous breakdown and derive the
breakdown criteria. Dec-2022
Derive the expression of current growth equation in uniform field due to Townsend’s
first and second ionization process and thereby deduce the condition for breakdown of
gaseous [Link]-2019,April-2025
Derive Townsend’s current growth equation in uniform gaseous dielectric field.
May-2019
From the fundamental principle derive Townsend's criteria for the breakdown of
gaseous dielectric medium. May-2019, 2015, Dec-2016

Townsend’s First Ionisation Process:

 The process of emitting an electron form a gas molecule with production of positive
ion is called ionization.
 When an electric field is applied between anode and cathode, any electron from
cathode collides with a neutral molecule and produces a positive ion and electron as
shown in Fig. 2.1.
 These additional electrons again collide with a neutral molecule and this process
repeats and ionizing collision takes place.

Fig. 2.1 Arrangement for Townsend discharge

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Townsend’s First Ionization coefficient ():
 The average number of ionizing collisions made by an electron per centimeter travel
in the direction of the field is called Townsend’s first ionization coefficient ().

𝑛0 − 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑕𝑜𝑑𝑒

𝑛𝑥 − 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑕𝑜𝑑𝑒

nx electrons travels a small distance dx generates 𝑑𝑛𝑥 = 𝛼 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠.

𝑑𝑛𝑥 = 𝛼 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − − − (1)
Separating the variables,
𝑑𝑛𝑥
= 𝛼 𝑑𝑥
𝑛𝑥
Integrating on both sides,
𝑑𝑛𝑥
∫ = ∫ 𝛼 𝑑𝑥
𝑛𝑥
⇒ 𝑙𝑛 𝑛𝑥 = 𝛼 𝑥 + 𝑘 − − − (2)
Apply initial conditions,
𝑊𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0, 𝑛𝑥 = 𝑛0
∴ (2) ⇒
𝑙𝑛 𝑛0 = 𝛼 (0) + 𝑘
⇒ 𝑘 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑛0
∴ (2) ⇒
𝑙𝑛 𝑛𝑥 = 𝛼 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑛 𝑛0
𝑙𝑛 𝑛𝑥 − ln 𝑛0 = 𝛼 𝑥
𝑛𝑥
𝑙𝑛 ( ) = 𝛼 𝑥
𝑛0
𝑛𝑥
= 𝑒𝛼𝑥
𝑛0
𝑛𝑥 = 𝑛0 𝑒 𝛼 𝑥 − − − (3)

Let nd be the number of electrons reaching the anode at x = d.

∴ 𝑛𝑑 = 𝑛0 𝑒 𝛼 𝑑

Average current in the gap,

𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑒 𝛼 𝑑

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 Current growth curve is as shown in Fig. 2.2

Fig. 2.2 Current growth curve

Townsend’s Second Ionisation Process:

Secondary avalanche is produced by the following mechanism:

 The positive ions produced may have sufficient energy to cause production of
electrons from the cathode when they impinge on it.
 The excited atoms in avalanches may emit photons. Due to photo emission
process, emission of electron takes place.
 The excited or metastable particles may diffuse back, causing electron
emission.

Townsend’s Second Ionization coefficient ():

 The net number of secondary electrons produced per incident positive ions, photon,
excited particles and the total value of all is called Townsend’s second ionization
coefficient ().

𝑛0′ − 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠.

𝑛0′′ − 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑕𝑜𝑑𝑒.
𝑛0′′ = 𝑛0 + 𝑛0′

𝑛 − 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑕𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒.

𝑛 = 𝑛0′′ 𝑒𝛼 𝑑 = (𝑛0 + 𝑛0′ ) 𝑒𝛼 𝑑 − − − (1)

Number of electrons released from gas,

𝑛0′ = 𝑛 − 𝑛0′′ = 𝑛 − ( 𝑛0 + 𝑛0 ′ )
𝑛0′ = 𝛾 [𝑛 − ( 𝑛0 + 𝑛0′ )]

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𝑛0′ = 𝑛𝛾 − 𝛾 𝑛0 − 𝛾 𝑛0′
𝑛0′ ( 1 + 𝛾) = 𝛾 (𝑛 − 𝑛0)
𝛾 ( 𝑛 − 𝑛0 )
𝑛0 ′ = − − − (2)
1+ 𝛾

substitute (2) in (1),

𝛾 ( 𝑛 − 𝑛0 )
𝑛 = [ 𝑛0 + ] 𝑒𝛼 𝑑
1+𝛾
𝑛 ( 1 + 𝛾) = [ 𝑛0 ( 𝛾 + 1) + 𝛾 ( 𝑛 − 𝑛0) ] 𝑒𝛼 𝑑
𝑛 + 𝑛𝛾 = [ 𝑛0 + 𝑛0 𝛾 + 𝑛𝛾 − 𝑛0 𝛾] 𝑒𝛼 𝑑
𝑛 + 𝑛𝛾 = [ 𝑛0 + 𝑛𝛾 ] 𝑒𝛼 𝑑
𝑛 + 𝑛𝛾 = 𝑛0 𝑒𝛼 𝑑 + 𝑛𝛾 𝑒𝛼 𝑑
𝑛 + 𝑛𝛾 − 𝑛𝛾 𝑒𝛼 𝑑 = 𝑛0 𝑒𝛼 𝑑
𝑛 [1 + 𝛾 − 𝛾 𝑒𝛼 𝑑] = 𝑛0 𝑒𝛼 𝑑
𝑛0 𝑒𝛼 𝑑 𝑛0 𝑒𝛼 𝑑
𝑛= =
1 + 𝛾 − 𝛾 𝑒𝛼 𝑑 1 − 𝛾 ( 𝑒𝛼 𝑑 − 1)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑝 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛,

𝑰𝟎 𝒆𝑎 𝒅
𝑰=
𝟏 − 𝜸 ( 𝒆𝑎 𝒅 − 𝟏)

Townsend’s criteria for breakdown:

2. Explain the Townsend’s criteria for a spark or breakdown. Dec-2021, 2019, May-2018

During breakdown, I = .
𝐼0 𝑒𝛼 𝑑
𝐼 =
1 − 𝛾 ( 𝑒𝛼 𝑑 − 1)
1 𝐼0 𝑒𝛼 𝑑
=
0 1 − 𝛾 ( 𝑒𝛼 𝑑 − 1)
⇒ 1 − 𝛾 ( 𝑒𝛼 𝑑 − 1) = 0

⇒ 𝜸 ( 𝒆𝑎 𝒅 − 𝟏) = 𝟏 𝑇𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑑′𝑠 𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎

𝛾 𝑒𝛼 𝑑 − 𝛾 = 1 ( ∵ 𝑒𝛼 𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒, 𝛾 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑)

𝜸 𝒆𝑎 𝒅 = 𝟏

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Time lags for breakdown:

3. Explain about the time lags that are experienced during breakdown of gases.

 There is a time difference between the application of a voltage sufficient to cause

breakdown and the occurrence of breakdown. This time difference is called time lag.
 Statistical time lag (ts): Time which lapses between the application of voltage
sufficient to cause breakdown and appearance of initiating electron.
 Formative time lag (tt): Time required for the ionization process to develop
fully to cause breakdown of the gap.
 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆, 𝒕 = 𝒕𝒔 + 𝒕𝒕

Fig. 2.3 Time lags in breakdown

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Experimental determination of Townsend’s coefficients:

4. Explain the method of determining primary and secondary ionization coefficients with
experimental setup. Dec-2020

 Townsend’s primary and secondary coefficients (, ) can be determined

experimentally. The electrode system consists of two uniform field electrodes.

 The high-voltage electrode is connected to a variable high-voltage dc source (of 2 to

10 kV rating).
 The low-voltage electrode consists of a central electrode and a guard electrode.
 The central electrode is connected to the ground through the high resistance of an
electrometer amplifier having an input resistance of 109 to 1013 ohms.
 The guard electrode is directly earthed as shown in Fig. 2.4
 The electrometer amplifier measures currents in the range 10−14 to 10−8 A.

Fig. 2.4 Experimental arrangement

 The electrode system is placed in an ionization chamber which is either a metal

chamber made of chromium-plated mild steel or stainless steel, or a glass chamber.
 The electrodes are usually made of brass or stainless steel.
 The chamber is evacuated to a very high vacuum of the order of 10−4 to 10−6 torr.
 Then it is filled with the desired gas and flushed several times till all the residual gases
and air are removed.
 The pressure inside the chamber is adjusted to a few torr depending on the gap
separation and left for about half an hour for the gas to fill the chamber uniformly.

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 The cathode is irradiated using an ultra-violet (UV) lamp kept outside the chamber.
 The UV radiation produces the initiatory electrons (n0) by photo-electric emission.

 When the dc voltage is applied and when the voltage is low, the current pulses start
appearing due to electrons and positive ions as shown in Fig. 2.5 (a), (b).

(a)

(b)
Fig. 2.5 Current waveform (a) When electrons are produced by positive ions
(b) When electrons are produced by photons

 When the applied voltage is increased, the pulses disappear and an average dc current
is obtained as shown in Fig. 2.6

 In the initial portion (T0), the current increases slowly but unsteadily with the voltage
applied.
 In the regions T1 and T2, the current increases steadily due to the Townsend
mechanism.
 Beyond T2 the current rises very sharply and a spark occurs.

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Fig. 2.6 Current growth curve

 For determining the  and  coefficients, the voltage-current characteristics for

different gap settings are obtained.
 From these results, a log I/I0 versus gap distance plot is obtained under constant field
(E) conditions as shown in Fig. 2.7.

Fig. 2.7 log(I/I0) vs d plot

 The slope of the initial portion of the curves gives the value of . Knowing ,  can be
found from
𝐼0 𝑒𝛼 𝑑
𝐼=
1 − 𝛾 ( 𝑒𝛼 𝑑 − 1)

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BREAKDOWN OF GASES IN UNIFORM FIELD:

Streamer’s theory:

5. Explain the mechanism of development of anode and cathode streamers and explain how
these lead to breakdown in gaseous dielectrics. May-2023, 2014

Drawbacks of Townsend mechanism:

1. According to the Townsend theory, current growth occurs due to ionization processes
only. But in practice, breakdown voltages were found to depends on the gas pressure (p)
and the geometry of the gap (d).
2. Townsend theory predicts time lags of the order of 10−5 s, but in practice it is of the order
of 10−8 s.
3. Townsend mechanism predicts a diffused form of discharge, but in practice, it is
filamentary and irregular.

Streamer theory (or) Kanal mechanism of spark:

 In 1940, Raether, Meek and Loeb independently proposed the streamer theory.
 The charges in between the electrodes separated by a distance d increase by a factor
ed when field is uniform.

Raether’s observation:
 Charge concentration – 106 to 108 – avalanche growth is week.
 Charge concentration > 108 – avalanche growth is steep leading to breakdown of gap.

Field distortion in gap:

Fig. 2.8 Electron initiation

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Fig. 2.9 Field redistribution

 Space charge at the head of the avalanche contains negative charge. Field gets
enhanced (E1).
 At the bottom of avalanche, field between electrons and positive ions gets reduces
(E2).
 Further down, field between cathode and positive ions gets enhanced (E3).
 The field distortion occurs as shown in Fig. 2.10

Fig. 2.10 Field distortion in gap

 When charge density is n = 108, the space charge field = applied electric field.
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 This leads to initiation of streamer.

 Transformation of avalanche to streamer occurs when

𝑛0 𝑒𝛼 𝑥𝑐 = 108
𝛼 𝑥𝑐 = 18 𝑡𝑜 20

Secondary avalanche:
 At some critical size, applied field and space charge field cause intense ionization and
excitation of gas particles in front of avalanche.
 Positive ions and electrons recombine to form photons.
 These photons produce secondary avalanches as shown in Fig. 2.11

Fig. 2.11 Secondary avalanche

Raether’s expression:
𝐸𝑟
𝛼 𝑥𝑐 = 17.7 + 𝑙𝑛 𝑥𝑐 + 𝑙𝑛 ( ) − − − (1)
𝐸
Er - space charge field
E - applied electric field
xc - length of secondary avalanche

For transition from avalanche to streamer,

𝐸𝑟 = 𝐸
∴ (1) ⇒ 𝛼 𝑥𝑐 = 17.7 + 𝑙𝑛 𝑥𝑐 + 𝑙𝑛 1

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𝛼 𝑥𝑐 = 17.7 + 𝑙𝑛 𝑥𝑐 − − − (2)
For minimum breakdown value, xc = d.
∴ (2) ⇒ 𝛼 𝑑 = 17.7 + 𝑙𝑛 𝑑
∴ 𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝒅 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟕 + 𝒍𝒏 𝒅

Experimental values of E/p and /p are chosen so as to satisfy the equation.

𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝐸 𝑑

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Paschen’s law or Sparking potential:

6. State and explain Paschen’s law. How do you account for the minimum voltage for
breakdown under a given (pd) condition? Dec-2020
State the criteria for sparking potential and hence obtain the relation between
sparking potential and (pd) values (Paschen’s Law).
Discuss on the nature of variation of sparking potential with (pd) values.
Dec-2014, 2007, May-2015, 2013

Fig. 2.12 (a)Breakdown voltage – pd curve (Paschen’s law)

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Paschen’s law:
The breakdown voltage of a uniform field fap is a unique function of the product of
gas pressure ‘p’ and gap length ‘d’ for a particular gas and electrode material.

Fig. 2.12 (b)Breakdown voltage – pd curve (Paschen’s law)

Expression for minimum sparking potential:

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𝐵𝑝𝑑
𝑉 = − − − (5)
𝐴𝑝𝑑
𝑙𝑛 𝑘
𝑑𝑣
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑉 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑦 =0
𝑑(𝑝𝑑)
We get,
𝒆𝒌 𝒆𝟏+ 𝜸
𝒑𝒅𝒎𝒊𝒏 = = 𝒍𝒏 (
)
𝑨 𝑨 𝜸
𝒆𝑩𝒌 𝒆𝑩 𝟏+𝜸
𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏 = = 𝒍𝒏 ( )
𝑨 𝑨 𝜸

GASEOUS BREAKDOWN IN NON-UNIFORM FIELD:

7. Explain in detail the breakdown mechanism in non-uniform fields. Dec-2018

In non-uniform fields, such as coaxial cylinders, point plane and sphere plane gaps, the
applied field varies across the gap.
𝑑

𝛼 𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 ∫ 𝛼 𝑑𝑥
0

Townsend criteria:

Meek’s expression:

The criteria for formation of streamer is reached when Er = E at the head of avalanche.

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CORONA DISCHARGES:

8. Define corona discharge. Dec-2021

Explain clearly anode and cathode coronas. Also state its advantages and
disadvantages. Dec-2021
List out the problems caused by corona discharges. Dec-2021, 2019, May-2018
Explain the phenomenon of corona. Dec-2018

 If the electric field is uniform, a gradual increase in voltage across a gap produces a
breakdown of the gap in the form of a spark without any preliminary discharges.

 If the field is non-uniform, voltage across the gap increases and causes a discharge
in the gap at sharp points where the electrode is curved is known as corona discharge.

 It can be observed as a bluish luminescence accompanied by a hissing noise, and the

air surrounding the corona region becomes converted into ozone.

 Corona influences (problems caused by corona),

 Loss of power from high-voltage transmission lines.
 Deterioration of insulation.
 Gives rise to radio interference.

Corona inception field:

 The voltage gradient required to produce visual ac corona in air at a conductor surface
is called corona inception field.
0.301
𝐸 = 30 𝑚 𝑑 [1 + ] ( 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠, 𝑟)
√𝑑 𝑟
0.308
𝐸 = 31 𝑚 𝑑 [1 + ] (𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕 𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑕𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑢𝑖𝑠, 𝑟)
√𝑑 𝑟

m - surface irregularity factor

d - air density correction factor
0.392 𝑏
𝑑=
273 + 𝑇

 In high voltage transmission lines, appearance of corona differs for positive and
negative polarities of applied voltage.
 For positive voltage - Corona appears as a uniform bluish white sheath over the entire
surface of the conductor.

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 For negative voltage - Corona will appear like reddish glowing spots distributed along
the length of the wire.

Negative point plane corona:

When point is negative, corona appears as current pulses called Trichel pulses, and
the repetition frequency of these pulses increases as the applied voltage is increased and
decreases with decrease in pressure.

Positive point plane corona:

 When the point is positive, corona current increases steadily with voltage.
 At sufficiently high voltage, current increases rapidly with voltage, up to a current of
about 10−7 A.
 After which the current becomes pulsed with repetition frequency of about 1 kHz
composed of small bursts.
 This form of corona is called burst corona.

Fig. 2.13 Breakdown and corona inception characteristics for spheres of different
diameters.

From Fig. 2.13 the following observations are made.

Region Spacing Field
I Small Uniform Breakdown voltage depends on gap spacing.
Breakdown voltage depends on gap spacing
II Fairly large Non-uniform
and sphere diameter.

III Large Non-uniform Breakdown voltage depends on gap spacing.

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VACUUM BREAKDOWN:

9. Illustrate the field emission theory of breakdown mechanism in vacuum dielectrics.

Dec-2020
Explain clearly breakdown in vacuum dielectrics. Dec-2020
What are the different mechanisms of breakdown in vacuum? May-2019
Dec-2024,April-2025

Classification of vacuum:
High vacuum : 1 × 10−3 to 1 × 10−6 Torr
Very high vacuum : 1 × 10−6 to 1 × 10−8 Torr
Ultra high vacuum : 1 × 10−9 torr and below.

Breakdown process:
 When the electrodes are separated by a distance in a high vacuum, an electron crosses
the gap without encountering any collisions.
 Growth of current before breakdown is not due to formation of electron avalanche.
 But a gas is liberated in vacuum and breakdown occurs due to Townsend phenomenon.

Breakdown mechanism:
Vacuum breakdown occurs in the following mechanisms.
 Particle exchange mechanism
 Field emission mechanism
 Clump theory

Particle exchange mechanism:

 Charged particle is emitted from one electrode (cathode) under the action of the high
electric field, and when it impinges on the other electrode (anode), it liberates
oppositely (+ve) charged particles due to ionization of adsorbed gases.
 These particles are accelerated by the applied voltage back to the first electrode
(cathode) where they release more of the original type of particles (electrons).
 When this process becomes cumulative, a chain reaction occurs which leads to the
breakdown of the gap.

 The particle-exchange mechanism involves electrons, positive ions, photons and the
absorbed gases at the electrode surfaces.

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 An electron present in the vacuum gap is accelerated towards the anode, and on
impact releases positive ions (A) and photons (C).
 These positive ions and photons are accelerated towards the cathode, and on impact
each positive ion produces electrons (B) and each photon produces electrons (D) as
shown in Fig. 2.14.

Fig. 2.14 Particle exchange mechanism of vacuum breakdown

 The condition for breakdown is

(𝐴𝐵 + 𝐶𝐷) > 1
 Trump and Van de Graaff measured these coefficients and modified it.
 The criterion for breakdown becomes
(𝐴𝐵 + 𝐸𝐹) > 1
 E and F represent the coefficients for negative and positive ion liberation by positive
and negative ions.

Field emission mechanism:

When the gap voltage increases and nearer to breakdown voltage, sharp points on
the cathode surface produce pre-breakdown current. This process is called field emission
process.

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(i) Anode Heating Mechanism:

 Small projections on the cathode produce electrons due to field emission mechanism.
 These electrons bombard the anode and increases the temperature and releases the
gas in the gap.
 These electrons ionize the gas and produce positive ions.
 These positive ions arrive at the cathode, increase the primary electron emission due
to space charge formation and produce secondary electrons as shown in Fig. 2.15
 The process continues until breakdown of vacuum occurs.

Fig. 2.15 Anode heating mechanism

(ii) Cathode Heating Mechanism:

 Near the breakdown voltages of the gap, sharp points on the cathode surface
generates pre-breakdown current.
 This current causes resistive heating at the tip of a point.
 When a critical current density is reached, the tip melts and explodes.
 This, initiates vacuum discharge.
 Thus, the initiation of breakdown depends on the conditions and the properties of the
cathode surface.

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Fig. 2.16 Cathode heating mechanism

(iii) Clump mechanism:

 Clump mechanism is based on the following assumptions:

(i) A loosely bound particle (clump) exists on one of the electrode surfaces.
(ii) When high voltage is applied, clump particle gets charged and accelerated
across the gap.
(iii) On impact with target electrode, discharges vapour and breakdown occur.

𝑊 = 𝐺𝑎𝑝 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝐶𝑕𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝛼 𝐸
𝑾 = 𝑽 𝒙 𝑬 = 𝑪′ (𝑩𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒌𝒅𝒐𝒘𝒏 𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂)
For parallel plane electrodes,

𝑽 = √𝑪′ 𝒅

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Fig. 2.17 Clump mechanism

BREAKDOWN IN PURE AND COMMERCIAL LIQUIDS:

10. Explain any two theories which explains breakdown in commercial liquid dielectrics.
Dec-2020
Explain the breakdown mechanism of liquid dielectrics. Dec-2020
Explain the suspended particle mechanism of breakdown in commercial liquid dielectrics.
May-2019

Breakdown in pure liquids:

 Pure liquids are chemically pure and do not contain any other impurity even in traces
of 1 in 109, and are structurally simple.

 Examples: n-hexane (C6H14), n-heptane (C7H16) and other paraffin hydrocarbons.

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At electric fields < 1 kV/cm:
 Conductivities of 10−18 to 10−20 mho/cm are obtained.
 This is due to the impurities remaining after purification.

At electric fields > 100 kV/cm:

 Currents increase rapidly with violent fluctuations which will die down after some time.

Conduction current vs Electric field for hexane is as shown in Fig. 2.18

Fig. 2.18 Conduction current vs Electric field for hexane

 When started with low fields, current-electric field characteristic as shown in Fig. 2.19
can be obtained.

Fig. 2.19 Conduction current vs Electric field from low fields

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 It has three regions.
 Ionic - At very low fields.
 Saturation - Intermediate fields
 Field aided electron emission - high fields

Electronic breakdown:
 Once an electron is injected into the liquid, it gains energy from the electric field
applied between the electrodes.
 Some electrons will gain more energy due to field than they would lose during collision.
 These electrons are accelerated under the electric field and would gain sufficient
energy to release an electron.
 This initiates the process of avalanche.
 Condition for avalanche is,

𝒆𝝀𝑬= 𝑪𝒉𝒗

 The breakdown voltage depends on

 Field gap separation
 Cathode work-function
 Temperature of the cathode
 Liquid viscosity
 Liquid temperature
 Density
 Molecular structure of the liquid

Breakdown in commercial liquids:

 Commercial insulating liquids are not chemically pure and have impurities like gas
bubbles, suspended particles, etc.
 These impurities reduce the breakdown strength of these liquids.
 The breakdown mechanism in commercial liquids depends on
 Nature and condition of the electrodes.
 Physical properties of the liquid.
 Impurities and gases present in the liquid.

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 Breakdown in commercial liquids are classified as,
(a) Suspended Particle Mechanism
(b) Cavitation and Bubble Mechanism
(c) Stressed Oil Volume Mechanism

Suspended Particle Mechanism:

 In commercial liquids, impurities like fibres, dispersed solid particles are present.

Let, 1 - permittivity of commercial liquid

2 - permittivity of suspended particles
r- radius of particles (spherical)
E- Applied field

Force experienced by the particle,

 If ε2 > ε1, Force, F is directed towards areas of maximum stress.

 If ε2 < ε1, Force, F is directed towards areas of lower stress.

 When electric field is applied, particles get aligned to form a chain bridging the
electrode gap.
 It causes breakdown between the electrodes.

 When electric field > the breakdown strength of liquid,

 Local breakdown occurs.
 Formation of gas bubbles leading to breakdown.

Cavitation and Bubble Mechanism:

 In many liquids, the breakdown strength depends on the kind vapour bubble formed.
 Formation of vapour bubbles are due to
 Gas pockets at the surfaces of the electrodes.
 Changes in temperature and pressure.
 Dissociation of liquid molecules by electron collisions.
 Liquid vapourization corona type discharge from sharp points.

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 When a bubble is formed, it will elongate in the direction of the electric field.
 The volume of the bubble remains constant during elongation.
 Breakdown occurs when,
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑏𝑢𝑏𝑏𝑙𝑒 = 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑕𝑒𝑛’𝑠 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒.

Breakdown field,

Where,
σ - Surface tension of the liquid
ε1 - Permittivity of the liquid
ε2 - Permittivity of the gas bubble
r - Initial radius of the bubble
Vb - Voltage drop in the bubble

 Breakdown strength depends on

 Initial size of the bubble
 Hydrostatic pressure
 Temperature of the liquid

Stressed Oil Volume Mechanism:

 In commercial liquids, minute traces of impurities are present.

 Electrical breakdown strength of the oil is defined by the weakest region in the oil (ie)
region which is stressed to the maximum.
 Breakdown strength is inversely proportional to the stressed oil volume.
 The breakdown voltage depends on
 Gas content in the oil
 Viscosity of the oil
 Presence of other impurities

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BREAKDOWN MECHANISMS IN SOLID AND COMPOSITE DIELECTRICS:

Solid dielectrics:

11. Explain the breakdown due to internal discharges in solid dielectrics. May-2023
Explain thermal breakdown in solid dielectrics. Dec-2021, May-2019
How thermal breakdown is more significant than the other mechanisms? Dec-2021
Explain the breakdown mechanism involved in solid dielectrics.
Dec-2021, 2018, May-2018
Explain the breakdown due to treeing and tracking process in solid insulating
materials. Dec-2020
Explain the intrinsic breakdown mechanism in solid dielectrics. Dec-2019
Explain how breakdown occurs due to internal discharges in a solid dielectric.
Dec-2019

 Solid dielectric materials are used in all kinds of electrical apparatus and devices for
insulation.
 Solid dielectrics have higher breakdown strength compared to liquids and gases.
 The various breakdown mechanisms can be classified as follows:
(a) Intrinsic or ionic breakdown
(b) Electromechanical breakdown
(c) Failure due to treeing and tracking
(d) Thermal breakdown
(e) Electrochemical breakdown
(f) Breakdown due to internal discharges

Fig. 2.20 Variation of breakdown strength with time

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Intrinsic or ionic breakdown:
 When voltages are applied for short durations of the order of 10−8 s, the dielectric
strength of a solid dielectric increases very rapidly to an upper limit called the intrinsic
electric strength.
 Dielectric strength depends on
 Structure of the material
 Temperature

 Free electrons in the solid electric migrate through the lattice of the dielectric.
 Small amount of conduction takes place due to structural imperfections and impurities.
 With applied electric field and temperature, additional electrons are released.
 These electrons participate in the conduction process (breakdown).

 Two types of intrinsic breakdown mechanisms are:

 Electronic breakdown
 Avalanche (or) Streamer breakdown

Electronic breakdown:
 When an electric field is applied, electrons gain energy from the electric field and cross
the forbidden energy gap from the valence band to the conduction band.
 When this process is repeated, more and more electrons become available in the
conduction band, leading to breakdown.

Avalanche or Streamer breakdown:

 When electric field is applied, electron in the dielectric starts moving from the cathode
to anode.
 During this motion, it gains energy from the field and loses it during collisions.
 When the energy gained by an electron > lattice ionization potential, an additional
electron is generated due to collision of the first electron.
 This process repeats itself resulting in the formation of an electron avalanche.
 Breakdown will occur, when the avalanche exceeds a certain critical size.
 Breakdown occurs due to many avalanches or streamers as shown in Fig. 2.21

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Fig. 2.21 Avalanche breakdown

Electromechanical breakdown:

 When high electric field is applied to solid dielectric, failure occurs due to electrostatic
compressive forces.
 Maximum electric strength is given by,

 When electric field is applied, filamentary shaped cracks propogate through the
dielectric material releasing electrostatic energy and the electromechanical strain
energy.

Failure due to treeing and tracking:

 When a solid dielectric is subjected to electrical stresses for long time breakdown takes
place.
 Breakdown occurs due to the following process:
 Formation of conducting path across the surface of the insulation.
 Formation of spark due to leakage current passing through the conducting path.

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Tracking:
 Tracking is the formation of a continuous conducting paths across the surface of the
insulation due to surface erosion under voltage application.
 While in use, the insulator coated with moisture which causes increased conduction
leading to the formation of surface tracks.

Treeing:
 The spreading of spark channels during tracking, in the form of the branches of a tree
is called treeing.
 Treeing occurs due to the erosion of material at the tips of the spark.
 Due to dirt and contamination at the surface, conductivity increases resulting in
breakdown.

 Dielectric material is placed between two electrodes as shown in Fig. 2.21,

Fig. 2.22 Arrangement for treeing phenomenon

 Air acts as a dielectric which comes in series with dielectric.

 Voltage across airgap is,

V1 - Voltage across airgap

V2 - Voltage across dielectric
1 - permittivity of air
2 - permittivity of dielectric

 Tracking occurs even at very low voltages of the order of about 100 V, but treeing
requires high voltage.
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 The numerical value of the voltage that initiates tracking is called the ‘tracking index’.

Prevention from treeing:

 Clean, dry, and undamaged surface.
 The materials chosen should be resistant to tracking.
 Moisture-repellant greases can be used.
 Increasing creepage distances.

Thermal breakdown:

 When electric field is applied to a dielectric, conduction current flows through the
material.
 This current heats up the specimen and the temperature rises.
 The heat generated is transferred to the surrounding medium by conduction through
the solid dielectric and by radiation from its outer surfaces.
 At equilibrium,
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 = + 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒖𝒕.
𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄

Heat generated under dc stress,

𝑊𝐷𝐶 = 𝐸2 𝜎 𝑊⁄𝑐𝑚3

Heat generated under ac stress,

𝐸2 𝑓 𝜀𝑟 tan𝛿
𝑊𝐴𝐶 = 𝑊⁄𝑐𝑚3
1.8 × 1012

Heat dissipated (WT) is given by

𝑑𝑇
𝑊𝑇 = 𝑐𝑣 + 𝑑𝑖𝑣 (𝐾 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑇)
𝑑𝑡

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Fig. 2.23 Thermal instability at different electric fields

 The thermal instability condition is shown in Fig. 2.23.

 Heat lost is shown by a straight line, while the heat generated at fields E1 and E2 are
shown by separate curves.
 At field E2 breakdown occurs both at temperatures TA and TB.
 In the temperature region of TA and TB heat generated is less than the heat lost for
the field E2, and hence the breakdown will not occur.
 Thermal breakdown stresses are less in AC compared to DC fields because,
 Power loss under ac fields is higher
 Heat generation is high

Electrochemical breakdown:
 Electrochemical breakdown is caused due to chemical reactions like electrolysis,
Hydrolysis and chemical action.

 Oxidation: In the presence of air or oxygen, materials such as rubber and

polyethylene undergo oxidation giving rise to surface cracks.
 Hydrolysis: When moisture or water vapour is present on the surface of a solid
dielectric, hydrolysis occurs and the materials lose their electrical and mechanical
properties.
 Chemical Action: Even in the absence of electric fields, chemical degradation of
insulating materials occurs due to
o Chemical instability at high temperatures.

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o Oxidation and cracking in the presence of air and ozone.
o Hydrolysis due to moisture and heat.

 The effects of electrochemical and chemical deterioration could be minimized by

carefully studying and examining the materials.

Breakdown due to internal discharges:

 Solid dielectric materials contain voids or cavities within the dielectric or at the
boundaries between the dielectric and the electrodes.
 These voids are filled with a gas or liquid which has lower dielectric strength.
 When electric field is applied, electric field strength of the filling material exceeds its
breakdown strength and produces internal discharges.
 Hence, breakdown occurs.

Fig. 2.24 Electrical discharge in a cavity

 Consider a cross-section of insulating slab as shown in Fig 2.24.

d1 - thickness of void
d2 - thickness of dielectric

 In each discharge there will be some heat dissipation in the cavities.

 This will carbonize the surface of the voids and will cause erosion of the material.

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Composite dielectrics:

12. Explain the various mechanism of breakdown in composite dielectrics in detail.

May-2023, Dec-2022
What are the important properties of composite dielectrics to be considered for their
performance? May-2023

 Different dielectric materials can be in parallel or in series with one another. Such
insulation systems are called composite dielectrics.

 Composite dielectric materials are composed of voids and different chemical

substances.
 When high voltage is applied, chemical reactions occur and heat is produced.
 Composite dielectrics undergo chemical deterioration leading to reduction in both the
electrical and mechanical strengths and breakdown occurs.

Breakdown mechanism:
 There are two types of breakdown mechanism in composite dielectrics. They are
 Short term breakdown
 Long term breakdown

Short-term Breakdown:
 When the applied electric field is high, failure may occur in seconds or faster without
damaging the insulating surface is called short term breakdown.

Long-term Breakdown:
 Long-term breakdown occurs due to,
 Ageing and breakdown due to partial discharges.
 Ageing and breakdown due to accumulation of charges on insulator surfaces.

Ageing and breakdown due to partial discharges:

 In composite dielectric, gas-filled cavities will be present within the dielectric or
adjacent to the interface between the conductor and the dielectric.
 When a voltage is applied to such a system, discharges occur within the gas-filled
cavities.
 These discharges are called the ‘partial discharges’.

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 Failure of composite dielectric depends on

 Geometry of cavity
 Nature of dielectric

 The degree of ageing depends on the discharge inception voltage (Vi).

 Discharge inception voltage depends on
 permittivity of the dielectric (r)
 thickness of the cavity (g)

 When the voltage is applied, breakdown of gas in the cavity occurs and discharge
progresses.

 Vi decreases as cavity depth increases.

 E < 2 Vi, erosion of cavity occurs but breakdown will not take place.
 E > 2 Vi, erosion and breakdown takes place.

Ageing and breakdown due to accumulation of charges on insulator surfaces:

 When high voltage is applied to composite dielectric, some quantity of charge gets
deposited on the solid insulator surface.
 The charge thus deposited stays for very long durations, lasting for days or even
weeks.
 The presence of this charge increases the surface conductivity, thereby increasing the
discharge magnitude in subsequent discharges.
 Increased discharge magnitude in subsequent discharges causes damage to the
dielectric surface.

 For clean surfaces, discharge inception voltage Vi, depends on

 nature of dielectric
 size of dielectric
 shape of dielectric

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[Link] the expression for critical electric field and show that field is in dependant of
temperature of the dielectric state the assumption made Dec -2024

Assumption

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Mailam (Po), Villupuram (Dt). Pin– 604 304.

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to Anna University Chennai
& Accredited by NAAC, New Delhi & Tata Consultancy Services, Chennai)

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

SUBCODE & NAME:EE3701/HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING

Unit - 05 APPLICATION IN INDUSTRY

Introduction – electrostatic applications- electrostatic precipitation, separation, painting / coating,

spraying, imaging, printing, Transport of materials – manufacturing of sand paper – Smoke particle
detector – Electrostatic spinning, pumping, propulsion – Ozone generation – Biomedical applications

Part–A
[Link] electrostatic precipitation.
Electrostatic precipitation is essentially the charging of dust particles in a gas and their subsequent
separation under the effect of the electric field.
2. Define electrostatic separation.
Electrostatic separation is the selective sorting of solid species by means of utilizing forces acting on
these species in an electric field.
[Link] is exodrift and endodrift?
The spray loss occurred due to wind drift out of the target area (exodrift) and deposition to the soil
during the process (endodrift)
[Link] down the application of electrostatic coating
continuous coating lines ofautomobiles, electric appliances, furniture
[Link] is electrostatic imaging?
Electrostatic imaging is a process by which an ordered arrangement of electric charges is deposited
on a surface as a latent electrostatic imageand subsequently “developed” to convey visual information
to an observer.
[Link] down the different types of painting.
 Liquid painting
 Powder painting

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[Link] down the effects of Back corona
 The negative direction movement of ions neutralize their charges.
 Dust collection is affected
 Current intensity in the precipitator increases.
 Produce sparkover voltage
[Link] Back corona
When the voltage is high, an electric breakdown takes place across the dust cake, and the gas inside
the channels is ionized. The outlet of each channel acts then as a point discharge. This phenomenon
is termed back corona
[Link] the alternate solution for back discharge.
Pulse charging:
 Atrain of pulses superimposed on a DC level value, providesa high peak electric field for
particle charging.
 The collector current depends not only the peak voltage and also the pulse duty cycle.
 The decoupled voltage and current change the mark/space ratio of the applied pulses,
finally high charging field developed without back discharge.
[Link] down the drawbacks of pulse charging
When high dust resistivity occurs ion shortage will happen which results low charging rate.
[Link] is the use of Pre-chargers?
To overcome the ion shortage pre-chargers have been proposed. It separate the charging and
collecting processes into two separate stages.
[Link] the types of pre-charger
Tri-electrode charger
high-intensity charger
boxer charger
cold-pipe charger
[Link] is electrostatic spraying?
The application of sufficiently high voltage at the surface of a liquid coming from a nozzle will lead to
the formation of charged droplets in the form of a spray.
[Link] down the classification of Electrostatic printers
 Ink-jet printers
 Ink-spray printers
[Link] few application of ozone generation
Ozone generation mainly used in
 Sterilization processes
 Control of microbials
 Purification of drinking water
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 Treatment of waste water instead of the use of chlorine
 Control of survival rate of farmed fishes, cleaning, deodorization, and making healthy
 indoor air
 deNOx, and deSOx, processes by eliminating these hazardous pollutants from flue gases
 ozone therapy
protection of the earth’s surface from dangerous ultraviolet radiation
[Link] are the different application of electrostatics?April-2025
These include electrostatic precipitators for air purification, electrostatic painting and printing, and even
the functioning of photocopiers and laser printers.
[Link] the applications of high voltage in biomedical [Link]-2025,Dec-2024
High voltage is used in various biomedical applications, primarily for imaging, treatment, and
disinfection. These include X-ray machines, CT scanners, and nuclear medicine equipment for
diagnosis.
[Link] is electrostatic field?Dec-2024
An electrostatic field is a specific type of electric field created by stationary or static electric charges

Part–B

[Link] electrostatic precipitation. Explain the working principle of electrostatic

precipitator with neat diagram. Also list the applications of electrostatic [Link]-
2025,Nov-Dec 2024
 Electrostatic precipitation is essentially the charging of dust particles in a gas and their
subsequent separation under the effect of the electric field.
 These processes may occur within a single zone or be distributed over two zones, where the
first zone-the charging zone-is intended to charge the particles, and the second zone-the
collecting zone-is designed to settle the particles
 Charging the dust particles is produced by means of a corona discharge in an inhomogeneous
electric field.
 These ions interact with the particulates in the gas and impart charge to the dust, which then
experiences a force towards the collecting electrode due to electrostatic forces shown in Fig.
5.1.
Types:
1. pipe-type precipitators: a wire conductor enclosed in acylindrical pipe
2. plate- or duct-type precipitators : a row of wire conductors located between plates
Pipe-type precipitators

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Fig.5.1 Pin type Electrostatic precipitator

 Discharge electrodes
Electrodes which is around a corona discharge
 Collecting electrodes
Receiving the charged dust particles
Figure 5.2 displays schematically the charging of dust particles in a precipitator.
 The particles are charged as a result of (Figs.5.2,5.3)
Bombardment by ions By electric field for particles larger than 1 µm
For <1 µm particle collision takes place by continuous thermal motion of molecules

Fig.5.2 Charging of dust particle in electrostatic precipitator

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Fig.5.3 Formation of back corona

 In collecting electrode
Dust is formed as dust cake only 10 to 50 % ,it is depending on the size of the particles,
remaining parts in the channels cracks filled with gas.
 Because of a difference in the values of relative permittivities of dust and gas, the lines of
electric field concentrate inside the channels
Back corona
 When the voltage is high, an electric breakdown takes place across the dust cake, and the gas
inside the channels is ionized. The outlet of each channel acts then as a point discharge. This
phenomenon is termed back corona. It is formed in the precipitated layer.
Effects of Back corona
 The negative direction movement of ions neutralize their charges.
 Dust collection is affected
 Current intensity in the precipitator increases.
 Produce sparkover voltage
 Precipitator's performance reduced
Remedy of Back corona
1. Pulse charging
 A train of pulses superimposed on a DC level value, provides a high peak electric field
for particle charging.
 The collector current depends not only the peak voltage and also the pulse duty cycle.
 The decoupled voltage and current change the mark/space ratio of the applied pulses,
finally high charging field developed without back discharge.
 This produce uniform distribution of ionic current on both the discharge and collecting
electrodes
Drawback of pulse charging
When high dust resistivity occurs ion shortage will happen which results low charging rate.
Pre-chargers

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To overcome the above problem pre-chargers have been proposed. It separate the charging
and collecting processes into two separate stages.
Types of pre-charger
Tri-electrode charger, high-intensity charger, boxer charger, and cold-pipe charger
_____________________________________________________________________
[Link] electrostatic separation
Definition:
Electrostatic separation is the selective sorting of solid species by means of utilizing forces acting on
these species in an electric field.
Main process
1. Charging zone-Charging mechanism
2. Separating zone-Electric field
3. Collecting System
Charging Process
(a) particles bear electric charges of opposite sign
(b) only one type of particle bears an electric charge
(c) particles bear the same sign of charge, but the magnitude of the electric charge is significantly.
[Link] by contact and frictional electrification
 It is frequently used mechanism
 In this process phosphate and quartz are easily separated in the ore.
 Phosphate particles enter the separating zone with a net positive charge while the quartz
particles bear a net negative charge
Application:
Coal beneficiation system-It separates the coal-rich and ash-rich particles in opposite directions
2. Charging by ion or electron bombardment
 It is used, in which solid particles pass through a corona discharge from a fine wire or a series
of needle points positioned parallel to a grounded rotor of the separator.
 The particles are charged by bombardment with the corona ions
 Particles are moved by centrifugal force, gravity, and air resistance(Fig.5.4 (b))

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Fig.5.4 a) Electrostatic separator based on charging by contact and frictional electrification

Fig.5.4 (b) Electrostatic separator based on charging by ion or electron bombardment

Fig.5.4 (c) Electrostatic separator based on conductive charging.

3. Charging by conductive induction

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 It is a charging mechanism suitable for separating well conducting particles from well insulating
particles.
 A grounded rotor is located close to a positive drum (Fig. 5.4 c).
 Then conductive particles coming from the hopper pass over the rotor they become negatively
charged and attracted toward the positive drum.
Drawback
Insulating particles fall down by gravity.
_______________________________________________________________________
[Link] electrostatic painting / coating. Explain with neat diagram of principle and
operation of electro static [Link]-2024
 This is a kind of electrostatic precipitation of powder or liquid paint on the surface of an object
to be coated (or painted)
[Link] Painting
Components required
 liquid reservoir
 charging cylinder
 potential Vp
Working
 liquid jet comes from reservoir flow thro concentric charging cylinder
 Potential Vp is applied between the jet and the cylinder.
 The jet charges turn into charged droplet while it is in the cylinder
 The electric field plus space charge effects between the jet and the grounded object deposit the
paint droplets on the surface of the object
 By this method paint is coated front side and back side of the object (Fig. 5.5).

Fig.5.5 Schematic diagram of Electrostatic generation of liquid droplets for painting

[Link] Painting
 Paint particles are charged by bombardment with corona ions moving under the influence of the
electric field between the corona electrode and the object being grounded (Fig. 5.6).
Limiting thickness
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 The paint precipitation stops at a certain thickness called the “limiting thickness”
Craters
If thickness increases beyond the limit which creates craters due to back discharge
Working
 The object to be coated is grounded
 The coating material, after being charged, is sprayed into the space above the surface in the
form of finely divided particles

Fig.5.6 Electrostatic powder painting

 Due to attraction of the particles to the surface it deposit on the surface.
 The various electrostatic coating applications are somewhat sophisticated modifications of this
simple situation.
 Some time particle moves towards the surface by force.
Uses:
It is used in the continuous coating lines ofautomobiles, electric appliances, furniture.
__________________________________________________________________________________
[Link] electrostatic spraying. With neat block diagram, describe about basic components
of electrostatic paint spraying [Link]-2025
The application of sufficiently high voltage at the surface of a liquid coming from a nozzle will lead to
the formation of charged droplets in the form of a spray
Example
Agricultural pesticides are applied in the form of water based sprays using a hydraulic-atomizing
nozzle.
Problems in conventional method
 Large portion of the spray is lost
 Efficiency is <25%
 The spray loss occurred due to wind drift out of the target area (exodrift) and deposition to the
soil during the process (endodrift).

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The above problem eliminated by electrostatic spraying technology
 Small droplet sizes that can be achieved in electrostatics based systems which increasing the
biological efficacy and will increase the droplet’s charge-to-mass ratio.
 Method of generation of small droplet overcome the mass-dependent gravitational and inertial
forces.
 Increase deposition efficiency of pesticides.
Working:
 concentrated jet is generated which forms an electrified cloud inside the tree foliage.,
 The mutual repulsion of the particles and their coulomb attraction to the leaves ensure a
superior coverage on both sides of the leaves (Fig. 5.7)

Fig.5.7 Electrostatic spraying of trees

________________________________________________________________________
[Link] in detail about electrostatic imaging.
Definition
Electrostatic imaging is a process by which an ordered arrangement of electric charges is deposited on
a surface as a latent electrostatic image and subsequently “developed” to convey visual information to
an observer.
Construction:
It consists of metal plate (aluminum) covered by a very thin layer of insulating material (alumina),
which in turn is covered by a layer of photo-conducting material (selenium).
Working:
 Surface of the photoconductor is charged uniformly by a positive charge as shown in Figure
5.8(a)
 Positive charge on the top surface comes- from the corona discharge
 Negative charge on the lower surface comes- from the metal plate below
Dark condition:
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 photoconductor acts as insulator
 Negative charges cannot go further than the bottom of the photoconductor
Light condition:
 photoconductor acts as Conductor
 Negative charges can combine with those of positive polarity on the upper surface to neutralize
each other.
 Positive surface charge in dark maintained (Fig.5.8.b)and this forms image on the surface of the
photoconductor (Fig. 5.8c).
 Development of the electrostatic image is the process of supplying powder (toner) to the
charged areas to provide visibility of the image.
 The toner particles are charged negatively and attracted to the positive image by external
electric field generated by this image (Fig. 5.8d)
 If a sheet of paper is placed over the development image and sprayed with a positive charge,
the electric field penetrating the sheet will act on the negative toner and therefore image is
transferred to the paper (Fig. 5.8e)
 If there the paper is skipped away, the stored image will transfer to the second paper

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Fig.5.8 Steps in Electrostatic imaging

______________________________________________________________________________
[Link] explain electrostatic printing.
Electrostatic printers are usually known as nonimpact printers
Classification
Electrostatic printers are classified into
 Ink-jet printers
 Ink-spray printers
Principle of working:
 The printing ink is formed into macroscopic droplets which are imaged by electric field, external
to the form (print surface).
 The form serves as a receptor for the imaged ink droplets and visible image is instantly
produced.
 This technique is viable on standard forms (sheets of paper)
 No image development or fixing is required.
[Link]-jet Printer
 Visible images are formed by electrostatic deflection of charged ink droplets into electrically
programmable dot matrix patterns.
 This principle analogues to deflection of electrons in a cathode ray tube.
 The electrically conducting ink is forced through a nozzle to form a thin jet then it turn into
droplets under the influence of surface tension and the mechanical vibrations in the nozzle.
 Depending upon the signal the droplets carries electric charge
 Then the droplet moves into a deflection region
 The deflection causes image
Working

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 Ink in the reservoir is pressurized at a low level (a few centimeters of water) sufficient to form a
convex meniscus of ink at the opening of a vibrating nozzle. But is not moved. It is maintained
at ground potential.
 The conductive ink is attracted by the electric field of the gate.

Fig.5.9Ink-jet Printer

 When electrostatic attraction force exceeds the surface tension of the meniscus, droplets are
produced.

It is Expressed in terms of potential V

 The droplets are produced when the potential between the gate electrode and the meniscus
 where 𝛾= ink surface tension, 𝜀 = ink pernittivity, d = nozzle orifice diameter
 The droplets are accelerated and then imaged into the desired dot-matrix fomat by electrostatic
deflection.
 Programmable deflection is obtained by varying the magnitude of the deflection field. This is
accomplished by electronically controlling the voltage applied to the deflection electrodes (Fig.
5.9).
[Link]-spray printer (Field-modulation type of ink printer)
 Two sets of electrodes are employed to obtain both horizontal and vertical deflection, to allow
for printing on stationary forms. (Fig.5.10)
 Droplets are very small they can be quickly accelerated and are able to produce high-quality
hard copy much faster than electronic (impact) printers
 It prints in excess of 30,000 lines/minute.

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Fig.5.10 Ink-Spray Printer

___________________________________________________________________
7. Explain electrostatic Transport of materials
 It transport the light materials which tribo-electrify themselves on a stationary “conveyer” belt,
as shown schematically in Figure 5.11.

Fig.5.11 Electrostatic conveying of tribo-electrified materials

 The three-phase high-voltage supply U-V-W generates a traveling field at the surface of the
conveyor. The charged particles will be transported along the field.
 The electrostatic conveying is independent of the sign of the charge; thus, both positively and
negatively charged particles will transport in the same direction.
_________________________________________________________________________
8. Explain briefly the manufacturing of sand paper
 Abrasive particles of quartz, silicon carbide, diamond, etc. are poured onto a continuous
conveyor or belt. (Fig.5.12)
 As they arrive in the strong electric field between two parallel electrodes stressed by a voltage
up to 100 kV, they line up along the field lines with sharp points facing the electrodes.

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 The electric charge which they acquire from the semiconducting belt causes them to be
propelled and implanted in the adhesive.
 Any particle which strikes an area already fully covered by other particles falls back and is
recovered for reprocessing as surplus abrasive material

Fig.5.12 Principle of electrostatic manufacture of sandpaper

9. Explain Smoke particle detector

The construction is shown schematically in Fig.5.13.
It is designed on electrically charged particles of smoke have substantially lower mobility than ions
During the normal surveillance periods
Two continuous and equal ion currents i1and i2flow through the air of the two chambers made
conductive by radiation from a radioactive material. In large chambers, the radioactive material may
be replaced by a corona source of ions for sensitive detection of smoke particles
Sensing chamber
 The current i1flows in the sensing chamber whose walls have so many holes that smoke
particles flow in easily.
low-response chamber
 low-response chamber have not any hole.
During the abnormal surveillance periods
 A sudden increase in the number of smoke particles in the ambient will result immediate
increase in the particle density in the sensing chamber and by a slower increase in the
corresponding particle density in the second chamber

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Fig.5.13 Smoke particle detector

 The current i1will decrease on account of the attachment of ions to the smoke particles.
 The decrease in i1 actuate the alarm.
___________________________________________________________________
10. Explain Electrostatic spinning
 Figure 5.14 shows a schematic of an electrostatic device to make a thread from fibers with
minimum use of air to avoid quality degradation due to contamination of particles.
 The air-conveyed fibers are fed from a feeder into a high-voltage DC field between the gap plate
and conical electrodes and are aligned along the field lines.
 At the same time they are attracted towards the rotating shaft by a gradient force caused by
the narrowing gap.
 A mother thread is inserted from the top of the rotating shaft into its hole to grasp the vertically
aligned fibers. When it is pulled upwards,
 the fibers are pulled into the hole to be spun continuously to produce a thread.

Fig.5.14 Electrostatic spinning

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10. Explain Electrostatic pumping

Need:
 In high-voltage power equipment, the current-carrying components must be cooled to carry
away the heat caused by ohmic losses.
 Effective method in coolant circulation is based on the force transmitted to the cooling fluid by
charges in a high-voltage field.
 Mechanical pump(Fig.5.15) is required to carry coolant to the high voltage conductors to
circulate around it.
Property:
 The coolant must be electrical insulators such as oils.

Fig.5.15 Electrostatic Micro-pump

11. Explain Electrostatic propulsion

Principle:
 Rocket engine propels the rocket forward by ejecting fuel backwards.
 The propulsion force F obtained is expressed as

where dm/dt is the rate of ejection of the propellant

𝜗 is the ejection velocity,
Working:
 Ordinary chemical fuel cannot produce ejection velocity as high level >10 3 m/s
 Electrostatic propulsion uses ionized particles as propellant. The particles are accelerated by
electrostatic force to a much higher velocity.
 It requires less mass.
 Figure 5.16 illustrates the basic operating principle of electrostatic propulsion. Propellant enters
the ionization chamber, where it is ionized either by heat or by bombardment with electrons.
 Positive ions are accelerated and ejected through the screen.

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 Electrons are absorbed by the anode
 It has same velocity as positive ion.
The velocity of the positive ion vi is given by

where qicharge of positive ion

mi-mass
va accelerating voltage for positive ion.

Fig.5.16 Electrostatic propulsion concept

Velocity of electron is given by

To neutralize the ejected ion, ve must be equal to vi.

It is assumed that the ions carry a single positive charge.

Because mi >> me, Va>> Ve.
Rate of mass ejection
I-ion current, A is the cross-section of the ion beam, density of ions ni

Thus the propulsion F is expressed as

Application

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 used on synchronous satellites to adjust their position and to adjust antenna orientations.
 exploring deep space
________________________________________________________________________
[Link] Ozone generation
Property of Ozone:
 It is a virtually colorless gas with an acid odor
 Has very strong oxidizing properties.
 It is very toxic to humans and animals, causes serious damage to plant life, and produces
deterioration in many materials.
Formation of Ozone
 Ozone is the tri-atomic form of oxygen that has been formed by recombining highly excited
oxygen atoms or molecules with one another.
 when it contacts with other element produce “oxygenated” products and oxygen.
 The oxidize property of ozone is very powerful bactericide and viricide as well as a strong
bleaching agent.
 In the absence of oxidizable substances, it will decay to form stable diatomic oxygen.
 This oxygen can be stored or transported over distances requiring long periods of time.
 It is not dangerous material, therefore it can be stored large quantity of longer time
Generation of Ozone
It is produced by dielectric barrier discharge or so-called silent electricaldischarge.
Construction:
 Dry feed gas (either oxygen or air) is passedthrough a narrow discharge gap.
 One side of the gap - grounded electrode,
 Other side of the gap- high-voltage electrode (Fig. 5.17).
 When high voltage at high frequency is applied to the high-voltage electrode, ozone is
produced in the feed gas by micro-discharges taking place in the discharge gap
Application of ozone
 Sterilization processes
 Control of microbials
 Purification of drinking water
 Treatment of waste water instead of the use of chlorine
 Control of survival rate of farmed fishes, cleaning, deodorization, and making healthy
 indoor air
 deNOx, and deSOx, processes by eliminating these hazardous pollutants from flue gases
 ozone therapy
 protection of the earth’s surface from dangerous ultraviolet radiation.

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Fig.5.17 Electrode Configuration of silent or dielectric-barrier discharge

________________________________________________________________________
[Link] Biomedical applications.
Uses:
 Manipulation of small objects, such as cells, chromosomes, biological membranes, nucleic acid
,protein molecules and breakdown of membranes by electrostatic effects.
 Since Biological cells are so tiny (nano-meters)therefore it can easily handled by electrostatic
forces.
 High-voltage electrostatic forces are highly suitable for handling, characterization, and
separation of these fine particles.
 With the use of electrostatic effects, these objects can be manipulated collectively or even
individually without applying too much stress to the object.
Reverse breakdown
When a pulsed electric field of moderate magnitude is applied, a cell membrane breaks down and
becomes permeable, but a resealing process follows due to the fluidity of the membrane. This process
is called “reversible breakdown’’ and is used for bringing foreign material into the cell interior.
Transfection
when the reverse breakdown process is conducted in a DNA solution, it can be used to inject foreign
genes into the cells (transfection).
Electrical cell fusion
when a partial breakdown occurs at the contact point of two cells, they may fuse into one, to yield a
hybrid between these two cells.
Sterilization
If the pulse is too strong, irreversible breakdown takes place and the cell is destroyed. This effect can
be used for sterilization.
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