Module-1

Introduction: History, Power Electronic Systems, Power Electronic

Converters and Applications.
Thyristors: Static Anode-Cathode characteristics and Gate
characteristics of SCR, Turn-ON methods, Turn-OFF mechanisms, Turn-
OFF Methods: Natural and Forced Commutation – Class A and Class B
types, Gate Trigger Circuit: Resistance Firing Circuit, Resistance
capacitance firing circuit, Unijunction Transistor: Basic operation and
UJT Firing Circuit. (Text 1)
Module-1

Introduction: History, Power Electronic Systems, Power Electronic

Converters and Applications (1.2, 1.3 1.5 & 1.6 of Text 1).
Thyristors: Static Anode-Cathode characteristics and Gate
characteristics of SCR, Turn-ON methods, Turn-OFF mechanisms
(2.3, 2.6 without 2.6.1), 2.7, 2.9 of text 1),
Turn-OFF Methods: Natural and Forced Commutation – Class A and
Class B types (refer 2.10 without design considerations),
Gate Trigger Circuit: Resistance Firing Circuit, Resistance
capacitance firing circuit (refer 3.5 upto 3.5.2 of Text 1),
Unijunction Transistor: Basic operation and UJT Firing Circuit
(refer 3.6, upto 3.6.4, except 3.6.2).
Power Electronics is a technical field dedicated to
study, analyze, construct, and maintain electronic
circuits capable of controlling electric energy flow.

Deals with the use of electronics for the control

and conversion of large amounts of electrical
power.
Applications of Power Electronics
• Switched Mode Power Supplies (SMPS)
• Inverters
• Waveform Shaping & EMI Control Systems
• Uninterruptible Power Supplies
• Motor Drives
 History:
• Until 1956 light current engineering.
• In BELL LAB a paper entitled “PNPN Transistor switches”
was published.
• This triggered intensive research on PNPN Devices.
• In 1957, Gordon Hall developed the three terminal
PNPN silicon based semi conductor device called silicon
controlled rectifier(SCR).
• Continuous modification and improvement in its design
as well as fabrication techniques have made it more and
more economical and suitable for various control
purposes.
Power Electronic Systems
Power Electronic Converters and Applications.

• A converter uses a matrix of power semiconductor

switches to converter electrical power at high efficiency.
• Converter system is comprised of switches , reactive
components L ,C and transformers.

Classified into the following five broad categories:

1.Phase controlled Rectifier(AC to DC converters)
2.Choppers(DC to DC converter)
3.Inverters (DC to AC converter)
4.Cycloconverters (AC to AC converters)
5.AC Voltage Converters(AC Regulators)
1.Phase controlled Rectifier (AC to DC converters):

• It Convert fixed AC voltage to a variable DC voltage.

• The output variable is a low ripple DC voltage or DC
current.
• These circuits include diode rectifier and single/three
phase controlled circuits.
Applications :
• High voltage dc transmission systems
• DC motor drives
• Regulated DC power supplies
• Wind generator converters
• Battery charger circuits.
2.Choppers(DC to DC converter)
• Which converter fixed DC input voltage to a variable
DC output voltage.
• Designed using semiconductor devices such as
power transistors, IGBTs , GTOs, Power MOSFETs and
Thyristors.
Applications :
• DC drives
• Subway cars
• Battery driven vehicles
• Switch mode power supplies
3.Inverter(DC to AC Converter):
• An inverter converts a fixed dc voltage to an ac voltage
of variable frequency and of fixed or variable
magnitude.
• A practical inverter has either a battery , a solar
powered dc voltage source or a line frequency
(50Hz)derived dc voltage source (often unregulated ).
• Inverters are widely used from very low power
portable electronics system such as the flashlight
discharges system.
• They are designed using power transistor, MOSFETS,
IGBTS and thyristers.
Applications:
UPS, Aircraft and space power supplies
Induction and motor drives, high voltage DC transmissions.
4.Cycloconverters (AC to AC converters)

• Converts input power at one frequency to output

power at a different frequency through one stage
conversion.
• These are designed using thyristors.

Applications:
AC motors.
5.AC Voltage Converters(AC Regulators)

• Converts fixed AC voltage to a variable AC voltage

at the same frequency.
• Uses thyristor.

Applications:
• Lighting control
• Speed control of large fans and pumps
• Electronic tap changers.
Thyristors:
HISTORY
• In 1950, the silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) or
thyristor was proposed by William Shockley.
• Developed in 1956 by power engineers at
General Electric (G.E.)
• An earlier gas filled tube device called a
thyratron provided a similar electronic
switching capability, where a small control
voltage could switch a large current.
What is a Thyristor ???

The term "thyristor" is derived from a

combination of thyratron and transistor.

A thyratron is a type of gas-filled tube used as a

high-power electrical switch and controlled rectifier
• The Thyristor is a four-layered, three terminal semiconductor
device, with each layer consisting of alternately N-type or P-type
material, for example P-N-P-N.
 p-type
silicon
A thyristor is like two diodes
Electrons

n-type
silicon Holes

A forward-biased diode: current flows across the junction between the p-type
(blue) and n-type (red), carried by electrons (black dots) and holes (white dots).

A reverse-biased diode: with the battery connected the other way, the
"depletion zone" at the junction gets wider, so no current flows.
 Transistors versus thyristors
With a transistor, when a small current flows into the base, it
makes a larger current flow between the emitter and the
collector.
p-type n-type
Electrons silicon silicon

Holes n-p-n transistor

A similar thing happens inside a FET.

• A small current at the gate triggers a much
larger current between the anode and the
cathode.
• But even if we then remove the gate current,
the larger current keeps on flowing from the
anode to the cathode.
• In other words, the thyristor stays ("latches")
ON and remains in that state until the circuit
is reset.
A thyristor is like two
junction diodes connected
together, but with an extra
connection to one of the
inner layers—the "gate“.

A thyristor is also like two

transistors connected
together, so the output from
each one serves as the input
to the other one.
The three states of a thyristor

So how does this thing work? We can put it into three possible states, in all three of
which it's either completely off or completely on, which means it's essentially a binary,
digital device. To understand how these states work, it helps to keep diodes and
transistors in mind:

Forward blocking
Normally, with no current flowing into the gate, a thyristor is switched off: no current can
flow from the anode to the cathode. Why? Think of the thyristor as two diodes joined
together. The upper diode and the lower diode are both forward biased. However, that
means the junction in the center is reverse biased, so there's no way for current to get all the
way from the top to the bottom. This state is called forward blocking. Although it's similar to
forward-bias in a conventional diode, no current flows.

Reverse blocking
Suppose we reverse the anode/cathode connections. Now you can probably see that
both the upper and lower diodes are reverse biased, so still no current flows through the
thyristor. This is called reverse blocking (and it's analogous to reverse bias in a simple
diode).
Forward conducting
The third state is the really interesting one. We need the anode to be positive
and the cathode negative. Then, when a current flows into the gate, it switches
on the lower transistor, which switches on the upper one, which switches on
the lower one, and so on. Each transistor activates the other. We can think of
this as a kind of internal, positive feedback in which the two transistors keep
feeding current to each other until both of them are fully activated, at which
point current can flow through them both from the anode to the cathode. This
state is called forward conducting and it's how a thyristor "latches" (stays
permanently) on. Once a thyristor is latched on like this, you can't turn it off
simply by removing the current to the gate: at this point, the gate current is
irrelevant—and you have to interrupt the main current flowing through from
the anode to the cathode, often by switching off power to the entire circuit.
Don't follow that? Check out the animation in the box below, which I hope will
make it clear.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF SCR

Va = Anode cathode voltage.

I a= Anode current.
 Static Anode-Cathode characteristics and Gate
characteristics of SCR

The thyristor V-I characteristics is divided into three

region of operation.
1.Reverse Blocking Region.
2.Forward Blocking Region.
3.Forward Conduction Region .
 V-I characteristics of thyristor
1. Reverse Blocking Region.
• Cathode is positive w.r.t Anode. S is
open
• Thyrister is reverse biased.
• OP Reverse Blocking Region
• J1 & J3 Reverse biased.
• J2 Forward biased.
• Small current flows (mA)
• If reverse voltage is increased
avalanche occurs at J1 & J3.
• Destroy the device.
• PQ Reverse avalanche region.

Va = Anode cathode voltage.

I a= Anode current.
 V-I characteristics of thyristor
2.Forward blocking region:
• Anode is positive w.r.t cathode.
• J1 & J3 Forward biased.
• J2 Reverse biased.
• Anode current is small forward leakage current.
• OM is forward blocking region.
• Device doesn’t conduct.
3. Forward conduction region:
• Anode to cathode voltage is increased . IH Holding current :
• J2 is avalanche breakdown occurs (VBO) Anode current falls
below a low
• SCR switches low impedance condition.
level.(10mA)
• MN is device latches on to its ON state.
• NK is forward conduction state.
• IG is zero Forward break over voltage is VBO
Forward
• IG1 less than VBO break over
• IG2>IG1 (SCR conducts) voltage

A forward current
that is greater
than the
minimum value
called latching
current.
Holding Current is defined as the minimum
value of anode current below which it must
fall for turning OFF the SCR or Thyristor.

Latching current is defined as the minimum

value of anode current which must be attained
during turn ON process of SCR to main the
conduction even when gate current is removed.
Difference between latching and holding current is
tabulated herein.
 Gate characteristics of SCR:
• The gate is connected to cathode of PN junction and it
resemble to diode characteristics.
• The triggering circuit is one of the key areas of thyristor
or SCR circuit design - ensuring that the silicon
controlled rectifier triggers when required and does not
trigger falsely is key.
The circuit which supplies firing signals are designed,
1. To accommodate variations.
2. Not to exceed the maximum voltage, and power
capabilities of the gate.
3. To prevent triggering from false signals or noise.
4. To assure desired triggering.
 ON and OM
Gate characteristics of SCR: corresponds to the
possible spread of the
characteristics for SCRs
of the same rating
S operating point.
HE the maximum value of this
series resistance.
OA maximum gate The minimum value of gate
voltage that will not source series resistance is
trigger any device. obtained by drawing HC
This region sets a tangential to Pg
limit on the
maximum false 3. Fast turn
signals. on is
required

OL
Minimum
Gate 2.Region minimum
current value of gate
voltage and current
required to trigger.
OV Minimum
Gate-voltage
The gate pulse width is usually taken as equal to or greater than
SCR turn-on time ton.
T ≥ ton
With pulse firing, if frequency of
firing f is known, the peak
instantaneous gate power dissipation
Pgmax can be obtained as,
Turn-ON methods:
A thyristor can be switched from a non conducting state
to a conducting state in several ways as follows,

1. Forward voltage triggering.

2. Thermal triggering.
3. Radiation triggering (Light triggering)
4. dv/dt triggering.
5. Gate triggering.
1. Forward voltage triggering
• When Anode to Cathode forward voltage is increased the gate
circuit open .
• Junction J1 and J3 are forward biased whereas junction J2 is
reversed bias.
• Therefore, this narrow down the width of the depletion region of
junction J2 and at a particular voltage, this depletion region will
vanish.
• At this stage, reversed biased junction J2 is said to have avalanche
breakdown and this voltage is called the forward breakover
voltage VBO.
• At this voltage thyristor changes from OFF to ON state.
2. Thermal triggering (Temperature triggering):

• This is the method of triggering the device by

heating.
• The width of the depletion layer of a thyristor
decreases on increasing the junction temperature.
• Thus when voltage is applied between anode and
cathode when its near to breakdown voltage , the
device can be triggered by increasing its junction
temperature.
• At this temperature, the SCR will get turn ON.
3. Radiation triggering (Light triggering):

• Is bombarded by energy particles such as neurons or

photons.
• This increases the number of charge carriers.
• This leads to instantaneous flow of current within the
device and triggering of the device.
• The SCR which is turned ON by using light is called
Light Activated SCR or LASCR.
4. dv/dt triggering.
• dv/dt Triggering is the technique in which SCR is turned ON by
changing the forward bias voltage with respect to time.
• dv/dt itself means rate of change of voltage w.r.t time.
• Junction J2 is reversed biased in a forward blocking mode of
SCR.
• A reversed biased junction may be treated as a capacitor due
to presence of space charges in the vicinity of reversed biased
junction.
Let us assume its capacitance to be ‘C’ farad. Last term is negligible as
contribution to charge current
almost constant.

Voltage impressed across the device is denoted by V, the charge by Q and the capacitance Cj
then ,
5.Gate triggering.

• By applying a positive
signal at the gate
terminal of the device.

Three types of signal can

be used for this purpose
1.DC gate triggering
2.AC gate triggering
3.Pulse gate triggering
 Turn-OFF mechanisms

• Turn Off is the transition of SCR from forward

conduction state to forward blocking state.
• This transition process involves bringing the anode
current below holding current.
• This dynamic process of bringing SCR to off state is
called commutation process or turn off process.
• The turn-off time of the thyristor is defined as the
minimum time interval between the instant at which
the anode current becomes zero and the instant at
which the device is capable of blocking the forward
voltage.
• The total turn-off time toff is divided into two time
intervals the reverse, recovery time trr and the gate
recovery time tgr.
 Gate
Reverse recovery
recovery time Total
time. turn-off
time
Turn-OFF Methods:
• Commutation basically means the transfer of current
from one path(thyristor) to another.
• The circuit in which it is connected must reduce the
thyristor current to zero to enable it to turn-off.
• Commutation is one of the fundamental principle the
use of thyristor for control purpose.

There are two methods which can be used to

commutated thyristor.
1. Natural commutation.
2.Forced commutation.
1.Natural commutation.
• It uses alternating , reversing nature of AC
voltages.
• As the current passes through natural zero, a
reverse voltage will simultaneously appear across
the device.
• This immediately turns off the device. This
process is called natural commutation.
• No external circuit is required.
• This method may use AC mains supply voltage or
AC voltage generated by local circuits.
2.Forced commutation:
• SCR turned off by reducing the current flowing through them
to zero.
• The forward current should be forced to be zero by means of
some external circuits.
• External circuit is required for it are known as commutation
circuits.
• Most important stage in designing process is choosing a forced
turn-off method and deciding its components.
• Methods of classification is based on the arrangement of the
components and the manner in which zero current is obtained
in the SCR.
There are six basic methods of commutation.
1.Class A-self commutation by resonating the load.
2.Class B-self commutation by an LC circuit.
3. Class C-mutation by an LC circuit.
1. Class A Commutation.
• This is also known as self commutation, or resonant
commutation, or load commutation.
• In this commutation, the source of commutation voltage
is in the load.
• This load must be an under damped R-L-C supplied with
a DC supply so that natural zero is obtained.
• The commutating components L and C are connected
either parallel or series with the load resistance R.
• When the thyristor or SCR is triggered, the forward
currents starts flowing through it and during this the
capacitor is charged up to the value of E.
• Once the capacitor is fully charged (more than the
supply source voltage) the SCR becomes reverse
biased and hence the commutation of the device.
• The capacitor discharges through the load resistance
to make ready the circuit for the next cycle of
operation. The time for switching OFF the SCR
depends on the resonant frequency which further
depends on the L and C components.
• This method is simple and reliable. For high
frequency operation which is in the range above 1000
Hz, this type of commutation circuits is preferred due
to the high values of L and C components.
Class B Commutation:

• This is also a self commutation circuit in which

commutation of SCR is achieved automatically by L
and C components, once the SCR is turned ON.
• In this, the LC resonant circuit is connected across
the SCR but not in series with load as in case of class
A commutation and hence the L and C components
do not carry the load current.
• When the DC supply is applied to the circuit, the
capacitor charges with an upper plate positive and
lower plate negative up to the supply voltage E.
• When the SCR is triggered, the current flows in two
directions, one is through E+ – SCR – R – E- and
another one is the commutating current through L
and C components.
• Once the SCR is turned ON, the capacitor is starts
discharging through C+ – L – T – C-. When the
capacitor is fully discharged, it starts charging with a
reverse polarity.
• When the commutating current Ic is higher than the
load current, the SCR will automatically turn OFF and
the capacitor charges with original polarity.
Gate Trigger Circuit:
Two basic circuits:
1.Resistance Firing Circuit
2.Resistance capacitance
firing circuit
1. Resistance Firing Circuit:

es
2.Resistance capacitance firing circuit :
Unijunction Transistor:

1. Basic operation
2. UJT Firing Circuit
(refer 3.6, upto 3.6.4, except 3.6.2).