INDIA BHUTAN

BACKGROUND
● Between Bhutan and British India, a prior working arrangement was struck in 1865. It was the
contract that was signed at Punakha Dzong in 1910. In accordance with the Treaty of Punakha,
Britain ensured Bhutan's independence and assumed
command of its foreign policy. As one of the few Asian
kingdoms that was never occupied by a regional or
colonial force, it also confirmed Bhutan's
independence.
● Since Bhutan became a colony of British India in 1910,
allowing the British to "guide" its foreign policy and
defence, India and Bhutan have had close
connections. Bhutan was one of the first countries to
recognise India's independence in 1947.
o Since then, the ties between the nations have
grown closer, particularly given that Bhutan too has
a troubled past with China. In addition to having a
699-kilometer border, Bhutan and India have strong
cultural and religious ties.
● A Buddhist saint named Guru Padmasambhava had a significant impact on the propagation of
Buddhism and the strengthening of cultural linkages between the populations of the two
countries.
o Bhutan opened a Special Representative office in Thimphu in 1968 after India did so.
o In 1978, the two special representative offices were upgraded to become full-fledged
embassies.
● The 1949 Indo-Bhutan Treaty of Peace and Friendship established the framework for bilateral
ties between Bhutan and India.
o But crucially, Article 2 of the pact gives India influence over Bhutan's foreign policy. As a result,
several modifications to the pact were made in 2007.
o According to the new pact, Bhutan is permitted to buy weapons as long as Indian interests
are protected and there is no re-exportation of the weapons by either the government or
private parties.
o The existing treaty's Articles 6 and 7 address the topic of "national treatment" and equal
rights for residents on each other's country via India's riches, as well as the suspected cow-
theft suspects and those who fuel the nation's criminality.

Bhutan’s Significance to India

Geographical Significance:
● Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, West Bengal, and Sikkim are the four Indian States with whom Bhutan
has a border.
● Bhutan, a country tucked away in the Himalayas, acts as a buffer between China and India.
● For India, the security of Bhutan's current boundaries, especially its western border, is crucial.

Economic Significance:
● Bhutan serves as a market for Indian goods and is a place where Indian capital is invested.
● Bhutan is a rich source of hydropower for India as well.

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Political Relevance
● India values Bhutan's political stability. Bhutan's unrest and instability could serve as a refuge for
extremist groups and anti-Indian actions.
Strategic Significance
● Bhutan is significant to India as a buffer state because it defends the chicken neck corridor from
China.
● The Siliguri Corridor, also known as Chicken's Neck, is a 22-kilometer-long sliver of land.
● The countries of Nepal and Bangladesh are situated on each side of the corridor, which connects
India's north-eastern states to the rest of India. It is situated in the Indian state of West Bengal.
● The conflict in Doklam reaffirmed Bhutan's strategic importance to India.

Themes for Collaboration

Trade:
● The India Bhutan Transit and Trade Agreement of 1972, which was most recently extended in
November 2016, governs trade between the two nations.
● The agreement creates a free-trade zone between the two nations and allows for the duty-free
transit of commodities from Bhutan to other nations.
● Bhutan's top trading partner is India. The value of trade between the two nations from January to
June of 2018 was Rs. 4318.59 crore.
● Mineral products, machinery and mechanical appliances, electrical equipment, and other items
are key exports from India to Bhutan, whereas electricity, ferro-silicon, dolomite, semi-finished
product of iron or non-alloy steel, Portland pozzalana cement, and other items are major imports
from Bhutan.

Economic Support:
● Bhutan's top partner for development is India. India has been providing financial support to
Bhutan's FYPs since the First Five Year Plan of Bhutan was introduced in 1961. For Bhutan's 12th
FYP, India has allocated Rs. 4500 crore.
● India set aside over Rs 7,100 crore in its budget for 2021-22 as development assistance for
countries in its neighbourhood as well as in Africa and Latin America, with Bhutan got the
maximum allocation of Rs 3,004 crore.
o It is slightly increase compared to the revised estimate of Rs 2,261 crore in 2020-21.

Hydropower Relations
● India is a key player in the creation of hydropower projects. Indo-Bhutan hydropower
cooperation began in 1961 with the signing of the Jaldhaka agreement.
o The Jaldhaka project is situated on the Indian side of Indo-Bhutan border in West Bengal.
o The major part of power produced at Jaldhaka hydropower plant was exported to southern
Bhutan.
● A landmark development in the history of Indo-Bhutan hydro-relations took place in 1987 with
the commissioning of the 336 MW Chukha Hydropower Project (CHP). Bhutan’s first mega power
project, CHP was fully funded by the Government of India with 60 percent grant and 40 percent
loan at the interest rate of 5 percent payable over a period of 15 years after commissioning.
● The 1,020 MW Tala Hydroelectric Project, one of the biggest joint projects between India and
Bhutan, was also financed by the Government of India, with 60 per cent grant and 40 per cent
loan.
● In April 2014, the two countries also signed the “Framework Inter-Governmental Agreement”
concerning development of Joint Venture Hydropower Projects through the Public Sector
Undertakings of the two countries. This Inter-Governmental agreement provides the framework

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 for implementing the four HEPs of Kholongchhu, Bunakha, Wangchu and Chamkharchu totalling
2120 MW.
● Construction of two major hydroelectric power projects are underway in Bhutan. The 1200MW
Punatsangchu I is expected to be completed by 2024/2025 and the 1020MW Punatsangchu II
commissioned in 2022.
● Additionally, India and Bhutan have a Joint Group of Experts (JGE) to handle floods.

Border Control:
● Concerning border management and security-related issues between the two nations, there is a
system at the Secretary level.
● In order to ease coordination on border management and other relevant issues, there is also a
Border District Coordination Meeting (BDCM) Mechanism between the bordering States and the
Royal Government of Bhutan (RGoB).

Indigenous Peoples:
● Bhutan is home to about 60,000 Indian citizens, the majority of whom work in the building of
roads and hydroelectric power plants.
● In addition, border towns serve as the entry and exit points for 8000–10,000 daily workers from
Bhutan.

Multilateral Collaboration:
● The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), which deals with the economic,
social, and cultural development of the South Asian region, was founded by both India and
Bhutan.
● Additionally, the two of them participate in other multilateral forums like BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal
Initiative for Multi Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation), BBIN (Bangladesh, Bhutan,
India, and Nepal), etc.

Challenges
● India has occasionally interfered with Bhutan's domestic issues. Bhutanese people now have a
poor opinion of India as a result of this.
● Bhutan has a growing perception that India's development of Bhutan's hydroelectric capacity is
motivated by personal gain because India benefits from Bhutan's surplus power at relatively low
prices.
● Bhutan's worries about the financial viability of its hydropower projects come as a result of
India's switch to renewable energy sources like wind, solar, etc.
● Concern for both countries stems from the unauthorised installation of camps by terrorist
groups in the deep jungles of south-east Bhutan.
● India has long been concerned about China's persistent claims to crucial border regions like the
Chumbi Valley and Doklam, as well as its persistent efforts to forge close political and economic
ties with Bhutan.

Way ahead
● India has to do more to promote the advantages that Indian projects bring to Bhutan.
● India must always look for fresh opportunities for cooperation with Bhutan. It is a positive move
for ISRO to choose Bhutan as the location for their ground station. The station will aid Bhutan in
informing its remote regions about the weather.
● India should make every effort to stay out of Bhutan's internal affairs, even though it can serve as
a mentor.

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● Both countries are worried about the safety of their borders with China. Consequently, both
parties must cooperate to resolve this issue. Additionally, border regions must be kept clear of
militant activity.
● Being neighbours, it is essential that both countries continually cherish one another. Regular high-
level visits from both parties are required for this.

THE OBJECTION OF BHUTAN TO INDIA’S MOTOR VEHICLE AGREEMENT

BBIN connection Project

● Background: The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) summit in Nepal in
2014 did not result in an agreement on a regional motor vehicle accord, mostly due to resistance
from Pakistan.
● Origin: On June 15, 2015, during a gathering of transport ministers in Thimpu, Bhutan, the BBIN
Motor Vehicle Agreement for the Regulation of Passenger, Personal, and Cargo Vehicular Traffic
amongst the 4 countries was signed.
● Goal: By completing the Passenger and Cargo Protocols, operationalizing the MVA will assist in
realising the full potential of trade and people-to-people connectivity between the BBIN countries
by encouraging more sub-regional cooperation.
● Current Status: The Reluctance of Bhutan temporarily dropped out of the BBIN project in 2017
because it was unable to obtain parliamentary approval for the MVA, which was a setback for the
project.
o At the time, the three other nations opted to move forward with the deal.
o Recently in 2022, India, Bangladesh and Nepal finalised an enabling memorandum of
understanding (MoU) for implementing the long-gestating Bangladesh-Bhutan-India-Nepal
(BBIN) Motor Vehicles Agreement (MVA).
● Foreign Support: The project received funding from the Asian Development Bank, which was
asked to give roughly 30 road projects worth billions of dollars top priority as part of its South
Asian Subregional Economic Cooperation initiative.
o The World Bank has also expressed interest in financing infrastructure, estimating that the
implementation of the MVA may result in an increase in traffic-regional trade within South
Asia of approximately 60%.
● Issues that still need to be resolved before bus and truck operations between the two countries
can be put into action include those involving insurance, bank guarantees, and the number and
frequency of freight carriers entering each country. They aim to complete these agreements this
year.

Bhutan’s Concern
● Bhutan's objections are related to environmental and sustainability issues.
● Bhutan's "existing infrastructure" and top priority to continue being a "carbon-negative" nation,
according to Prime Minister Lotay Tshering, made it impossible to consider joining the MVA in
2020.
● As a result, the Bhutanese parliament opted against supporting the proposal.

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INDIA-MYANMAR
INTRODUCTION
The north-eastern states of Nagaland and Manipur share a 1640 km long border with Myanmar, one
of India's key neighbours. India and Myanmar have "traditional friendships and relations rooted in
history" Relations between India and Myanmar are based on the five Bs: Buddhism, Business,
Bollywood, Bharatnatyam, and Burmese teak. In accordance with its "Neighborhood First" and "Act
East" strategies, India gives importance to its partnership with Myanmar.

About Myanmar
Location: Burma, or Myanmar, is a country
in South East Asia that has borders with
Thailand, Laos, Bangladesh, China, and
India.
Demography: There are around 54 million
people living there, the most of whom
speak Burmese, however other languages
are also used. Although Nay Pyi Taw is the
capital, Yangon (Rangoon) is the largest
city.
Religion: Buddhism is the dominant
religion. The nation is home to a wide variety of ethnic groups, including Muslims from
Rohingya.

BACKGROUND
● 1948 and After:
o Burma got independence from Britain with U Nu as first Prime Minister.
● 1962 and After:
o U Nu's faction was overthrown in a military coup in 1962.
▪ Initiating "the Burmese Way to Socialism," the military nationalises the economy, creates
a one-party system with the Socialist Programme Party as the only political party, and
outlaws independent media.
o The unexpected, violent takeover of an existing government by a small group is known as a
coup d'état, sometimes known as a coup.
o Control of all or a portion of the armed forces, police, and other military components is the
main requirement for a coup.
o A coup is a shift in power from the top that just leads to the abrupt replacement of top
government officials, as opposed to a revolution, which is typically accomplished by several
individuals striving for fundamental social, economic, and political change.
● In 1991, Aung San Suu Kyi (pro-Democratic activist) was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for her
commitment to peaceful change.
● 2008 and After:
o The military had drafted a new Constitution in 2008 to ensure that its interests would be
upheld in the event of a transition.
o Military personnel are given a 25% reservation for seats in the parliament and local
legislatures (giving it a veto over any move to change the Constitution).
o The military was also given priority in important ministries including Home, Defense, and

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 Border Affairs.
o The President must have military
experience, and he or she "must not
be subject of a foreign power or
citizen of a foreign country," nor
shall the President, his spouse, or
children be. Ms. Suu Kyi cannot be
president since her two boys are
British citizens.
o Around 2010, after the junta
(military) had consented to a trial of
quasi-democracy, the political situation in the country started to change.
o 2011 saw the installation of an apparent civilian administration following a general election.
Because of the reserved seats in Parliament, the USDP (the military's political party), which
has an advantage over other parties in elections, continued to lead defence and internal
security policy even after the Army approved the transfer of power to an elected
administration.
o The Army's hold on the government and society eroded during the course of the following five
years. Ms. Suu Kyi and other political prisoners were freed.
o The NLD, Suu Kyi's political party, modified its former stance and agreed with the Army's
draught of the Constitution. The NLD won the 2015 election, the first free and fair election in
the nation in which many parties participated, and went on to form the government.
o The election of Aung San Suu Kyi to the position of state councillor in 2016 was considered as
a turning point in Myanmar's transition from military rule to democracy.

DEMOCRACY IN MYANMAR
What caused the Military Coup in 2021?
● In the pretext of battling terrorism, the Army conducted a savage assault on Rohingya in Rakhine
State in 2017, forcing over 700,000 Muslims to flee Myanmar for nearby nations, primarily
Bangladesh.
● Suu Kyi attempted to negotiate a cease-fire with the military during her first term (2015–20),
particularly on the Rohingya crisis. In a case before the International Court of Justice in 2019, she
represented Myanmar and defended it against charges of ethnic cleansing.
● The outcomes of the elections in 2015 and 2020 demonstrated Ms. Suu Kyi's rising popularity and
the military's declining support.
● Aung San Suu Kyi's Pro-Democratic Party NLD party easily won the general elections held in
November 2020.
● The USDP (military political organisation) requested only 167 seats to form the government and
elect the next president, despite 166 seats being set aside for the military. While the NLD needed
333 votes to win the election outright.
● Voters awarded the NLD 396 seats in the 2020 elections while only giving the USDP 33.
● The National League of Democracy (NLD), a party that had been legitimately elected, was ousted
from power in February 2021 by the military (Tatmadaw).
● The military took back control out of concern that, following her landslide victory in the 2020
elections, Aung San Suu Kyi could try to amend the Constitution, which limits the military's
authority.
● Aung San Suu Kyi and a number of other NLD leaders were imprisoned right away after the coup
and are still being held.

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Situation After Coup
● Mass demonstrations against the military dictatorship, known as the "spring revolution," started
after the military overthrew the duly elected government.
● Additionally, the National Unity Government (NUG), a parallel administration, was established.
The People's Defence Force (PDF), one of its armed divisions, is backed and trained by a number
of armed ethnic groups. They haven't been able to stop the junta's oppressive policies, though.
● Over 11,000 of the 14,000 political prisoners the military has detained are still being held behind
bars. Millions of people are now homeless as a result of the deaths of over 2,000 civilians and the
burning of thousands of homes.
o Suu Kyi has received an 11-year prison sentence after being found guilty in secret tribunals
of six tenuous counts. She has been charged by the military with a number of additional
offences that could basically lock her up for the rest of her life.
● Recently, Myanmar's military authorities made it abundantly obvious that they have no
prospects for a political settlement by publicly murdering four political detainees in defiance of
all international requests.
● Since the country's ethnic rebels have been fighting the military junta for decades, pro-democracy
activists have now established a violent underground movement in place of the nonviolent
methods of protest that they used in the past.

Recent Development
● The military regime in Myanmar put four pro-democracy campaigners to death. A junta
spokeswoman referred to the deaths as "lawful" and claimed that they served "the people's
interests."
● In an unfair trial conducted behind closed doors, they received a death sentence.
● Reasons:
● The military's repressive actions have not been able to quell civilian opposition to the military
administration.
● To raise the military's morale under Senior General Min Aung Hlaing's direction.
● The dictatorship views the attention being paid to Sri Lanka and Ukraine internationally as a
chance to carry out such action in its own country.

Obstacles for the incoming administration

● Economic expansion is biggest hurdle. One of Asia's poorest countries is Myanmar. Economic
growth stalled during the years of isolation under the junta, leaving millions in extreme poverty.
● Army intervention
o In both Houses of Parliament, the military is given a quarter of the seats. This makes it
impossible to modify the Constitution without the military's consent.
o Defense, Home Affairs, and Border Affairs are the three major Ministries that are directly
under military command.

Issue of Sovereignty
● Consolidation, and protection of Myanmar's borders as well as its sovereignty is the country's
main challenges in the years ahead. Its main objectives will be advancing a comprehensive peace
accord with the ethnic nations and quelling insurgencies.
● Serious clashes between the Buddhist and Muslim populations have occurred in Myanmar,
especially in Rakhine State.

World and India’s Stand on Military Junta Govt Rule in Myanmar

In 2021, the democratically elected leader Aung San Suu Kyi was imprisoned, and a one-year state of

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emergency had been declared. A "coup" is typically defined as an abrupt, violent, and illegal takeover
of a government.

Global Reaction:
● China: "To maintain political and social stability in Myanmar, all parties will appropriately handle
their conflicts in accordance with the legal system and the constitution."
● After the military commanders of Myanmar staged a coup, the president of the United States
vowed to reimpose sanctions on the country and demanded a coordinated international
response to pressure them to cede control.
● ASEAN Member States: Brunei, the organization's current chair, urged for "conversation among
parties, reconciliation, and the restoration of normalcy."
● Thailand, Cambodia, and the Philippines pointed out that this was an "internal matter" for
Myanmar while Singapore, Malaysia, and Indonesia expressed their concern.
India’s Reaction:
● India is a supporter of Myanmar's journey to democracy.
● India has expressed serious worry over recent events in Myanmar, but cutting off its military ties
is not a practical solution given that India has important economic and geopolitical ties to
Myanmar and its neighbor’s.

India's Strategic Interests

● Security: The United National Liberation Front (UNLF) and the National Democratic Front of
Bodoland (NDFB), two militant organisations from the North-East area, have taken refuge in
Myanmar, which has alarmed India.
o India depends on Myanmar for ongoing coordination and help in order to maintain security
and stability in its northern border regions.
● The safe, long-term, and prompt return of Rohingya refugees from Indian and Bangladeshi
refugee camps is a priority for India.
o India has also proposed to complete projects under phase-III of the Rakhine State
Development Programme (RSDP), including the establishment of a skills training centre and
improvement of agricultural mechanisation. This proposal builds on the progress
accomplished under the RSDP.
● Investment: More than any other country in South Asia, India has invested more than USD 1.2
billion in Myanmar.
● Energy: The two nations are also strengthening their collaboration in this sector.
o India recently approved an investment in the Shwe Oil and Gas project totaling more than USD
120 million.

Way Forward
India should maintain its relationship with Myanmar's current government and try to advance the
interests of its citizens in both nations. It should also facilitate the exchange of constitutional and
federalism best practices to help Myanmar break the current impasse.

AREA OF COOPERATION BETWEEN INDIA AND MYANMAR

● After the two states signed the Treaty of Friendship in 1951, relations between India and
Myanmar finally improved. After Rajiv Gandhi's visit in 1987, the basis of their friendship grew
stronger and more important.
● India and Myanmar share historical, cultural, geographical, and economic linkages that give them
strategic relevance. The nations also share marine borders in the Bay of Bengal and
topographical land borders.

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● The militaries of India and Myanmar have engaged in a number of combined military actions, such
as Operation Sunshine, to protect India's national security interests against left-wing extremists
and narcotics trade routes in the north-eastern state.
● India's commercial involvement with Myanmar as well as its physical and social connectivity
benefit from Myanmar's strategic location. Myanmar serves as the focal point for New Delhi's
regional outreach because it is essential for connecting South Asia and Southeast Asia for India.
To connect and develop the Northeast of India

India's main objectives in Myanmar

● To develop a security and economic partnership that keeps Myanmar from joining China's sphere
of influence.
● Ensure Myanmar's military's assistance in stopping militants from the Northeast from utilising
Myanmar as a safe haven, especially Naga insurgents.
● Encourage the nation to become a fully-fledged federal democracy.
● Improve the situation of the Rohingyas and make sure that Bangladesh's and Myanmar's
difficult relations don't get out of hand.

Financial Relations India-Myanmar Border Facts:

The amount of trade between the two
nations has consistently stayed at or near $2 Myanmar, commonly referred to as
billion. Businesses from China, Singapore, Burma, is located in Southeast Asia.
Korea, Japan, Thailand, Vietnam, and other Thailand, Laos, Bangladesh, China,
countries have actively pursued economic
and India all border it.
prospects in Myanmar. The bulk of
Myanmar's meagre exports are comprised of Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland,
pulses. Businesses from India could make Manipur, and Mizoram are
investments in Myanmar's steel, car, and bordering Arunachal Pradesh on a
even textile industries.
1,643-kilometer stretch of territory.
Military Relations Myanmar and India have a system of
Over the past few years, India and Myanmar free movement regime (FMR). It
have worked to improve their defence permits trade between border
cooperation. In India, more than 200 military
officers from Myanmar received training in settlements and unrestricted travel
the medical, airforce, and navy specialties. up to 16 kilometres inside each
Rocket launchers, night vision devices, other's borders.
radar, and technical tools, including
Due to the ongoing Covid-19
torpedoes costing $37.9 million, have been
purchased by Myanmar from India. epidemic, the free movement
regime (FMR) has been suspended
Cultural Relations since March 2020. Due to the
An earthquake in Myanmar in 2016 caused
damage to the 11th-century Ananda
disruption of people's livelihoods
brought
Temple, which was rebuilt with help from India. The strengthon
of by the epidemic,
connections there
between India and
Myanmar is people to people interactions. India hashas
madebeen an grant-in-aid
the largest uptick commitment
in borderto
Myanmar of any other nation. These consist of: smuggling since the suspension.
● Multimodal corridor in Kaladan.
A Joint Boundary Working Group
● 69 bridges on the Tamu-Kalewa route will be repaired.
(JBWG) is constituted by Myanmar
and India to discuss all boundary-
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systematic way. Facility of Free
Movement Regime (FMR) between
● Building the 120-kilometer Kalewa-Yargyi corridor. Rhi-Tiddim route in the Mizoram-bordering
Chin state.
● Unfortunately, the projects were not finished on schedule. India hasn't received the proper
recognition as a result.

India's Assistance in Building Capacity

● The establishment of numerous new institutions for agricultural education, information
technology, and industrial training has greatly helped Myanmar's youth as a result of the attention
given to capacity building.
o The IIIT Bangalore-supported establishment of the Myanmar Institute of Information
Technology in Mandalay has been a success, with all of its graduates securing positions right
away. An excellent example of combining research efforts on pulses and oilseeds is the
Advanced Centre for Agriculture Research and Education, which was established in
partnership with India's ICAR.
● India has also suggested that Myanmar get a refinery for oil. This shows how important Myanmar
is becoming to India. India has constantly improved defence ties by providing the Myanmar
military with the training facility expansion and defence equipment it needs.
● India's timely provision of tools and medications to combat the corona pandemic.
● ONGC Videsh and GAIL, as well as other oil and gas firms, have established activities in Myanmar.
Additionally, India has pledged to teach Myanmar army commanders and permit them to attend
Indian military institutions.

ROHINGYA ISSUE
About
● The Rohingya are an
ethnic minority from
western Myanmar's
Rakhine province
who are primarily
Muslims and who
speak a Bengali
dialect.
● They are referred to as
"resident foreigners"
or "associate citizens"
in Myanmar.
● After numerous
rounds of violence
that started in 2012,
they were compelled
to flee Myanmar in
huge numbers.
o Delhi received the
first wave of
Rohingya in 2012.
● The most persecuted
minority in the world,
according to the UN, is the Rohingya Muslims.

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● In 2017, they allegedly fled their homes due to a military crackdown in Myanmar.
● For decades, the minority Rohingya Muslims have left the predominantly Buddhist nation of
Myanmar to neighbouring Bangladesh and other nations, notably India, in order to avoid prejudice
and violence.
● The 1982 Myanmar nationality legislation denies citizenship to the Rohingya community. They
have made it impossible for the Rohingya to become citizens.
● Despite the ethnic minority's presence in the area dating back to the eighth century, Myanmar
legislation does not count the Rohingya as one of the country's eight original races.

What is India’s stand on refugees?

● India has not ratified either the 1967 Protocol or the 1951 UN Convention related to the Status
of Refugees.
● All undocumented foreign nationals and illegal migrants are governed in accordance with:
o The 1946 Foreigners Act
o The Foreigners Registration Act of 1939
o Act of 1920 Concerning Passports (Entry into India)
o The 1955 Citizenship Act

Issues & Concerns to India’s Security

● Threat to National Security: It has been determined that the Rohingyas' ongoing illegal
immigration into India and their continuous presence there have major implications for national
security and represent serious security threats.
● Conflict of Interests: In locations where there are significant influxes of illegal immigrants, it
affects the interests of the local populace.
● Political Instability: It also worsens political instability when politicians begin to incite national
sentiment against immigrants in an effort to seize political power.
● Rise of Militancy: Radicalization has taken the place of the ongoing attacks on Muslims who were
thought to be illegal immigrants.
● People trafficking: In recent years, cross-border human smuggling and trafficking in women have
grown very common.
● Law and Order Issues: Illegal immigrants who participate in illegal and anti-national activities are
undermining the country's integrity and rule of law.

Recent Development
● Development in India:
o India insists that Rohingyas pose a threat to its security and have ties to foreign terrorist
organisations.
o India has so far refrained from applying any pressure to Myanmar in exchange for their return
and recognition as citizens of Myanmar.
o In 2022 a tweet by the Union Housing Minister stated that Rohingya refugees would be sent
to apartments intended for economically disadvantaged groups.
o Union Housing Minister assured that India respects and complies with the 1951 UN Refugee
Convention and offers asylum to everybody, regardless of their race, religion, or faith.

MAJOR PROJECTS
Kaladan Multi-Modal Corridor
● The Kaladan project links India's border with Myanmar to Sittwe Port in Myanmar.

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● India and Myanmar jointly started the project to build a multi-modal platform for cargo exports
from eastern ports to Myanmar and to the country's north-eastern regions via Myanmar.
● Importance: It is anticipated that it will improve India and Myanmar's economic, commercial, and
strategic links as well as open up new maritime lanes and foster economic development in the
region's north-eastern states. By reducing the distance between Kolkata and Sittwe by about 1328
kilometres, this project will also lessen the need to carry goods through the congested Siliguri
corridor, often known as Chicken's Neck.

In what region is Sittwe?

● The capital of Rakhine State in southwest Myanmar is Sittwe, which has gained attention due
to the plight of Rohingya Muslims. It is situated near the confluence of the Kaladan River, which
empties into the northeastern Indian state of Mizoram.

The port's importance to India

● India has long sought a
way to get supplies to
the landlocked
northeastern States
through Bangladesh.
The sole route from the
rest of India to this
region at the moment is
a fairly tortuous one
through a small section
of Indian territory in
West Bengal known as
the Chicken's Neck that
is tucked between
Bhutan and
Bangladesh.
● With the new Sittwe route, travelling from Kolkata to Mizoram and beyond would be much
cheaper and shorter in both cost and mileage.

Recent Development
In a concerted operation, the forces of India and Myanmar demolished at least 10 camps that
belonged to an insurgent group in Myanmar that had threatened India's massive Kaladan Project in
the neighboring nation. The operation was also carried out with consideration for the project's Indian
workers' safety. Operation Sunrise was the codename given to the military operation.

India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway

● The Look East policy of India is being implemented through the development of the India-
Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway, which will link Moreh, India with Mae Sot, Thailand via
Myanmar.
● The highway project between India, Myanmar, and Thailand (IMT) will pave the path for ASEAN
to enter through the land.
● The project will increase trade and business between Southeast Asia and India and inside the
ASEAN-India Free Trade Area.
● Additionally, India has suggested expanding the route into Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.

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● Through Myanmar, the only ASEAN nation with which India has a land border, the 1,360 km long
trilateral highway links India and Thailand.
● The Indian government contributes heavily to the cost of the IMT trilateral highway project.
● In India, the highway is the second major international road project after the Bangladesh-
Bhutan-India-Nepal (BBIN) project. The project also strengthens India's position in the area as a
counterbalance to the People's Republic of China's geopolitical sway.
● The project's technical executing agency and project management consultant are the National
Highways Authority of India (NHAI). The cost to complete the IMT trilateral highway stretch
between India and Myanmar is estimated at INR 1,177 crore.

IMPORTANCE OF COOPERATION WITH MYANMAR TO COMBAT INSURGENCY IN NORTH EAST INDIA

● India and Myanmar are geographically connected by a 1,643 km long land border as well as a
marine border in the Bay of Bengal. Myanmar is bordered by the northeastern Indian states of
Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland, and Arunachal Pradesh. India's entry point into South-East Asia is
Myanmar. The border between India and Myanmar is very porous, poorly protected, and
situated in a remote, impoverished, insurgency-prone area next to an opium-producing zone.
● The border is also susceptible to rebel activity, drug and weapon trafficking, and illegal
immigration. The continued influx of large numbers of Rohingya from Myanmar's Rakhine
province makes Myanmar crucial from a security perspective. India's security is challenged by the
border with Myanmar.
● The mechanism of the Free Movement Regime exists in India and Myanmar. Members of the
numerous ethnic tribes are now able to travel across the two countries' borders without getting
a visa thanks to this method. Only travel without a visa is permitted up to 16 kilometres from
the border.
● The negative implications of the Free Movement Regime, however, have been highlighted in a
report by the Union Home Ministry. According to the research, several insurgency groups employ
this system to smuggle fake Indian currency notes, human beings, weapons and ammunition,
drugs, and other psychoactive substances. Recently, the Myanmar government has worked with
India to drive out the rebels from their region.

Need of the Support

● The Myanmar government handed over at least 22 militants of north-eastern armed groups to
India, thus becoming the third neighbouring country to act against the Indian frontier regions. The
armies of India and Myanmar have launched two phases of joint operations along the Myanmar
border targeting camps of insurgent groups operating in the North East. Named Operation
Sunrise, the strategy is aimed at hitting militant groups that are impacting both India and
Myanmar.
● In the past, insurgent organisations sought sanctuary in nations bordering the North Eastern
states. The insurgents must use the territory of Bangladesh or Myanmar and obtain their supplies
of weapons and ammunition from there in order to survive and operate successfully.
Improvements in Bangladesh's and Myanmar's security ties have ended these supports.

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INDIA-SRI LANKA

BACKGROUND
One of India's neighbours is the island nation of Sri Lanka. Given the long-standing ties that stretch
back virtually to the very beginning of the subcontinent's documented history, Sri Lanka holds a
particular place in Indian hearts. More than 2,500 years have passed since the establishment of
diplomatic connections between India and Sri Lanka, and both nations have built on a history of
linguistic, cultural, and intellectual exchange. The relationship has recently been characterised by
tight political contacts, expanding commerce and investment, cooperation in the areas of
development, education, culture, and defence, as well as a deep understanding of the most
important global concerns.
● The two nations' friendship has been strengthened through bilateral exchanges at various levels
over the last year and by the notable advancements made in the development aid initiatives for
Sri Lanka's internally displaced people (IDPs) and underprivileged groups of the population.
● In May 2009, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) and Sri Lankan forces ended their nearly
three-decade-long armed war. India backed the Sri Lankan government's right to take action
against terrorist elements throughout the conflict. At the same time, it stressed that their rights
and welfare should not be entangled in hostilities against the LTTE and expressed its deep
sorrow at the condition of the primarily Tamil civilian population.
● India has emphasized at the highest levels the need for national reconciliation through a political
resolution of the ethnic issue. India has consistently supported a political settlement reached via
negotiation that is acceptable to all communities within the framework of a united Sri Lanka,
consistent with democracy, pluralism, and respect for human rights.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF INDIA-SRI LANKA RELATIONS

Pre-Independence Relationships
● Sri Lanka first appears in the Ramayana, which is when it was first mentioned. Hanuman assisted
Ram in rescuing Ravana, who had Sita imprisoned in Lanka.
● The connections date back to the beginning of Buddhism. Around 2000 years ago, the movement
of Buddhism expanded throughout Sri Lanka.
● India's economy has been closely connected with the north and north-east of Sri Lanka.
● Although ruled separately, the local people of Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon) were colonised by the
British but were not a member of the British India Empire.
● The British began to import indentured labour from India, particularly Tamil Nadu, to Ceylon
starting in the 1830s. The Tamils that the British carried made their home in the north of Ceylon.

Relations after Independence

● Ceylon gained its independence in 1948, while India did so in 1947.
● The Sinhalese administration discriminated against Tamils when Ceylon gained its independence,
thus deteriorating relations between India and Ceylon.
● Ceylon created a system to make it difficult for Tamils to become citizens of the state. Additionally,
they aimed to end Tamil domination in the public sector. They made it difficult for Tamil officials
due to the Sinhalese linguistic barrier.
● However, a Shastri-Sirimavo accord was struck in 1964, whereby Ceylon agreed to grant
citizenship to 3 lakh Indian Tamils living in Ceylon and India pledged to repatriate a sizable
proportion. However, the repatriation issue was not resolved until 1988.
● After the Indo-Pak War in 1971, Sri Lanka steadily moved its allegiance to the US while India
shifted its loyalty to the USSR.
● Jayewardene moved Sri Lanka toward the west and promoted a free and open economy.

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● Tamil riots particularly worsened the situation in 1977 and 1981.
● India adopted a very careful policy after 1980. The Research & Analysis Wing (R&AW), according
to numerous academics and conspiracy theorists, was utilised by India to train Tamil separatists
in Sri Lanka. The intention was to employ Tamil rebels to topple the Jayewardene government
and prevent the Tamil rebels from succeeding in establishing an independent state.
● The Liberation of Tamil Tigers Eelam (LTTE), a militant separatist group, was established by V
Prabhakaran in 1976.
● The R&AW gradually stopped backing the rebels after gradually weakening the Sri Lankan
government.
● However, the LTTE had already grown to be a significant force and was now positioning itself as
the sole voice of Tamils in Sri Lanka.
● Following the passing of Indira Gandhi, Jayewardene enlisted the assistance of Pakistan and the
US to train Sri Lankan soldiers to combat the LTTE insurgents.
● India was asked by Jayewardene in writing to oppose any military action by the LTTE in Sri Lanka
in 1987, but it did not respond.
● The India-Sri Lanka Accord (ISLA), which was signed on July 29, 1987, granted some autonomy to
Tamil districts.
● The role of India was beginning to be seen by the Sinhalese as an intrusion into their domestic
matters that was not in Sri Lanka's best interests.
● V P Singh won the Indian elections in November 1989, and the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF)
operation was terminated in March 1990. IPKF was sent back to India. The LTTE was later classified
as a terrorist organisation after killing Rajiv Gandhi in 1991.
● Numerous Tamil organisations also started to quit supporting the LTTE after Rajiv Gandhi's
passing. India felt the need to take another look at its policy toward Sri Lanka as it became clear
that its aim had failed.

Relations after the Cold War

● As the Cold War came to an end, India's economy was liberalized and it gained a new perspective
to examine its interactions with the outside world.
● This did alter how we viewed Sri Lanka. Even Sri Lanka's succeeding leaders, Kumaratunga and
Wickremesinghe, took action to foster better ties.
● India and Sri Lanka concluded a free trade agreement in 1998.
● Without taking an official part in the negotiations, India promoted communication and a truce
between Sri Lanka and the LTTE from 2000 to 2003.
● President Rajapaksa took office in November 2005. In Sri Lanka, there was civil turmoil from 2005
to 2006. From 2006 through 2009, the Rajapaksa administration stepped up the military
response and began Eelam War IV.
● When Prabhakaran, the LTTE's most well-known leader, was assassinated in 2007, the
organisation was completely destroyed by May 2009.
● Due to India's absence during the Fourth Eelam War, Sri Lanka grew close to Pakistan and China.
● As Pakistani pilots provided Sri Lanka with training and decoration during the post-LTTE era, India's
concerns grew. China supplied significant economic assistance as well as arms. Access to the
Hambantota port was handed to China after India initially declined to develop it for financial
concerns.
● Indian concerns have grown as a result of the potential for a civilian-military alliance in Sri Lanka
endangering Indian security.
● India's main priority right now is to prevent Pakistan and China from using Sri Lanka against it.

Sri Lanka's Geopolitical Importance

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● For the security of British India and the Indian Ocean, Britain understood the strategic importance
of Sri Lanka, and as a result, they built a sizable naval base at Trincomolee on the country's
eastern coast.
● This island republic is situated between the main shipping lanes connecting Europe with East
Asia and the oil tanker routes connecting the Gulf oil producing nations with China, Japan, and
other Pacific nations.
● It is significant to the United States from a military perspective since these same water lanes are
utilised to transport naval force from the Pacific Ocean to the Indian Ocean and the Gulf.
● Examples of Western interests in Sri Lanka's strategic location include the 1962 Maritime
Agreement with the USSR and the British Defence and External Affairs Agreement from 1948.
● Even when J.R. Jayewardene and Ranasinghe Premadasa (1978–89) were in office, Sri Lanka was
chosen to host the construction of the Voice of America transmitter (suspected of being used for
intelligence gathering purposes and electronic surveillance of the Indian Ocean).
● The biggest issue in recent years has been caused by the extensive Chinese participation during
the Rajapaksa administration.
● In the south of it, along the Indian Ocean, China is constructing state-of-the-art, enormous modern
ports in Gwadar (Pakistan), Chittagong (Bangladesh), Kyauk Phru (Myanmar), and Hambantota
(Sri Lanka).
● The goal of China's "string of pearls" plan is to encircle India and take control of the Indian Ocean.
● Since 2015, China has continued to be a major source of funding for infrastructure projects in Sri
Lanka, including the port city project.
● Despite reports that it is losing money, the Hambantota harbour offers development potential
because of its advantageous position.
● Sri Lanka has a number of ports that are extremely strategically positioned along the busiest
shipping lines. The natural deep water harbour in Trincomalee is the fifth largest natural harbour
in the world, while Sri Lanka's Colombo Port is the 25th busiest container port in the world.
● During the Second World War, the port city of Trincomalee served as the principal base for the
British Royal Navy and Eastern Fleet. Thus, Sri Lanka's location can be utilised for industrial,
commercial, and military interests.
● Strategically, India would be troubled by a hostile Sri Lanka. In terms of her Indian Ocean strategy
and the networking of partners for her goals of forming an Indian Ocean Rim Community, Sri
Lanka is also strategically significant to India.
● It is significant for the Indian Navy because in order to transition from the Bay of Bengal to the
Arabian Sea and vice versa, the fleets must pass via Sri Lanka.

AREAS OF COOPERATION
INDIA’S DEVELOPMENTAL AID
● Sri Lanka is an important pillar of Neighbourhood First Policy.
● Rehabilitation and relief assistance- India has provided rehabilitation and relief
assistance for internally displaced Tamils. India has constructed 30000 houses and other
medical facility infrastructure.
● Currency swap-The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and the Central Bank of Sri Lanka (CBSL)
have concluded the USD 400 million currency swap agreement under the SAARC
currency swap framework.
● LOC- Exim Bank has so far extended nine LoC to Sri Lanka including the latest one taking
the total value to $1.68 billion.
● Economic support - Beginning January 2022, India has been providing crucial economic
support to the island nation in the grip of a severe dollar crisis that, many fear, might

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 lead to a sovereign default, and a severe shortage of essentials in the import-reliant
country.
● Total support- The relief extended by India from the beginning of 2022 totals over USD
1.4 billion - a USD 400 currency swap, a USD 500 loan deferment and a USD 500 Line of
Credit for fuel imports.

PEOPLE-TO-PEOPLE TIES
● Buddhism- Buddhism is one of the strongest pillars connecting the two nations and
civilizations. India in 2020, announced USD 15 million grant assistance for protection
and promotion of Buddhist ties between India and Sri Lanka.
● Internally Displaced Persons- Both countries share a broad understanding on major
issues of international interest. In recent years, significant progress in implementation
of developmental assistance projects for Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) and
disadvantaged sections of the population in Sri Lanka has helped further cement the
bonds of friendship between the two countries.
● People of Indian Origin- The People of Indian Origin (PIOs) comprise Sindhis, Borahs,
Gujaratis, Memons, Parsis, Malayalis and Telugu speaking persons who have settled
down in Sri Lanka (most of them after partition) and are engaged in various business
ventures.
● Though their numbers are much lesser as compared to Indian Origin Tamils (IOTs), they
are economically prosperous and are well placed.

DEFENSE AND STRATEGIC COOPERATION

● India and Sri Lanka conduct one of the largest joint Military exercises called ‘Mitra
Shakti’. Both conduct joint naval exercises called ‘SLINEX’.
● India is the largest provider of defense training program to Sri Lankan soldiers and
Defence officials
● The Mi-17s that India 'quietly gifted' to Lanka were in addition to a Sukanya class
offshore patrol vessel also gifted by the Indian Coast Guard to the Sri Lankan Navy in
2002.
● A trilateral maritime security cooperation agreement was signed by India, Sri Lanka
and the Maldives to improve surveillance, anti-piracy operations and reducing maritime
pollution in the Indian Ocean Region.
● In April 2019, India and Sri Lanka also concluded an agreement on countering Drug and
Human trafficking.

Katchatheevu Island Issue

● Fishermen frequently take a risk and cross the IMBL rather than go home empty-handed, but the
Sri Lankan Navy is on alert and has either arrested or destroyed fishing nets and vessels of those

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 who have crossed the line. The small islet of
Katchatheevu, previously used by the
fishermen for sorting their catch and
drying their nets, fell on the other side of
the IMBL.

ISSUES ON 13TH AMENDMENT (TAMIL &

MINORITY RIGHTS)

What is the 13th Amendment?

● It is a result of the Indo-Lanka Accord, which President J.R. Jayawardene and Prime Minister Rajiv
Gandhi signed in July 1987 in an effort to end the civil war and ethnic strife.
● The 13th Amendment, which gave rise to Provincial Councils, guaranteed a power-sharing
framework to allow all nine provinces in the nation to exercise self-governance, including those
with a majority of Sinhala people.
● The province governments are given control over areas including education, health, agriculture,
housing, land use, and law enforcement.
● But due to limitations on budgetary authority and the President's grant of superfluous powers,
provincial administrations have not advanced very far.
● In particular, the clauses pertaining to the police and the land have never been put into practise.

Why is it contentious?
● The country's civil war era left the 13th Amendment with a lot of baggage. Both the LTTE and
Sinhala nationalist parties vehemently opposed it.
● The Accord and the ensuing legislation were viewed by the opposition in Sri Lanka as being a direct
result of Indian influence.
● It was largely viewed as an encroachment by a neighbour with hegemonic power.
● The dominant nationalist tendency in Tamil politics, in particular, does not deem the 13th
Amendment to be adequate in terms of scope or content. Some people view it as a crucial
foundational step, something to build upon.

Why is it significant?
● The Amendment is now the only clause in the constitution that addresses the long-standing Tamil
question.
● It guarantees a certain amount of devolution and is regarded as one of the few notable
achievements since the 1980s in the face of a rising Sinhala-Buddhist majoritarianism.

Its criticism
● Some claim that in a small nation, the centre could effectively rule the provinces.
● Those who are adamantly opposed to the Tamil minority having any political influence are also
included in the opposition side.
● However, candidates from all political parties that passionately reject the system have run for
provincial council.

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● Over time, the councils have also assisted national parties in enhancing their organisational and
grassroots capacities.

HUMAN RIGHT VIOLATIONS & OHCHR RESOLUTION ON SRI LANKA

Reasons behind UNHRC Resolution against Sri Lanka

● In Sri Lanka, a civil war started in 1983. The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam were an armed
insurgency that the Sinhalese-dominated Sri Lankan government attempted to contain (LTTE).
While the LTTE sought to create a separate state in the northern region of Sri Lanka for the Tamil
minority.
● The LTTE was defeated in 2009, bringing the 26-year civil war to an end. Atrocities were
committed during the war by both the Tamil insurgents and the Sri Lankan government. At least
100,000 people died during the civil war, according to some estimates.

The Zero Draft/New Resolution Draft:

● It includes some of the UNHRC report's recommendations, such as those on enhancing the HRC's
ability to preserve evidence, coming up with plans for future accountability procedures, and
assisting judicial proceedings in member states with relevant jurisdiction.
● According to the UNHRC report, the Sri Lankan government has established parallel military task
forces and commissions that interfere with civilian functions and override crucial institutional

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 checks and balances, endangering democratic advancements, the independence of the judiciary,
and other crucial institutions.
● Additionally, it urges Sri Lanka's government to comply with the previous 30/1 resolution's
criteria (from which it pulled out).

UNHRC’s Stand
● In order to evade accountability, the current administration in Sri Lanka is "proactively"
obstructing inquiries into past atrocities, which has a "devastating effect" on families looking for
the truth, justice, and compensation.
● Member states of the United Nations (UN) have called for "international action" against those
who are "credibly claimed" to have committed serious human rights violations and abuses,
including targeted sanctions like asset freezes and visa bans.
● According to recognised principles of extraterritorial or universal jurisdiction of international
crimes committed by all parties in Sri Lanka, states should also pursue investigations and
prosecution in their national courts.

India's Position Regarding Prior Resolutions Against Sri Lanka

India has never supported Sri Lanka's violations of human rights. However, India also prefers an
internal settlement than a forced one, such as the 30/1 resolution, to the problem. As an illustration,
India backed a reputable investigation into human rights crimes in 2012.
In the most recent UNHRC resolution, Sri Lanka requested help from India. India, however, chose
not to vote for the recent UNHRC decision against Sri Lanka. India's position entails,
● To satisfy Tamil aspirations, India has emphasised significant decentralisation. India also
requested that Sri Lanka remain unified and intact.
● India has had distinct concerns about Sri Lanka than the rest of the international world. India is
aware of the long-term well-being of the Tamil people. India emphasizes devolution rather than
accountability as a result.
● When it comes to criticising Sri Lanka's stance on human rights issues, India has its own
constraints. One of these is the growing Chinese presence in the Sri Lankan region.
● India has always backed the 13th Amendment's implementation. The Indo-Lanka Accord, signed
in July 1987, led to the creation of the 13th Amendment. This has a moderate stance toward the
civil war in Sri Lanka.

Way Forward
● Whether it is repressive militarization, the promotion of majoritarian interests, or the
concentration of state authority in Colombo, the state is at the heart of the historical issues. But
rather than running to international forums, the state needs to be reform by its citizens.
● The "China factor," the "Sri Lankan ethnic question," and the accompanying "UNHRC resolution"
have harmed India and Sri Lanka's bilateral ties. In order to strengthen connections with Sri Lanka,
India needs to put more emphasis on its historical and cultural ties. The relationship between the
two nations can be strengthened by a mutual understanding of each other's concerns and
interests.

CIVIL WAR IN SRI LANKA, INDIA’S INVOLVEMENT AND LARGE-SCALE IMMIGRATION OF TAMILS
Introduction

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● A civil war is a sort of conflict that arises between various groups within the nation. There are
reasons why these wars are started, most commonly to seize power, achieve independence, or
further political objectives.
● These conflicts typically result in numerous casualties, which leads to the depletion of resources.
In the 20th century, there were numerous civil wars, notably after 1945, which resulted in the
deaths of 25 million people.
● Civil conflicts cause an economic catastrophe in addition to the loss of many lives. Civil wars have
occurred in Uganda, Angola, Somalia, and Burma (Myanmar). Sri Lanka is one among them as
well.

Sri Lanka’s civil war

● The civil war in Sri Lanka lasted from 1983 to 2009. The goal of the civil war was to establish
Tamil Eelam as an independent nation in the north and east of the country. The Liberation Tigers
of Tamil Eelam were in charge of the civil conflict Vellupillai Prabhakaran started. Discrimination
against Sri Lankan Tamils by the Sinhalese-dominated Sri Lankan government was the factor that
sparked civil war.
● It took the civil war 26 long years to end. In May 2009, the Sri Lankan military finally overcame
the Tamil Tigers. The population suffered the most during the 26 years' various challenges to
the nation. The nation's economy and environment were also impacted by the civil war. Between
80,000 and 100,000 people died as a result of the war.
● The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam are considered terrorist organisations by 32 countries,
including the US, India, Canada, and EU member states. After two decades of conflict and four
failed attempts at peace negotiations, India was forced to step in.
● This held true up until 2001. Due to their involvement in ethnic cleansing and genocide, the Sri
Lankan government has been charged with war crimes.

Origin
● One of the primary causes of the Sri Lankan Civil War was the political divisions between the
majority Sinhalese and the minority Tamils.
● The path for the civil war was already set when Ceylon, as Sri Lanka was once known, was still
in existence. Ponnambalam Arunachalam, a Tamil, was chosen to represent both the Sinhalese
and the Tamils in the national legislative council, and very little hostility developed between them
as a result.
● Political groups from Tamil and Sinhalese communities came together to form the Ceylon National
Congress in 1919. Arunachalam served as the group's leader and stressed the need for
constitutional amendments from the colonial administration.
● Under the rule of British governor William Manning, Colombo Town Seat was established in 1920
as a means of promoting local representation. N.M. Perera and Philip Gunawardena, both
members of the Lanka Sama Samaja Party, called for Sinhala and Tamil to be recognised as the
nation's official languages. It was decided by the state council that all proceedings in the
municipality and at the police station must be conducted in the local tongue.
● A law was passed soon after the country gained its independence in 1948, and it was contentious
enough to cause controversy in the community. The 1948 Ceylon Citizenship Act was the
governing document.
● The Indian Tamils were subjected to discrimination because they were completely unable to
demonstrate their citizenship. Seven lakh Indian Tamils were made homeless as a result of this
act. Three lakh Tamil Indians were sent to India over the course of the next ten years.
● One of the deliberate actions taken against the Tamils of Sri Lanka was the 1956 decision by Prime
Minister S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike to make Sinhala the only official language and to reject English

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 as a possibility. Bypassing the Sinhala Only Bill, he did so. The Sri Lankan Tamils encountered
difficulties when attempting to apply for the Ceylon civil service and other public services as a
result of this statute.
● Minorities who speak Tamil include Sri Lankan Tamils, Indian Tamils, and Sri Lankan Moors. They
perceived the action as prejudice against them on the basis of language, culture, and economics.
● When Tamilians who couldn't speak Sinhala well were made to leave from their positions in
government, things only became worse. Such events led to the Gal Oya riots and the 1958 riots.
The result was the American Civil War.
● In the late 1960s, minorities were clamouring for a separate state because they felt oppressed by
the government. Tamil Eelam was the name of the nation. A British, Anton Barasingha started
taking part in these activities as well. He was the top representative of Great Britain in Colombo.
Later, he rose to the position of LTTE's principal theorist. Tamil youngsters began taking part in
these activities as well.
● The 1970s saw the beginning of the standardisation policy.
o According to this strategy, students were accepted to the institution in the late 1970s in
proportion to the number of applicants who took their entrance tests in their language.
o The primary goal of this initiative was to boost the representation of rural students in
universities.
o The Sri Lankan Tamils had to put in more effort in order to enroll in the preferred universities.
It was a form of privilege reserved for Sinhalese people.
● The Sri Lankan Tamils were never given the opportunity to be subjected to discrimination by the
government. Even the import of media in the Tamil language was prohibited. According to the
1978 Sri Lankan Constitution, the Sri Lankan government never missed an opportunity to oppress
the Tamil population and even went so far as to favour Buddhism as the primary religion practiced
by Sinhalese people.
● Chetti Thanabalasingam and Prabhakaran founded the Tamil New Tigers. It was founded on the
idea of the Chola Empire of the first millennium, whose emblem is the tiger. The trend spread
internationally as well. The Eelam Revolutionary Organization of Students was another activity
that was observed in cities like London and Manchester.
● In the diaspora, this movement was extremely beneficial. They aided in getting migrant workers
jobs and passports. It served as the cornerstone for the Eelamist logistical structure and ultimately
joined the LTTE.
● The Vaddukkodei resolution from 1976 had caused the Tamil United Liberation Front (TULF) to
change its mentality. The Tamil United Liberation Front (TULF) surreptitiously provided support to
young militants.
● Appapillai Amirthalingam, the head of the TULF, asked the LTTE for assistance in raising money.
The youth supported these activities because they believed that they could be the solution
because they were unemployed, somewhat educated, and Tamil youth. Such actions persisted for
a long until the TULF rose to prominence as the main opposition group in July 1997.
● Riots broke out in 1977, and as a result, the J.R. Jayewardene administration scrapped its
standardising strategy to make it easier for Tamil youth to enrol in the colleges of their choice.
● The LTTE took advantage of the situation and instructed the civilians to boycott the elections
because the young perceived it as being too little and continued their behaviour. These actions
led to a protracted war.

Impact and consequences

● The country's economy and casualties were the biggest effects. Approximately 1 lakh civilians
died as a result of the Sri Lankan Civil War. Both IPKF forces and the Sri Lankan government were

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 complicit in the murder. Given that deaths during the latter months of the conflict were not
recorded, the number of casualties could be significantly higher than 100,000.
● The 26-year conflict was a major contributor to the current economic catastrophe. 200 billion
dollars is the estimated damage. The amount is five times Sri Lanka's 2009 GDP.

India’s involvement and role

● In order to maintain peace, Indian peacekeeping personnel were stationed in Sri Lanka. India and
Sri Lanka inked a pact in 1987 to put an end to the civil conflict there. The main goal of the
agreement was to put an end to the conflict between the Sri Lankan militants and the militant
Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), who are militant Sri Lankan Tamil nationalists.
● The Indian forces had no intention of engaging in combat with the Sri Lankan insurgents, but
after a few months they became so involved that they were forced to retire, which they finally did
in 1990.
● The civil war in Sri Lanka put India's interests and integrity under danger. There were two potential
sources for this hazard.
o First, there would have been a significant threat to India's security if other nations had
attempted to govern Sri Lanka.
o Second, the fundamental goal of the LTTE was to create a Tamil state that would have included
all Tamils, which constituted a challenge to India's integrity. Strong contacts were established
between the political parties of South India and the LTTE.
● Political parties provided financial assistance to the LTTE as well. Previously, Sri Lanka supported
the non-alignment movement; however, after J.R. Jayewardeen was elected as prime minister,
he instituted a new constitution, and Sri Lanka transitioned to a Liberal Open Economy.
● Poomalai Operation: India became actively involved in Sri Lankan activities in the 1980s. The Sri
Lankan government announced that they were very close to defeating the LTTE at the same time
that Indian military dropped 25 tonnes of supplies on the region on June 5.
● As the Indian military dropped weaponry along with food, the Sri Lankan authorities claimed
that they were aiding the LTTE. Then, the Indo-Sri Lankan peace deal was also reached, and the
Sri Lankans met the Tamilians' demands, granting Tamil the status of an official language.
● The agreement was well received by the majority of the militants, but the LTTE remained
unsatisfied. IPKF attempted to resolve the matter but wound up in a major dispute with them.
They encountered hostility from the Tamils during the three-year struggle.

Operation Pawan
● IPKF handled this operation so that they could take back control of Jaffna from the LTTE. After a
three-week operation, IPKF was able to drive the LTTE out of Jaffna. Sri Lanka has made numerous
attempts to wrest control away from the LTTE, but each time it fell short.
o However, with the aid of the IPKF and its heavy artillery and helicopter gunfire, Jaffna was
recaptured. 214 IPKF soldiers were lost.
● Helidrop from Jaffna University: The Jaffna University Helidrop was the IPKF's initial operation.
IPKF's primary goal was to expel the LTTE from Sri Lanka's Jaffna province. With the help of Mi-8s
from the No. 109 HU, the 10th Para Commandos, and the 13th Sikh LI, the operation was a quick
heliborne assault.
● The IPKF wanted to clear the structure since it was the LTTE's tactical headquarters and doing so
could cut the length of Operation Pawan. The operation failed miserably as a result of poor
planning and poor execution.
● Due to nationalist sentiments among the populace about why a foreign country was interfering in
their internal affairs, the Sri Lankan government cancelled the collaboration with IPKF.

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● Rajiv Gandhi did not remove the troops from Sri Lanka; but, once V.P. Singh assumed the office of
Prime Minister, he did so on March 24, 1990, at a total cost of $10.3 billion.
● The LTTE lost all of its backing in India in 1991. It all began when Thenmozhi Rajaratnam, an Indian
suicide bomber, killed the former prime minister of that country.
o The Indian media also alleged that Prabhakaran was the one who made the decision to kill
Rajiv Gandhi because they believed that if he were to win office, he would boost IPKF in Sri
Lanka and that organisation was a Satanic force.
o After the murder, India stayed out of Sri Lanka's internal affairs.

SRI LANKAN ECONOMIC CRISIS 2022 AND INDIA’S ASSISTANCE AND IMPACT ON INDIA
Due to a significant Balance of Payments (BoP) issue, the Sri Lankan economy has been in crisis. As its
foreign exchange reserves steadily diminish, the nation is finding it harder and harder to import the
necessities of life.
The historical imbalances in Sri Lanka's economic structure, loan-related conditions imposed
by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the erroneous actions of authoritarian leaders are all
to blame for the country's current economic catastrophe.

Sri Lankan Economic Crisis

● Background:
o From 2009, when Sri Lanka ended a 26-year civil war, its post-war GDP growth was brisk,
averaging 8–9% annually until 2012.
o However, as global commodity prices declined, exports slowed, and imports increased after
2013, its average GDP growth rate nearly halved.
o Sri Lanka experienced significant fiscal deficits during the conflict, and the 2008 global financial
crisis depleted its foreign exchange reserves, forcing it to borrow $2.6 billion from the IMF in
2009.
o In 2016, it made a second request to the IMF for a US$1.5 billion loan, but the IMF's conditions
made Sri Lanka's economic situation even worse.
● Economic Shocks of Late:
o Easter bombings in Colombo's churches in April 2019 that caused 253 casualties and caused a
dramatic downturn in tourism, which decreased foreign exchange reserves.
o During their campaign, the newly elected Gotabaya Rajapaksa administration pledged lower
tax rates and comprehensive SoPs for farmers.
o These bad promises were quickly put into action, which made the issue worse.
o The Covid-19 epidemic in 2020 exacerbated the precarious situation; tea, rubber, spice, and
clothing exports all suffered.
o Visitor numbers and earnings plummeted even further
● The budget deficit exceeded 10% in 2020 and 2021 as a result of an increase in government
spending, and the debt to GDP ratio increased from 94% in 2019 to 119% in 2021.
● Fertilizer Imports in Sri Lanka: In 2021, all fertiliser imports were outright prohibited, and it was
announced that Sri Lanka would instantly switch to 100% organic farming.
o This abrupt switch to organic fertilisers had a significant negative impact on food production.
o As a result, in order to control soaring food costs, a declining currency, and rapidly declining
foreign exchange reserves, the president of Sri Lanka proclaimed an economic emergency.
o Food costs have skyrocketed as a result of the devastating overnight ban on chemical
pesticides and fertilisers as well as a scarcity of foreign money.
o Millions of Sri Lankans who are poorer are on the verge of famine due to inflation, which is
already over 15% and is expected to average 17.5%.

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In what ways has India supported Sri Lanka during this crisis?
● Since January 2022, India has been crucially assisting the island nation's economy as it grapples
with a serious dollar issue that many worry could result in a sovereign default and a major scarcity
of necessities in the import-dependent nation.
● A USD 400 million currency swap, a USD 500 million loan deferment, and a USD 500 million Line
of Credit for fuel imports make up the overall relief provided by India starting in 2022.
● More recently, India offered Sri Lanka a USD 1 billion short-term concessional loan to support
the island nation during its unheard-of economic crisis.

Why is it in India's best interests to aid Sri Lanka?

● The Lankan archipelago should not be included in China's "string of pearls" strategy in the Indo-
Pacific, which is why it is crucial for Sri Lanka to lose faith in China.
● India has a stake in limiting Chinese influence and presence in this area.
● If India can offer low-cost assistance to ease Sri Lankans' hardships, it should. However, it must be
done with prudence, keeping in mind that how India presents its assistance counts.

Way Forward
● Measures for Sri Lanka:
o As soon as the country's shortage of a few vital goods ends, which is anticipated to happen
before the start of the Sinhala-Tamil New Year, the government should take steps to restore
the economy of the nation (in mid-April).
o The government should also work with the Tamil political elite to design a plan for the
economic growth of the war-torn provinces in the north and east, which are among the
hardest hit by the current crisis.
● In order to reduce borrowing, especially sovereign borrowing from external sources, it would be
desirable to increase domestic tax collection and reduce government spending.
● To restructure the management of concessions and subsidies, tough steps should be applied.
● India's Assistance: It would be incredibly foolish for India to stand by and allow the Chinese to
annex ever-larger portions of Sri Lanka. India must provide Sri Lanka with financial aid, political
counsel, and investments from Indian businesspeople.
o Businesses in India must create supply chains that link the economies of Sri Lanka and India
for a variety of products and services, from the export of tea to information technology
services.
o More than any other country, India should guide Sri Lanka toward realising its potential and
reaping the benefits of a secure, cordial neighbourhood.
● Preventing Unlawful Refuge: With the reported arrival of 16 people from Sri Lanka by illegal
means, the state of Tamil Nadu has already begun to experience the effects of the problem.
o After the 1983 anti-Tamil pogrom, over three lakh refugees lived in Tamil Nadu.
o The authorities in India and Sri Lanka should watch out that the current issue is not exploited
to increase smuggling and trafficking or inflame feelings in either nation.
● A crisis as a chance: The onus is on India, which needs to be very patient and engage Sri Lanka
much more frequently and closely. Neither Sri Lanka nor India can afford to maintain strained
relations.
o Additionally, we must intensify our efforts to advance the human condition while rigorously
avoiding meddling in Colombo's internal matters.
o The crisis should be utilised as a chance for New Delhi and Colombo to negotiate a resolution
to the long-running fisheries issue in Palk Bay.

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INDIA-MALDIVES
INTRODUCTON
The Maldives is strategically significant to India as part of the government's "Neighborhood First"
policy due to their location in the Indian Ocean. Although there has always been a strong, cordial, and
complex connection between India and the Maldives, recent regime instability has created serious
difficulties, particularly in the political and strategic domains.

India-Maldives historical context

● India and the Maldives have long-
standing ties in terms of ethnicity,
language, culture, religion, and trade,
and their relations are warm and
complex.
● After the Maldives gained their
independence in 1965, India was one of
the first nations to recognize them and
establish diplomatic ties with them.
● In 1972, India established a mission at
the CDA level, and in 1980, it became a
resident High Commissioner.
● India has a pre‐eminent position in the
Maldives, with relations extending to virtually most areas. The importance of India’s strategic role
in Maldives is well recognized, with India being seen as a net security provider. ‘India First’ has
been a stated policy of the Government of Maldives (GoM).
● India’s prompt assistance during the 1988 coup attempt (as part of Operation Cactus), led to
development of trust and long‐term and friendly bilateral relations with the Maldives. The
immediate withdrawal of our troops when they were no longer required assuaged fears of any
Indian dominance or territorial aspirations.
● India was the first to assist Maldives during the 2004 Tsunami as well as the water crisis in Malé
in Dec 2014. These three incidents (in 1988, 2004 and 2014) had established the advantages of
India’s proximity and capacity to come to Maldives’ rescue in distress vis‐à‐vis any other country
and are widely acknowledged by the government and people of Maldives.
● India’s swift dispatch of 30,000 doses of measles vaccine in Jan 2020 to prevent an outbreak in
the Maldives, and India’s rapid and comprehensive assistance to the Maldives since the COVID‐19
pandemic began has further reinforced India’s credentials of being the first responder.

AREA OF COOPERATION BETWEEN INDIA AND MALDIVES

Security & Defence Cooperation

● Since 1988, defence and security has been a major area of cooperation between India and
Maldives.
● India has adopted a very flexible and accommodating approach inmeeting Maldivian
requirements of defence training and equipment.
● A comprehensive Action Plan for Defence was also signed in April 2016 to consolidate defence
partnership.

Capacity Building/Training

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● India provides the largest number of training opportunities for Maldivian National Defence Force
(MNDF), meeting around 70% of their defence training requirements.
● India has trained over 1400 MNDF trainees over thepast 10 years and have offered 300 (Including
SPG, NSG and MIO training) training vacancies in 2021‐22.
● India has also offered to depute Mobile TrainingTeams (MTT) based on MNDF requirements and
to train MNDF personnel for UN peacekeeping operation at CUNPK.
● Indian Navy has deployed 10‐member Marine Commando MTT to Maldives in 2017, 2018, 2019
and 2021 and also provided MNDF with air assets for air survellance, MEDEVAC, SAR, Helo‐borne
vertical insertion capability.

Institutional Mechanisms
● Annual Defence Cooperation Dialogue at level of Defence Secretary was initiated in July 2016 with
2nd edition held in Nov 2017.
● After a brief hiatus due to COVID19 pandemic, the 3rd edition of DCD was conducted at Maleon
14 Feb 2022.
● Annual Joint Mil‐to‐Mil Staff Talks were started in Feb 2016 and 5thedition was conducted in Sept
2021. MNDF continues to participate in various fora such as IONS, Goa Maritime Conclave and
Goa Symposium.

Disaster Management
● MNDF regularly participates in Humanitarian Assistance & Disaster Relief, Search & Rescue (SAR),
Pollution Control, other exercises organised by India.
● India previously provided pollution dispersant to MNDF Coast Guard in 2016. India is also
undertaking customised trainings for MNDF Fire and Rescue Service in India.

Development Cooperation
The major completed development assistance projects executed by India are:
● Indira Gandhi Memorial Hospital: The hospital was built with Indian Grant Assistance in 1995.
Major renovation of IGMH was completed in June 2017 with GoI’s grant of INR 52 Cr.
● Maldives Institute of Technical Education (now called the Maldives Polytechnic): MoU for setting
up institute was signed in March 1992. MITE wascompleted at a cost of INR 12 Cr and handed over
to GoM in Sept 1996.
● India‐Maldives Faculty of Hospitality & Tourism Studies: Foundation stone forthe Faculty was
jointly laid by PM Vajpayee and President Gayoom during his visitto Maldives in Sept 2002. Faculty
was officially handed over to GoM in Feb 2014.
● National Centre for Police and Law Enforcement (NCPLE): With GoI grant funding of $ 30 million,
NCPLE is the largest grant project executed by India in Maldives. The project was inaugurated by
EAM during his visit in March 2022.

Greater Male Connectivity Project:

The project aims to connect Male to Villingili,Gulhifalhu and Thilafushi islands through a series of
bridges, causeways and roads. Theproject is crucial for the proposed Gulhifalhu Port, and will be a
major catalyst for the Maldivian economy in the future through jobs and economic activity. It is
fundedthrough a separate $ 400 million LoC and $ 100 million grant from India. The project was
awarded to AFCONS in August 2021. Work has commenced.

Bilateral Economic and Trade Relations

● India and Maldives signed a trade agreement in 1981, which provides for export of essential
commodities. In July 2021, India extended the agreement on quotas for restrictions‐free export

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 of 9 essential commodities to the Maldives for the next 3 years.
● India‐Maldives bilateral trade crossed the $ 300 mn mark for the first time in 2021, reaching an
impressive $ 323.29 mn. Trade registered a growth of over 31% over the previous year.
● Indian imports from the Maldives primarily comprise scrap metals while Indian exports to the
Maldives include a variety of engineering and industrial products like drugs and pharmaceuticals,
radar apparatus, rock boulders, aggregates, cement and agriculture produce like rice, spices,
fruits, vegetables and poultry produce etc.
● Indian exports are registering a steady rise. This is a direct consequence of the launch of the cargo
vessel service between the two countries in Sept 2020 and commencement of work on LoC
projects since Feb 2021.
● MoU on Pre‐arrival exchange of information between customs was signed in July 2021 and is
under pilot‐stage. Efforts are being made to tap the potential of Seafood exports from Maldives
to India.

GEOSTRATEGIC IMPORTANCE OF MALDIVES

Maldives is one of the world's most geographically dispersed countries, straddling a 960-km-long
undersea ridge that runs north to south and creates a wall in the midst of the Indian Ocean, despite
being the smallest country by land size in Asia. Beyond its physical size, the Maldives' strategic location
determines its geo-strategic importance, as shown by the following:

● Maldives, an Indian Ocean toll gate: The two crucial sea routes for connection are situated at the
southern and northern ends of this island series (SLOCs).
o These SLOCs are essential for the flow of marine trade between the Strait of Malacca and the
Gulfs of Aden and Hormuz in West Asia.
o While the Indian Ocean is thought of as the main route for the movement of energy and trade
worldwide, the Maldives essentially acts as a toll gate.
o Although SLOCs near the Maldives are strategically significant for international maritime trade,
India places a high priority on them because they are used by approximately 50% of her
exports and 80% of her energy imports.
● A Rise in Maritime Activity In recent decades, the Indian Ocean's marine economy has grown
significantly, and with it, the region's geopolitical competition.
o China has therefore increased its presence in the Indian Ocean as a result of its strategic
objectives there as well as its logistical constraints.
● India's top strategic objective: India's strategic aim must be realised in a favourable and
advantageous marine environment in the Indian Ocean.
o India therefore works tirelessly to encourage an ever-expanding zone of peace and stability to
surround it.
o Maldives is also a significant collaborator in India's role as the Indian Ocean Region's provider
of internet security.
● Operations against terrorism: It aids India's counterterrorism activities. In-depth defence
cooperation as well as counterterrorism initiatives are also being carried out by India and the
Maldives.
o Radical influences are quite prominent in the Maldives. Both parties came together to form
the Joint Working Group on Counterterrorism, Countering Violent Extremism, and
Deradicalization.

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CHALLENGES IN INDIA-MALDIVES RELATIONS
Challenges in the relations
● Political Unrest: India's main concern has been how the political unrest in the region will affect its
security and prosperity.
o The political turmoil that followed Mohamed Nasheed's detention in February 2015 on
terrorism-related charges has put India's neighborhood policy to a true diplomatic test.
● Centre of terrorism
o The key factors contributing to the emergence of lslamist radicalism in the island nation are
political instability and socio-economic instability.
o Saudi Arabia is radicalising the Maldives. The Maldives had one of the greatest per-capita ISIS
terrorist populations.
● Involvement of China in the Maldives
o India has serious concerns about the expansion of Chinese influence in the Maldives as a
result of the planned or ongoing execution of numerous investment projects sponsored by
Beijing.
o A significant "pearl" in China's "String of Pearls" strategy in South Asia has emerged as the
Maldives.
● Economically:
o There is very little bilateral trade between nations. In India and the Maldives, there is no FTA.
o The two Dhruv Advanced Light Helicopters (ALF) that India gave to the Maldives in 2010 and
2015, both of which were used for ocean search and rescue operations, maritime weather
surveillance, and for airlifting patients between islands, have long been the subject of anti-
Indian sentiments and the "India Out" campaign. The Maldives National Defence Force, which
is in charge of these helicopters, was being trained in the Maldives by Indian officials who had
been dispatched there.
o But because they were military helicopters, some in the anti-India constituency tried to claim
that by giving these gifts, India was establishing a military presence in the nation.
o Transparency issues: The lack of openness in contracts inked between the Solih government
and India is a common grievance.
● Misunderstanding of India's efforts: Local Maldivian media conjectured that the UTF Harbour
Project deal inked between India and the Maldives required India to build and manage a
coastguard harbour and dockyard at Uthuru Thilafalhu, a strategically positioned atoll close to the
capital Male. would become a base for the Indian navy.

Way Forward
● India should be concerned about the way the "India Out" movement has mobilised common
people. In order to manage perceptions in the Maldives, India must work on it, and the Indian High
Commission can do that. They must get the support of the populace.
● There is tremendous potential for cooperation between the two nations in developing strategies
for reducing and adapting to the negative marine effects of climate change.
● Innovative actions in foreign policy and maritime security are required to realise this potential.
Although the new "India-First Policy" of the Maldives and India's "Neighborhood First Policy"
appear to compliment one another, the difficulty lies in putting these policies into practice while
still being sensitive to cultural, geoeconomic, and geostrategic factors.
● The SAGAR plan for India offers enormous potential in this area.
● Although we cannot prevent China from visiting the Maldives, we must monitor its behaviour.

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 PREVIOUS YEAR MAINS QUESTIONS
1. ‘India is an age-old friend of Sri Lanka.’ Discuss India’s role in the recent crisis in Sri Lanka
in the light of the preceding statement. [2022]
2. Do you think that BIMSTEC is a parallel organisation like the SAARC? What are the
similarities and dissimilarities between the two? How are Indian Foreign Policy
objectives realised by forming this new organisation? [2022]
3. The newly tri-nation partnership AUKUS is aimed at countering China’s ambitions in the
Indo-Pacific region. Is it going to supersede the existing partnerships in the region?
DIscuss the strength and impact of AUKUS in the present scenario. [2020]
4. ‘China is using its economic relations and positive trade surplus as tools to develop
potential military power status in Asia’. In the light of this statement, discuss its impact
on India as her neighbour. [2017]
5. "Increasing cross border terrorist attacks in India and growing interference in the
internal affairs of several member states by Pakistan are not conducive for the future
of SAARC (South Asian Association For Regional Cooperation)." Explain with suitable
examples. [2016]
6. Terrorist activities and mutual distrust have clouded India – Pakistan relations. To what
extent the use of soft power like sports and cultural exchanges could help generate
goodwill between the two countries? Discuss with suitable examples. [2015]
7. Project ‘Mausam’ is considered a unique foreign policy initiative of the Indian
Government to improve relationships with its neighbours. Does the project have a
strategic dimension? Discuss. [2015]
8. With respect to the South China sea, maritime territorial disputes and rising tension
affirm the need for safeguarding maritime security to ensure freedom of navigation and
overflight throughout the region. In this context, discuss the bilateral issues between
India and China. [2014]
9. The protests in Shahbag Square in Dhaka in Bangladesh reveal a fundamental split in
society between the nationalists and Islamic forces. What is its significance for India?
[2013]
10. Discuss the political developments in Maldives in the last two years. Should they be of
any cause of concern to India? [2013]
11. In respect of India-Sri Lanka relations, discuss how domestic factors influence foreign
policy [2013]
12. The proposed withdrawal of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) from
Afghanistan in 2014 is fraught with major security implications for the countries of the
region. Examine in light of the fact that India is faced with a plethora of challenges and
needs to safeguard its own strategic interests [2013]
13. What do you understand by ‘The String of Pearls’? How does it impact India? Briefly
outline the steps taken by India to counter this. [2013]

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