Mining Geology Terminology

Fault and Geological Disturbances

▪ A fault is a fracture or zone
of fractures between two
blocks of rock. Faults allow
the blocks to move relative
to each other. This
movement may occur
rapidly, in the form of an
earthquake - or may occur
slowly, in the form of
creep. Fault is a planar or
gently curved fracture in the
rocks of Earth’s crust,
where compressional or
tensional forces cause
relative displacement of the
rocks on the opposite sides
of the fracture.
 Folds & Geological Disturbances

▪ Fold is a geologic
structure that is formed by
layers or beds of rock
being bent or folded. The
plane that marks the
center of the fold is called
the axial plane. The line
which marks where the
axial plane intersects the
surface of Earth is called
the hinge line.
 DYKES & SILLS
▪ Dyke (or, Dike) is a large slab of rock that cuts through
another type of rock. Dikes cut across the other type of rock at
a different angle than the rest of the structure. It is a sheet of
rock that is formed in a fracture of a pre-existing rock body.
Dykes can be either magmatic or sedimentary in origin.

▪ Sill is a flat intrusion of

igneous rock that forms
between pre-existing layers of
rock. Sills occur in parallel to
the bedding of the other rocks
that enclose them. Nearly
horizontal sills are the most
common.
 Coal Geology: Terminology
● Outcrop: An outcrop is a bedrock that
is exposed, or old superficial deposits
on the Earth's surface. In most places
outcrops are covered by a mantle of
soil and vegetation. However, the rock
Coal seam outcrop
may crop out, or be exposed, in places
where the overlying cover is removed
by tectonic uplift or erosion. Exposed
rock which is not covered by soil we
call an outcrop.
● Incrop: A former outcrop concealed
by or buried beneath younger
unconformable strata. Coal seam Incrop
 Coal Geology: Terminology
● Wash-out: A wash out is an irregularity where bed
thins out gradually due to erosion by river or
stream & roof of bed is filled up with sand or
other material.

● Roll: Roll can be considered exactly opposite of

washout in the floor or which a mineral bed is
deposited show an upward extortion towards roof
of mineral bed which thins down in area or roll.
 Coal Geology: Terminology
• Swilley: A Swilley is a trough or depression in which seam, with its otherwise,
undisturbed roof & floor, sags several meters below general seam level, seam
generally being thicker in swilley area.
Characteristics of Coalfields in India

● Faults are frequent;

● Deposits are shallow (64% reserves within 300m depth);

● Deposits are thick, inter-banded and coals are inferior (high ash low sulphur)

(70% of total reserve in seams +3.5m thick);

● Seams and coal bearing strata are generally not gassy;

● Thin seams are generally of better quality.

Mine life cycle

9
 Mine Life Cycle
• Using scientific principles, technological knowledge, and managerial skills, the mining
engineer brings a mineral property through the four stages in the life of a mine i.e. prospecting,
exploration, development and exploitation.
• Recently, reclamations has been added as 5th stage which is now considered as statutory
obligation.
● Prospecting :
• Concerned with the discovery of minerals by geological investigations;
● Exploration :
• Determining the economic aspects of the discovered mineral deposit and mining
feasibilities;
● Development:
• Making an access to the mine and creating infrastructures or capacity building;
● Exploitation :
• Winning of minerals by designing of suitable method of mining keeping in view the
economics, safety, environmental and societal objectives; 10
 Mine Life Cycle
● Reclamation :
● This is an important and latest mining activity which has been made mandatory
in almost all countries. This includes post mining activities such as restoration of
pre-mining site conditions and ensuring similar biological conditions.
● In fact the terminology of sustainable mining is being frequently used these days
and is being insisted upon by the society and the Govt. The objective is not only to
make mining sustainable as well to maintain the healthy environmental conditions
so as to be sustainable.
● This includes:
● selection of suitable mining technology
● adoption of mitigating measures for the expected level of air, water and land
pollution
● Not to disturb or to restore after mining the existing ecology, flora and fauna etc.
so as to preserve the same for future generation. 11
 Life of a Mine
• Five stages in the life of a mine:
● Prospecting,
● Exploration,
● Development,
● Exploitation, and
● Reclamation.
• Prospecting and Exploration, precursors to actual mining, are linked and sometimes
combined. Geologists and mining engineers often share responsibility for these two stages
- geologists more involved with the former, mining engineers more with the latter.
• Likewise, Development and Exploitation are closely related stages; they are usually
considered to constitute mining proper and are the main province of the mining engineer.

12
 Life of a Mine
● Closure and Reclamation of the mine site has become a necessary part of the mine
life cycle because of the demands of society for a cleaner environment and stricter
laws regulating the abandonment of a mine.
● The overall process of developing a mine with the future uses of the land in mind is
termed Sustainable Development.
● This concept was defined in a book titled “Our Common Future (World
Commission on Environment and Development,1987)” as
•“development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs.’’

13
Stages in the life of a mine

14
Stages in the life of a mine

15
Stages in the life of a mine

16
 Common Abbreviation (Mining Companies)
● CIL: Coal India Limited (a Coal Producing CPSE Company), Kolkata, West Bengal – World’s largest coal
producing company.
CIL has 8 subsidiary companies:
● ECL: Eastern Coalfields Limited (a coal subsidiary, Dishergarh, West Bengal)
● BCCL: Bharat Coking Coal Limited (a coal subsidiary, Dhanbad, Jharkhand)
● CCL: Central Coalfields Limited (a coal subsidiary, Ranchi, Jharkhand)
● WCL: Western Coalfields Limited (a coal subsidiary, Nagpur, Maharashtra)
● NCL: Northern Coalfields Limited (a coal subsidiary, Singrauli, Madhya Pradesh)
● SECL: South Eastern Coalfields Limited (a coal subsidiary, Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh)
● MCL: Mahanadi Coalfields Limited(a coal subsidiary, Sambalpur, Odisha)
● CMPDIL: Central Mine Planning & Design Institute Limited (a planning subsidiary, Ranchi,
Jharkhand)
● SCCL: Singareni Coal Companies Limited (a State Govt. Coal Company, Kothagudem, Telangana)
● NLCIL: NLC India Limited (a Lignite/Coal Producing CPSE Company, Neyveli, Tamilnadu)
● NML: NTPC Mining Limited (a subsidiary of NTPC Limited, a CPSE Company, Ranchi, Jharkhand)
● ISP: IISCO Steel Plant (SAIL, a CPSE company), coal mines at Chasnalla, Dhanbad
● CPSE: Central Public Sector Enterprises
17
GEOLOGICAL EXPLORATION

18
 Basic Terminology
• Reserves: They are part of the mineral resources of a country that are economically viable and have been fully evaluated
based on many geological and non-geological parameters with no legal or engineering obstructions for mining.
• Resources: Besides the reserves, the resources include the ore bodies which are unworked and which may become a
potential economic interest in near future based on their intrinsic geological properties and plethora of nongeological
factors such as market demand, feasibility to transport the materials, cheap and sturdy technology of extraction and
processing, wartime exigencies etc.

19
• The ore reserves can be classified into three categories as i) proved (measured), ii) probable (indicated) iii) possible
(inferred).
i) Proved: The ore reserves are thoroughly assessed in terms of its tonnage and average grade that fall in this category.
ii)Probable: In this category, the tonnage and grade can be assessed in a reasonable confidence way with some limitations.
Even though the sampling from drilling and other activities may not have taken place, but there is sufficient evidence to be
certain about tonnage and grade of the probability of ore.
iii) Possible: In this category, only partial information on tonnage and grade can be assessed

RESERVE ESTIMATION
• This process involves the estimation of average grade and tonnage of ore deposits commonly known as ore-reserve
estimates.
• Due to geological complexity and mining issues, it is not possible to estimate the ore reserves in precision.
• There are many factors that influence reserve estimation.

20
COAL RESERVES
• As a result of exploration carried out up to the maximum depth of 1200m by
the GSI (Geological Survey of India), CMPDI (The Central Mine Planning and
Design Institute), SCCL (The Singareni Collieries Company Limited) and
MECL (Mineral Exploration and Consultancy Limited) etc, a cumulative total
estimated coal reserve (resource) of the country as per the Coal Inventory
published by GSI, as on 01.04.2025 is 361,411.46 million tonnes”.

21
United Nations Framework Classification Of Coal Resources Under
CIL

• Systematic exploration of coal in India started about 80 years back, sometime in the year 1945
• Coal did not play a leading role in the country’s economy for long.
• No attempts were made to standardize the related terminology and resource classification till
late nineteen fifties.
• The Committee on Assessment of Resources (CAR) under Coal Council of India (1956)
drew up Indian Standard Procedure (ISP) for Coal Reserve Estimation in 1957
• No administrative and statutory structure identified.
• Only Government agencies adopted ISP.
• Planning Commission set up a Task Force on Coal and Lignite (1972) to arrive at an estimate of
coal resources of the country, for the first time, on the lines of ISP.
• GSI brought out the coal resource inventory of the country in 1976,1978, 1984, 1986 and
annually thereafter.

22
 Indian Standard Procedure for Coal Resource Classification
• As per Indian Standards Procedure (ISP) the coal resources are classified into:
Proved: The coal resources of an area falling within 200 m radius from a borehole point (or
observation point).
Indicated: Those resources occurring in the area falling between radii of 200m and 1km from a
borehole point.
Inferred: Those resources occurring in the area falling between radii of 1km and 2km from a borehole point.
• The Inventory represents only the volume and tonnage available in the ground without any connotation
of its mineability and economics of mining it.
• Committee on Assessment of Coal Resources, reconstituted by the Coal Controller of India in
May’1981, did indeed incorporate the criterion of economic mineability for classifying coal “reserves”
out of all coal “resources”.
• It, however, did not structure the classification system accordingly, and these proposals were, in any
case, not implemented.

23
 Indian Standard Procedure for Coal Resource Classification

• The government of India decided in the year 2000 to adopt the United Nations
Framework Classification for its mineral Resources/Reserves.

• In December’2001 a conclave of serving and retired senior technical officials

of the Indian coal industry held at Delhi at the instance of the Ministry of Coal
(MoC), organized by CMPDI underlined the need for UNFC classification of
coal resources in the country.

• The Sub-Group II of the Working Group on Coal and Lignite of the MoC also
proposed funding for a five year project for creation of coal resource data base
on the lines of UNFC.
24
 United Nation Framework Classification

• It consists of a well-defined system with three axes

Economic viability (E),
Feasibility Assessment (F) and
Geological Assessment (G)
• The UNFC system has obvious advantage of providing a ready and well-defined picture of
coal occurrences for investments and exploitation
• The coal reserves/resources of CIL have been codified (01.04.2012) as per UNFC -
2004 following the guidelines issued by the Controller General of Indian Bureau of
Mines
• Geological Assessment in UNFC is more or less like the classification as per ISP.
• The reserve/resources classified as per ISP may be directly mapped to different categories
of geological axis under UNFC. 25
 UNITED NATION FRAMEWORK
CLASSIFICATION
GEOLOGICALASSESSMENT (G)

• Four stages of geological assessment are represented by the

following 4 category/ codes:

26
 UNITED NATION FRAMEWORK
CLASSIFICATION
FEASIBILITYASSESSMENT (F)

• Three stages of feasibility assessment are represented by the

following 3 category/ codes:

27
 UNITED NATION FRAMEWORK
CLASSIFICATION
ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT (E)

• Three stages of economic assessment are represented by the

following 3 category/ codes:

28
 Internal Rate of Return
• The internal rate of return (IRR) is the discount rate that makes an investment's net
present value (NPV) of cash flows equal to zero, estimating its annual growth rate.
• IRR, or internal rate of return, is a metric used in financial analysis to estimate the
profitability of potential investments. IRR is a discount rate that makes the net
present value (NPV) of all cash flows equal to zero in a discounted cash flow
analysis.
• Time value of money
• Higher the IRR more desirable an investment is to undertake.
𝑻 𝐶𝑡 ​= Net cash inflow during the period t
𝑪𝒕 𝐶0 ​= Total initial investment costs
𝑵𝑷𝑽 = ෍ 𝒕
− 𝑪𝟎 DR= Discount rate
𝟏 + 𝑫𝑹
𝒕=𝟏 t= The number of time periods​

DR at which NPV=0 is IRR (Always calculated iteratively.

29
Example: Assume a project coat a firm $10,000 at discount rate of 8%.
Calculate the NPV when the year wise returns from the project are as follows:

Year one = $2,000

Year two = $3,000
Year three = $3,000
Year four = $4,000
Year five = $4,000

Solution:
2000 3000 3000 4000 4000
N𝑃𝑉 = + + + + − 10000
1+0.08 1 1+0.08 2 1+0.08 3 1+0.08 4 1+0.08 5

NPV= $2,468

30
Example: Assume a company is reviewing two projects. Management must
decide whether to move forward with one, both, or neither. Its cost of capital is
10%. The cash flow patterns for each are as follows:

Project A Project B
Initial Outlay = $5,000 Initial Outlay = $2,000
Year one = $1,700 Year one = $400
Year two = $1,900 Year two = $700
Year three = $1,600 Year three = $500
Year four = $1,500 Year four = $400
Year five = $700 Year five = $300

31
Solution:
Project A:
1700 1900 1600 1500 700
0= + + + + − 5000
1+𝐼𝑅𝑅 1 1+𝐼𝑅𝑅 2 1+𝐼𝑅𝑅 3 1+𝐼𝑅𝑅 4 1+𝐼𝑅𝑅 5

IRR=16.61 %

Project B:
400 700 500 400 300
0= + + + + − 2000
1+𝐼𝑅𝑅 1 1+𝐼𝑅𝑅 2 1+𝐼𝑅𝑅 3 1+𝐼𝑅𝑅 4 1+𝐼𝑅𝑅 5

IRR=5.23 %

If the IRR is greater than the discount rate or cost of capital, the project is profitable.
Given that the company’s cost of capital is 10%, management should proceed with Project A and reject Project B.
32
 UNITED NATION FRAMEWORK CLASSIFICATION
COAL RESERVE UNDER CILAREAS

• Coal Reserve: defined as

1. Can be extracted economically either from proved (G1) resource or from indicated (G2) resource
2. After assessing its viability through either preparation of PR (F1) or Pre-feasibility study (F2).

• Thus the codes for Reserves under UNFC can be 111, 121, 112, 122.
• Coal Resource: defined as
1. Resources for which no study has been made (333, 332, 331)
Studies) (211, 222)
2. Resources which can not be extracted economically as on date (after preparation of PRs /Feasibility
3. Resources which ire currently being extracted incurring loss (211)
4. Coal lost during mining operation (221, 222)

33
 UNITED NATION FRAMEWORK CLASSIFICATION
TERMS AND CODES IN UNFC (as applied in CIL)

• Coal Reserve
1. Proved Mineral Reserve (111)
2. Probable Mineral Reserve (121, 112 & 122)
• Coal Resource
1. Feasibility Mineral Resource (211)
2. Prefeasibility Mineral Resource (221 & 222)
3. Measured Mineral Resource (331)
4. Indicated Mineral Resource (332)
5. Inferred Mineral Resource (333)

34
UNITED NATION FRAMEWORK CLASSIFICATION
RESERVES UNDER CILAS PER UNFC

35
UNITED NATION FRAMEWORK CLASSIFICATION
RESERVES UNDER CILAS PER UNFC

36
UNITED NATION FRAMEWORK CLASSIFICATION
Coal Resources & Reserves under CIL as per UNFC Classification

37
UNITED NATION FRAMEWORK CLASSIFICATION
COAL RESERVE UNDER CILAREAS

• Coal which cannot be mined economically as per present study, termed as ’Coal Resource’ & not included in
‘Coal Reserve’
• Balance mineable coal of running mines, at present incurring losses – included in the category of ‘Coal Resource’
although still winning
• Coal lost during mining (both under ground and open cast) and left in-situ - part of ‘Coal Resource’ (categorized
as UNFC Code 2,2,1) - majority of it may not be possible to win in future
• Geological Reports are not available for some old mines (taken over from private owners during nationalization) -
Project Reports not prepared for these mines – Based on assessment from Regional Institutes

38
 UNITED NATION FRAMEWORK CLASSIFICATION
COAL RESERCES AS PER ISP BALANACE COAL RESOURCES OF CIL
(Figures in Million tonne) (as on 31.03.2012)

https://coal.gov.in/en/major-statistics/coal-grades

39
UNITED NATION FRAMEWORK CLASSIFICATION
TERMS AND CODES IN UNFC (as applied in CIL)

• Coking/Non-coking Coal: Based on coking property, coals are broadly classified into two categories namely,
Coking Coal and Non-coking Coal. Steam coal used for steam/power generation falls under the broad group of
Non-coking coal.
• Coking Coal - Coking coals are those varieties of coal which on heating in the absence of air (process known as
Carbonisation) undergo transformation into plastic state, swell and then re-solidify to give a Cake. On quenching
the cake results in a strong and porous mass called coke.
• Primary/Medium/Semi/Week Coking Coal: Coking coal is divided into 3 sub-categories namely,
Primary Coking Coal (Low ash, low Volatile, High Coking property)
Medium Coking Coal (low ash, medium volatile, low caking index) and

Blendable/ Semi/Weak Coking Coal (low ash, high volatile, very low caking index).

40
 FUNDAMENTALS OF EXPLORATION
• The scientific method for locating or finding new mineral deposit is called exploration.
• The main aim of the geological exploration is to discover mineral deposits of appropriate size and grade which
can be profitably mined from the Earth.
• The exploration, however, is expensive with high risk and often takes several years before an ore body can be defined and
potentially mined.
• The deposit may be exposed on the surface or can be hidden below the overburden of sediments or barren rock cover,
alluvium.
• The purpose of geological exploration is to find out an economic mineral/fuel deposit at minimum cost and minimum time-
frame.
• Various geological features and concepts provide clues that guide these efforts in locating a deposit are varied.

41
 PROSPECTING AND EXPLORATION
• These two terms are almost used interchangeably or synonymously with each other. In many of the text books and
discussions, these two terms are not really very distinctly differentiated.
• Prospecting involves searching an area for mineral deposits, fossil fuels, precious metals with the view to mine it
profitably.
• A geologist prospecting an area is looking for surface exposure of minerals by observing irregularities and variations in
colour, shape or rock composition.
• The success of any mineral exploration depends on the experience of geologist/s involved.
• Exploration is similar to prospecting. It is the term used for systematic examination of an ore deposit. There are many
aspects which overlap between the prospecting and exploration. Former transgresses into the latter’s domain is very
common.
• After area of the interest is chosen, an application for exploration permit is made.
• Approval by officials is needed before exploration activities commence.
• Prospecting is very often followed immediately by exploration.
• Exploration can be defined as the science of prospecting in which modern and sophisticated instruments and
equipment/tools are used in the search of mineral deposit and qualitative assessment of the mineral/ ore deposit
while prospecting a known well-defined area.
42
 CLASSIFICATION OF GEOLOGICAL GUIDES
• The geologists engaged in the geological exploration (known as Exploration Geologists) must have a good understanding
of the basic geological concepts.
• The geologist should also have understanding about the geological mechanisms by which metals are transported from large
regions of the Earth’s crust to a smaller region of the crust where they get concentrated to form a deposit.
• It helps the exploration geologists to know where to look for a mineral deposit.
• Geological studies for mineral exploration form the base for identification of a mineral deposit and rely on the
identification of rock types, structure, alteration pattern and delineation of mineralised zones on the surface.
• A good geological map on a large scale has a significant role in geological exploration.

43
 CLASSIFICATION OF GEOLOGICAL GUIDES
• Most of the mineral deposits present near the surface or deep inside the Earth exhibit some signatures on the surface.
• These surface signatures range from the weathering effects, remnants of ancient mining, stratigraphy, shear zone and
etc.
• These features can be easily identified during field surveys and may guide exploration and may lead to the discovery of
significant mineral deposits.
• The clues which lead to the discovery of the mineral deposits are known as geological guides.
• Based on the nature of the geological features, the guides have been broadly classified into five major categories
(Mckinistry, 1962). They are:
1. Physiographic guides
2. Mineralogical guides
3. Stratigraphic and Lithological guides
4. Structural Guides
5. Geobotanical and Biogeochemical guides

44
 1. Physiographic Guides
• Physiography of an area may be considered as a guide in the search of ore/s.
• Although, many a times, it does not by itself indicate the presence of ore.
• Some ore deposits are topographically related to structures/rock types or surficial deposits that are exposed.
• For examples, iron ores of the Lake Superior region, USA and Western Australia, iron ores of Madhya Pradesh, Bihar,
Karnataka states of India etc. They are present as hills, ridges, and ranges and can be seen from distance.
• The surface expression of an ore body is direct indication of presence of deposit, although there may be valuable indirect
evidences.
• In many regions, the ore outcrops are seen as a conspicuous feature. The presence of quartz reefs in some regions stand out
as ridges in otherwise weathered sequences.
• Some ore deposits are associated with alteration.

45
 1. Physiographic Guides
• The alteration may give rise to chemically unstable or soft, easily weathered minerals and rocks.
• This result in a depression which may later filled with gravel and lava flows and are usually densely vegetated.
• The shrinkage in the volume of sulphide ore bodies during oxidation may also cause subsidence.
• Further, the favourable areas for the deposition of placer minerals (e.g., gold, platinum, diamond etc.) are determined by
the stream velocity and the stream gradient and are normally represented by rock bars, rock holes, oxbow lakes, etc.
• An analysis of physiography provides significant information related to placer deposits.
• Direct and indirect evidences for presence of ore bodies, therefore, can be found from the physiographic features

46
 2. Mineralogical Guides
• A mineral present near or in an ore body and is related to the processes of ore deposition may serve as a very much
practical guide in ore search.
• Such mineralogical guides may constitute targets for ore search. These minerals may indicate presence of a specific
mineral deposit, alteration or rock lithology and sometimes referred to indicator minerals.
• Their physical and chemical characteristics allow them to be easily recovered from the geological samples (e.g., rock,
stream, alluvial, glacial or aeolian sediments or soils).
• The presence of oxidised minerals on the surface gives clue as to what lies beneath it. For example, the sulphide minerals,
on coming in contact of water get oxidised very easily and their metal content is carried away in solution or else fixed as
stable compounds in the form of oxides, carbonates, silicates elsewhere, leaving behind iron rich rock on the surface.
• Limonite is the term used for rock/ore containing several hydrous iron oxide minerals which often predominate the
weathered outcrop of the ore deposit.
• Under favourable conditions, colour, texture and structure of the limonite can furnish valuable clues about the nature of
unweathered mineralisation lying beneath it.

47
 2. Mineralogical Guides
• Gossan: The extreme oxidation and leaching of the sulphide body produces exceedingly ferruginous rock, the product is
known as gossan
• The gossans are characterised by different honeycomb patterns called as boxwork structure/texture and colours.
• The colours of a gossan significantly varies from red, yellow, brown to black.
• This colour is due to the iron hydroxide and oxide mineral phases.
• The depth of gossan may extend up to hundreds of meters.
• The interpretation of gossans and leached capping of rocks is one of the earliest recognised guides to the sulphide ore
deposit and has led to the discovery of many of the important deposits.
• The Zn–Pb deposit of RajpuraDariba (Rajasthan) was discovered through gossan.

48
 3. Stratigraphic and Lithological Guides
• Some mineral deposits are hosted exclusively by specific rock types. Such
litho-units/rocks constitute an ideal stratigraphic guide and lithological
guide.
• If the stratigraphic unit/ sedimentary beds host ore body, it is called as
stratigraphic guide.
• If the igneous rock hosts the ore body, the term lithological guide is used
instead of stratigraphic guide.
• The syngenetic mineral deposits are formed by the same process and at the
same time of the geological time frame as the enclosing rocks.
• Such sequence act as the stratigraphic/lithological guides.
• This includes many sedimentary mineral deposits of coal, petroleum,
bauxite, phosphorite (Fig. Phosphorite deposit of Jhamarkotra, Udaipur,
Rajasthan), iron and manganese ores.
• Deposits of chromite and vanadium associated with the igneous rocks also
belong to this category.
• The width and thickness of these deposits range from a few meters to a few
hundred meters and strike length running to several kilometers in length 49
 4. Structural Guides
• Many structures like shear zones, faults, joints and folds act as channel ways for the movement of the ore bearing solutions
and provide suitable site for the deposition of ore.
• Hence, they can act as guides for searching a mineral deposit.
• For example, the Olympic Dam IOCG type deposit in Australia, Rampura - Agucha giant Pb-Zn deposit and Khetri Cu
deposit in India are located at the intersection of faults.
• Formation of vein type deposits is predominantly due to fractures present in ore which have noteworthy influence on the
form of the ore bodies.

50
 5. Geobotanical and Biogeochemical Guides
• Specific plants or toxic element effects in different parts of the plants may sometimes act as guide to the mineralisation.
• Such guides are classified as geobotanical guides.
• Such plants are called as “indicator plants”.
• The presence of indicator plants provides signals for the existence of a particular element in the soil in which they grow.
• Those plants that point to the presence of specific element are called “universal indicators”.
• The Ocimum centraliafricanum or Becium homblei is one such indicator plant for copper.
• It is also called as copper plant or copper flower and is the only copper (and nickel) rich soils in Africa.

51
 EXPLORATION METHODS
• The physicochemical properties of the minerals like specific gravity, electrical conductivity, magnetic susceptibility,
radioactivity, propagation of seismic waves and mode of occurrence of minerals enables in locating ore deposits of
economic interest
• The exploration methods are divided into two main groups:
A) Surface exploration; and
B) Subsurface exploration.

52
 Surface Exploration
• The surface exploration method includes preparation of geological maps based on data collected through field survey
(including elevation data).
• Incorporation of aerial photos, satellite imagery, geochemical and vegetation data into these maps provide useful details
regarding rock outcrops and their boundaries, vegetation, geomorphology, lithology and lithological variations of the area
under investigation.
• Various surface exploration methods viz. geological, geochemical, geobotanical, photogeology and remote sensing are
carried out during preliminary & detailed survey
1. Geological Exploration
• Selection of most prospective area for exploration requires a sound geological knowledge which includes structure of the
area, age of the rocks, rock types and basin modelling etc.
• Good acquaintance is required to make perfect predictions and draw parallels between an established ore deposit and the
unknown potential mineralisation sought after exploration.
• The broad activities involved in geological exploration are:
➢ to prepare a field database from different sources; and

➢ plot in geological base map

53
54
55
2. Photogeology, Remote sensing and Geographic Information System
• Photogeology is the elementary technique to derive geological information from the interpretation of aerial photographs
during reconnaissance survey for mineral exploration.
• The aerial photos are most commonly panchromatic black and white (B&W), B&W (Infrared), colour and colour
(Infrared) photographs.
• Infrared photos are extensively used to differentiate vegetation in dense forested areas for mineral exploration.
• Aerial photographs are acquired from a camera above the ground with specific technique and can be interpreted in the
laboratory using certain optical instrument.

56
2. Photogeology, Remote sensing and Geographic Information System
• In remote sensing technique, the sensors capture the electromagnetic radiations that are reflected or emitted by an object.
• They are in contact with rays of different ranges of wavelength within the electromagnetic spectrum, depending on their
physicochemical properties.
• The spectral response of an object or a pattern is stored which can be analysed for the identification of the object.
• The digital data is processed and converted into an image with the help of software, giving rise to imagery for
interpretation and decision making.
• After acquiring raw satellite images, the processes viz. image restoration, image enhancement and data extraction are
carried out before their interpretation and integration with other geological data.
• After digital processing of satellite images, extraction of geological information is carried out .

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2. Photogeology, Remote sensing and Geographic Information System
• Geographic Information System (GIS) is a system that can handle a wide range of spatial and georeferenced data. It can
collect, store, organise, integrate and analyse geological, geobotanical, geophysical, geochemical, remote sensing and
cultural data of same area.
• GIS system can model the acquired data to produce a composite map required for geological interpretation Geographic
Information System (GIS) is a robust technique for identification of the target of mineralized zones based on the modelling
using overlay analysis.
• This kind of analysis analyzes and interpolate multiple data received from various sources pertaining to same area or
similar object either in vector or raster mode.
• They are stored in GIS system as individual data file or a layer.
• The new information on the object or area can be created by overlying of related individual layers one above another with
common georeferences that generates a specific model as per project requirement

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3. Geochemical Exploration
• Geochemical exploration is employed in the search of economic mineral deposits. It primarily deals with the unusual
concentration or depletion of certain chemical elements in soil, rocks, streams, lake sediments, water, air and vegetation in
the vicinity of mineral deposits other than barren regions.
• The geochemical environments of the Earth can be categorised mainly into two groups, viz. primary and secondary.
• The primary environment comprises of deep seated igneous and metamorphic processes.
• The secondary environment involved surface processes, which includes weathering, transportation, and sedimentation.

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4. Geobotanical Exploration
• The use of plants in mineral prospecting is very useful tool which aid as
a guide to the nature.
• The changes found in the vegetation in mineralised area indicate that
distinct plant species, either there appear or vanish.
• These plant species are called indicator plants.
• The morphological changes in the plants are possibly due to excesses or
paucity of certain elements in the soil.
• Geobotanical mapping is employed after ground and aero-visualisation
on the characteristics of vegetation.
• This is done to demarcate the mineralised zone from the non-
mineralised zone (Fig.).
• Though, this method is not directly helpful to locate ore bodies, but
successful results come out by integration with other exploration
methods.
• Various nickel, copper, iron, manganese, uranium, lead and zinc
deposits in India have been located by geobotanical prospecting method.
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 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION
• After preliminary or reconnaissance survey by applying surface exploration techniques, the study area is narrowed down
and the target area is focused for subsurface exploration.
• There are two methods such as direct and indirect.
i.The direct methods involve collection of samples from subsurface rock strata by digging drill holes, trenches, pits,
exploratory tunnels and the rock samples are examined and tested in the laboratory.
ii.The indirect methods are extensively used in the subsurface exploration by applying different geophysical techniques to
locate mineral ore bodies

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1. Gravity Method
• Gravimetric method implies the techniques of measuring the
gravitational fields at different points on the surface using gravimeters,
expressed in milligals.
• They can detect minute changes in gravity caused by crustal density
differences.
• The anomalous gravity readings are calculated by deducting the regional
gravity field from the measured fields on the basis of anomalous
densities of the subsurface materials.
• Shallow high density materials like barite, chromite, hematite shows
positive gravity anomalies while shallow low density bodies like halite,
weathered kimberlite etc. yield gravity lows (Fig.). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lH-
tqmFRylQ
• Different types of gravity surveys like airborne, gradiometry are
conducted as per requirement.
• Airborne gravity survey is more appropriate to map deep seated rock
masses, whereas, gravity gradiometry survey is used to map the
subsurface closer to the ground surface.

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2. Magnetic Method
• Magnetic method employs the natural magnetic field of the
Earth.
• Magnetic surveys not only detect changes in magnetic
concentration of near surface mineral bodies, but also help to
estimate the size, shape, strike and depth of the ore bodies.
• The magnetic survey uses high precision magnetometer that
measures the dip and the declination, which is operable in air
(airborne), sea (marine) and land (ground).
• Airborne is cost effective and is applicable to cover large area.
• Marine magnetic survey is used for investigation of ocean floor
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AZyNIGFHsE
polymetallic nodules and the ground magnetic survey is suitable
4
for small area coverage.
• For example, the zinc-lead mineralisation across Rampura-
Agucha supergiant deposit is shown in Fig., gravity and magnetic
anomalies.

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3. Electrical Method
• All electrical methods are dependent primarily on the properties
of resistivity and conductivity of subsurface rock masses to
propagate electric current.
• Wide variety of method includes either due to naturally occurring
electrical field within the earth or by inducing artificially
generated current through the ground.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=59uLmJBgiyA

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4. Seismic Method
• Seismic method is based on the difference in the propagation
velocity of artificially induced elastic or seismic waves through
various strata in the subsurface.
• The source generates shock waves by means of explosives,
mechanical vibrators or compressed air gun, which travel down
into subsurface.
• Primary (P) and Secondary (S) seismic waves move uniformly
from the source to the subsurface and reflect and refract
simultaneously on the boundary of a second medium with
different elastic properties.
• Accordingly, the travel time of reflected or refracted wave is
recorded on sensitive instrument called geophone placed on the
surface. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gL9k_aXCnkQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z1ORnwnuXbM
• In the refraction technique, the waves travel along a boundary
between rocks of different elastic properties.
• While the reflection technique uses the waves reflected from
such boundaries (Fig. ).
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4. Seismic Method
• Seismic methods are comparatively less used in mineral exploration due to high cost.
• More especially because most ore bodies associated with igneous or metamorphic rocks lack coherent layering
like sedimentary rocks.
• In general, the reflected seismic data is used for exploration of coal, oil & gas.
• Refracted data is used in mineral investigation to map low-velocity alluvial deposits that may contain gold, tin,
sand, or gravel.

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5. Pitting, Trenching, Drilling and Borehole Logging

• Quantitative information at various points of the confirmed mineralization as indicated by indirect methods can be
obtained by pitting, trenching, boring and drilling.

Pitting

• Pitting is employed to test shallow flat lying extensive ore bodies. Samples are taken from single wall, opposite wall
or all the four walls of the pit based on the type and nature of the mineralisation and obtain a representative sample for
examination.

Trenching

• Trenches are conducted by excavation across the strike of host rocks to look into the exposure of steep
dipping mineralisation buried below the overburden.

• In some cases, cross-trenching is required to expose mineralized zones.

• Trenches usually have a dimension of 10 m width and 3 to 5 m depth.

• Channel samples are taken along the floor of trenches. 70

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Drilling
• If the depth of ore bodies is too large for pitting and
trenching, then it is tested by boring and drilling.
• Making a hole in the soil is referred to as boring where as
in the solid rock is referred to drilling, which can be done
with the help of light weight portable drilling machine.
• Drilling is the most effective means of exploration of
mineral deposit of all types and also for other geological
activities like rock types, stratigraphy, structure, wall rock
alteration, geochemical zoning, ore guides and control
Logging
• Logging also known as well logging/ borehole logging is
a technique for systematic recording of rock properties
including its fluid contents down the drill hole.

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Introduction
“Planning involves application of techniques to arrive to a decision and choosing form alternative course of
action, the best one that would enable the enterprise to reach its goal.”

DIFFERENT STAGES AND PRACTICES OF GEOLOGICAL PROSPECTING, REGIONALAND

DETAILED EXPLORATION.
• Any exploration program can be classified by successive stages: each stage is designed to achieve a
combined specific objective within the time schedule and allocated fund.
• The outputs of each stage provide inputs to the next successive stage.
• The stages for major and limited application for minor minerals are placed in ascending order with respect
to increasing geological confidence in the context of any exploratory procedure.
• The typical successive stages of geological investigation i.e. reconnaissance, prospecting, general
exploration and detailed exploration, generate resource data with clearly defined degrees of geological
assurance.

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 Reconnaissance (G4)
• Reconnaissance is a grassroot exploration for identifying the existence of mineral potential or initial targets on a
regional scale.
• Preparations at this stage include literature survey, acquisition of geophysical data, if any, synthesis of all available
data and concepts, and obtaining permission (reconnaissance license/permit [RP]) from the state/ provincial/territorial
government.
• Activities incorporate remote sensing, airborne and ground geophysical survey, regional geological overview, map
checking/mapping on 1:250,000 and 1:50,000 scales, geochemical survey by chip/grab sampling of rocks and weathered
profiles, broad geomorphology and drainage, pitting, and trenching to expose mineralized zones at ideal locations, and
limited scouting/reverse circulation/diamond drilling to identify the possible existence/extent of mineralization.
• Petrographic and mineragraphic studies will help to determine principal host and country rocks and mineral assemblages.
• The prime objective is to study the entire area under leasehold within a stipulated timeframe, and to identify probable
mineralized areas (targets) worthy of further investigation.
• The targets are ranked based on geological evidence suggestive of further investigation toward deposit identification.
• Subsequent activities are planned and suitably modified based on the results achieved.
• The definite physical targets of various exploration activities would depend on the end result.
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Reverse Circulation

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 Prospecting (G3)
• Prospecting is the systematic process of searching promising mineral targets identified during reconnaissance.
• The objective is to increase definitive exploration for developing geological confidence leading to further exploration.
The program starts by obtaining a prospecting license (PL) from the state/provincial/territorial government within the
framework of area and duration.
• PL is granted to conduct prospecting, general exploration, and detailed exploration.
• Activities include mapping on a 1:50,000-1:25,000 scale, linking maps with lithology, structure, surface signature, analysis
of history of mining, if it exists, ground geophysics, geochemical orientation survey, sampling of rock/soil/debris of
background and anomaly area, pitting/trenching, reverse circulation and diamond drilling at a 100-1000 m section at one
level depending on mineral type, core sampling, petrographic and mineragraphic studies, borehole geophysical logging,
and baseline environment.
• Estimates of quantities are inferred, based on the interpretation of geological, geophysical, and geochemical results.

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 General Exploration (G2)
• General exploration is the initial delineation of an identified deposit.
• Methods include mapping on a 1:25,000, 1:5000, or larger scale for narrowing down the drill interval along the strike(100-
400 m) and depth (50-100 m), detailed sampling and analysis of primary and secondary commodities, value- added trace
and deleterious penalty elements, ~10% check sampling, analysis for quality assurance/quality control, borehole
geophysical survey, bulk sampling for laboratory and bench-scale beneficiation tests, and recoveries and collection of
geoenvironmental baseline parameters.
• The objective is to establish the major geological features of a deposit, giving a reasonable indication of continuity,
and providing an estimate of size with high precision, shape, structure, and grade.
• The estimates are in the Indicated and Inferred categories.
• The activity ends with preparation of broad order of economic or prefeasibility or scoping studies.

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 Detailed Exploration (G1)
• Detailed exploration is conducted before the start of the mining phase or mine development.
• It involves three dimensional delineation to outline firm contacts of the ore body, rock quality designation (RQD) for
mine stability, and planning and preparation of samples for pilot plant metallurgical test work.
• The works envisaged are mapping at 1:5000 and 1:1000 scales, close space diamond drilling (100x50, 50x50 m), borehole
geophysics, a trial pit in case of surface mining, and subsurface entry with mine development at one or more levels in case
of underground mining.
• The sample data are adequate for conducting three dimensional geostatistical ore body modeling employing in-
house or commercial software for making due diligence reports.
• The reserves are categorized as Developed, Measured, Indicated, and Inferred with a high degree of accuracy. The
sum total of Developed, Measured, and Indicated reserves amounts to 60% of the total estimated resources for investment
decisions and preparation of a bankable feasibility study report.
• A mining lease (ML) is obtained at this stage for the purpose of undertaking mining operations in accordance with the
Miners and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act 2016 for major minerals.
• It shall also include quarrying concessions permitting the mining of minor minerals.
• The ML is granted by a competent authority, i.e., the state/provincial/territorial government, with clearance from the
Federal Ministry of Mines, the Ministry of Forest and Environment, and the Bureau of Mines.
• The permissible area under the ML will be negligible and may be 1/100th of the reconnaissance area. 79
17
 Feasibility Study
• A decision whether to conduct a Feasibility Study can be made from the information provided by Detailed Exploration.
• Feasibility assessment studies form an essential part of the process of assessing a mining project.
• The typical successive stages of feasibility assessment i.e. geological study as initial stage followed by prefeasibility
study and feasibility study/mining report are well defined.

Economic viability
• The degree of economic viability (economic or sub-economic) is assessed during prefeasibility and feasibility studies.
• A prefeasibility study provides a preliminary assessment with a lower level of accuracy than that of a feasibility study, by
which economic viability is assessed in detail.

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 Factors Influencing Reserve Estimation
• i) Geological factors: These features play an important role and interfere in reserve estimation and sometimes, they become
more pronounced and influence the kind of mineralisation. Some of the main aspects that influence mineralisation are the
folds, faults, layering, ore shoots and change in the habit of mineralisation etc.
• ii) Data density: In ore reserve estimation, the main data used is samples collected from the exposed mineralised body
or core samples collected from drilling of subsurface body. The samples collected for the whole area of mineralisation
are combined to give an idea about the exposure of the whole ore body. However, the statistical approaches will enhance the
process of data handling
• iii) Grade: It is a basic measure for estimating the value of ore. At best minimum grade limit is desired to start mining.

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 Methods of Reserve Estimation
The main methods of ore estimation are i) geometric and ii) geostatistical.
i) Geometric methods: These are one of the oldest methods that still have good recognition and practiced even today.
• Geometric methods are purely built on the geometry of the ore body.
• These methods have advantage in estimating the tonnage unbiasedly.
• But the disadvantage with these methods are point estimates that do not permit the impartial evaluation of quality.
• The geometric methods are estimated by different methods named as a) triangle b) polygon c) rectangle or block d) cross
section and e) contour.
• a) Triangle method: It is a simple method of reserve estimation and is based on standard triangle calculations.
• b) Polygon method: This method of reserve estimation is somewhat advantageous than the triangle method. But for
practical applications, the standard triangle and the polygon methods show identical results.
• c) Rectangular method: It is also called as block method and is a special case of representation of the polygon method.
This method is not frequently used in reserve estimation.
• d) Cross-section method: This method is considered as a specific application of the polygon method. It is particularly
used in cases of reserve estimation where the data is found laterally across the sequences of geological cross-sections.
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 Methods of Reserve Estimation
• e) Contour method: This method follows the hybrid pattern where it is grouped between the cross-section and
mathematical methods.
ii) Geostatistical methods: In mining operations, geostatistical methods are commonly applied and especially in reserve
estimation for handling the numerical data. They are considered to be more accurate method. As it is helpful in enumerating
the geological characteristics in both theoretical and practical basis for reserve estimation.

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