2.

Conventional Surveying Methods

2. Conventional Surveying Methods: 9 Lectures

2.1. Linear Measurements - 2 Lectures
2.2. Angular Measurements - 2 Lectures
2.3. Levelling - 2 Lectures
2.4. Plane Table Surveying - 2 Lectures

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2.1. Linear Measurements

✓ Different methods
✓ Direct measurements- Chain, Tape
✓ Instruments for chaining- Line Ranger, Cross Staff, Optical Square, Prism Square
✓ Ranging out survey lines
✓ Chaining
✓ Measurement with tape
✓ Error due to incorrect chain
✓ Offsets and Field Book
✓ Chaining on uneven/sloping surface and obstacles (rivers)
✓ Errors in chaining
✓ Tape correction
✓ Degree of accuracy in chaining
✓ Precise linear measurements

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2.1. Linear Measurements

✓ Different methods
1. Direct Measurements- by chain/tape
2. Measurement by optical means- by telescope and calculations
(tacheometry and triangulation)
3. Electromagnetic methods- instruments that rely on propagation, reflection
and subsequent reception of either radio/light/infrared waves

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2.1. Linear Measurements

✓ Direct Measurements
i. Pacing: for rough survey and quick purpose, pace length varies for
individual and distance is average length of pace into number of paces
ii. Passometer: instrument registers number of paces and distance is
calculated by multiplying the average length of pace by number of paces
iii. Pedometer: similar to passometer and adjusted to length of person
carrying it
iv. Odometer & Speedometer: number of revolutions for a wheel is registered
and distance is circumference into number of revolutions
v. Chaining: with the help of chain/tape, most accurate among these

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2.1. Linear Measurements

✓ Instruments for chaining

a) Chain/Tape
b) Arrows
c) Pegs
d) Ranging rods
e) Offset rods
f) Plasterer’s laths and whites
g) Plumb bob

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2.1. Linear Measurements

✓ Chain
i. Metric: after introduction of metric units in India, available in lengths of
5, 10, 30 and 30 m
ii. Gunter’s/Surveyor’s: 66 ft long with 100 links (1 link= 0.6’ / 7.92”),
when measurements in miles then 10 Gunter’s chains= 1 furlong and
80 Gunter’s chains = 1 mile
iii. Engineer’s: 100’ long with 100 links and each link 1’ long
iv. Revenue: 33 ft long with 16 links
v. Steel/band: Narrow strip 12-16 mm width, 0.3-0.6 mm thickness, 20 m
and 30 m lengths. First and last link is sub-divided into cm and mm.

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2.1. Linear Measurements

✓ Engineer’s Chain

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2.1. Linear Measurements

✓ Testing and adjusting chain

i. Due to continuous use length gets altered due to bending of links and
elongated either due to stretching of links and joints and openings out
of small rings or due to wear of wearing surface.
ii. Tested with reference to a standard chain or a steel tape.
iii. Sometimes its better to have a permanent test gauge established.
iv. In field where no permanent test gauge exists, a test gauge is
established by driving two pegs and requisite distance apart and
inserting nails into their tops to mark exact points.

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2.1. Linear Measurements

✓ Tape

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2.1. Linear Measurements

✓ Tape
i. Cloth/linen: closely woven linen,12-15 mm wide varnished to resist
moisture are light and flexible.
ii. Metallic: made of varnished strip of waterproof linen interwoven with
small brass, copper or bronze wires and does not stretch as easily as
cloth tape.
iii. Steel: superior to cloth/metallic tape, light strip of width of 6-10 mm and
accurately graduated
iv. Invar: high degree of precision, made of alloy of nickel (36%) and steel
(64%) and has very low coefficient of thermal expansion, kept on reels of
large dis as they bend and damaged easily, creep issue

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2.1. Linear Measurements
✓ Arrows
i. Arrows/marking pins are made of strong steel wire and generally 10
arrows are supplied with a chain.
ii. It is placed after every chain length on the ground.
iii. Made of good quality hardened and tempered steel wire 4 mm in
diameter and black enamelled.
iv. Length vary from 25-50 cm and 40 cm is most common.
v. One end is sharp and other end is bend into a loop or circle for
carrying.
✓ Pegs
i. Wooden pegs are used to mark the position of stations or terminal
points of a survey line. Made of stout timber, 2.5-3 cm square and 15
cm long, tapered at the end.
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2.1. Linear Measurements

✓ Arrows and Pegs ✓ Ranging rods

i. Length of either 2 m or 3 m
ii. Shod at the bottom with a
heavy iron point
iii. Painted in alternative bands of
either black and white or red
and white or black, red and
white in succession
✓ Ranging poles: iv. Used to range some
Similar to ranging rods intermediate points in survey
except large diameter line
and length and used in v. Circular or octagonal
long lines vi. Invisible at distance of 200 m
Department of Mining Engineering, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad
2.1. Linear Measurements

✓ Offset rods
i. Similar to a ranging rod and has a length of 3m
ii. Round wooden rods shod with pointed iron shoe at one
end and provided with a notch pr a hook at the other
end.
iii. Butt rod is similar to offset rod but used by building
surveyors or architects
✓ Plasterer’s laths/Whites
i. Intermediate points on a line may also be lined out with
straight laths 0.5-1 m long made of soft wood.
ii. Useful for ranging out a line when crossing depression
from which forward rod is invisible or hidden by obstacles

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2.1. Linear Measurements

✓ Plum bob
i. While chaining along sloping ground, a plumb-bob is
required to transfer the points on the ground
ii. Used to make ranging poles vertical and transfer points
from a line ranger to ground
iii. Used as centring aid in theodolites, compass, plane table
a variety of surveying instruments

Department of Mining Engineering, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad

2.1. Linear Measurements

✓ Ranging out survey lines: if length of line exceeds length of chain then
some intermediate points will have to be established with the two terminal
points before chaining is started and process called ranging
i. Direct ranging: is done when two ends are intervisible. Ranging done
by eye or some optical instrument (ranger or theodolite)
ii. Indirect or reciprocal ranging is done when both the ends are not
intervisible either due to high intervening ground or due to long
distance between them.

Department of Mining Engineering, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad

2.1. Linear Measurements

✓ Direct ranging
✓ Ranging by eye
i. A and B be two ends of a survey line
ii. Ranging rods are erected at point A, B and P in a line by judgement
not greater than 1 chain length from A
iii. Similarly other intermediate stations can be established
iv. Code of signals for ranging

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2.1. Linear Measurements
✓ Direct ranging
✓ Ranging by line ranger

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2.1. Linear Measurements
✓ Direct ranging
✓ Ranging by line ranger
Line ranger consists of two plane
mirrors or two right angled
isosceles prisms place one above
other.
Diagonals of the two prisms are
silvered to reflect the incident
rays
Two ranging rods are fixed at
ends A and B and surveyor at P
holds the line ranger very near to
line AB (by eye adjustment)
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2.1. Linear Measurements
✓ Direct ranging
✓ Ranging by line ranger
Lower prism abc receives rays
from A which are reflected by
diagonal ac towards the observer.
Similarly upper prism dbc
receives rays from B which are
reflected by the diagonal bd
towards the observer
Thus the observer views the
images of ranging rods at A and B
which may not be in same vertical
line (c) and adjusted as a line (d)
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2.1. Linear Measurements
Indirect/reciprocal ranging
Ranging is done indirectly by selecting two
intermediate points M1 and N1 very near to
chain line (by judgement) in such a way that
from M1 both N1 and B are visible and from N1
both M1 and A are visible
Two surveyors station at M1 and N1 with ranging
rods. Person at M1 directs the person at N1 to
move to a new position N2 in line with M1B.
The person at N2 directs the person at M1 to
move to a new position M2 in line with N2A.
Process is repeated till the points M and N lies
on AB
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2.1. Linear Measurements
Indirect/reciprocal ranging
Step 01 Step 02

Step 03 Step 04

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2.1. Linear Measurements
Chaining
Errors due to incorrect chain (-ve or +ve)
If chain is too long then distance measured will be less and error will be negative
and correction will be positive
If chain is too short then distance measured will be more and error will be positive
and correction be negative
Correction to measure length
Let L= true or designated length of chain/tape, L’= incorrect or actual length of
chain/tape used, l’= measured length of the line and l= actual or true length of line
L′
Therefore, true length of line (l) = x measured length of line
L
L′
true length of line (l) = x l′
L

Department of Mining Engineering, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad

2.1. Linear Measurements
Correction to area
Let L = true or designated length of chain/tape, L’= incorrect or actual length of
chain/tape used
A’= measured area and A= actual or true area
L′ 2
Therefore, true area (A) = ( ) x measured area
𝐿
L′ 𝐿+∆𝐿 ∆𝐿
Alternatively, = =1 + (∆𝐿= error in length of chain)
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
∆𝐿
=e
𝐿
L′ 2
A= ( ) x 𝐴′ = (1+e)2 x A’
𝐿
(1+e)2 =1 + 2e + e2 ≈ 1+2e, if e is small
A = (1+2e) x A’

Department of Mining Engineering, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad

2.1. Linear Measurements
Correction to volume
Let L= true or designated length of chain/tape, L’= incorrect or actual length of
chain/tape used
V’= measured volume and V= actual or true volume
L′ 3
Therefore, true volume (V) = ( ) x measured volume
𝐿
L′ 𝐿+∆𝐿 ∆𝐿
Alternatively, = = 1+ (∆𝐿 = error in length of chain)
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
∆𝐿
=e
𝐿
L′ 3
V= ( ) x 𝑉 ′ = (1+e)3 x V’
𝐿
(1+e)3 = 1+e3+3e+3e2 ≈ 1+3e, if e is small
V = (1+3e) x V’

Department of Mining Engineering, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad

2.1. Linear Measurements
Ques 1: The length of a line measured with a 20 m chain was found to be 250 m.
Calculate the true length of the line if the chain was 10 cm too long.
10
Sol: Incorrect length of the chain = 20+ = 20.1 m
100
Measured length (l’) = 250 m
L′ ′ 20.1
True length (l) = =250 x xl = 251.25 m
L 20
Ques 2: The length of a survey line was measured with a 20 m chain and was found to
be equal to 1200 m. As a check, length was again measured with a 25 m chain and was
found to 1212 m. On comparing the 20 m chain with the test gauge, it was found to be 1
decimetre too long. Find the actual length of the 25 m chain used.
Sol: With 20 m chain: L’ = 20 + 0.1 = 20.1 m
L′ ′ 20.1
l= l= 1200 x = 1206 m = True length of line
L 20
L′
With 25 m chain: l = x l′
L
L′
1206 = 1200 x
25
L’ = 24.88 m
Thus, 25 m chain was 12 cm too short.
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2.1. Linear Measurements
Ques 3: A 20 m chain was found to be 10 cm too long after chaining a total distance of 1500
m. It was found to be 18 cm too long at the end of day’s work after chaining a total distance
of 2900 m. Find the true distance if the chain was correct before the commencement of the
work.
0+10
Sol: First 1500 m: Average error= = 5 𝑐𝑚
2
L’=20+0.05= 20.05 m
20.05
l1= 1500x = 1503.75 m
20
10+18
For next 1400 m:Average error= = 14 𝑐𝑚= 0.14 m
2
L’=20+0.14= 20.14 m
20.14
l2= 1400x = 1409.80 m
20
Total length=l = l1 + l2 =1503.75 + 1409.80= 2913.55 m
Ques 4: A surveyor measured the distance between two points on the plan drawn to a scale
of 1 cm= 40 m and the result was 468 m. Later, however, he discovered that he used a scale
of 1 cm = 20 m. Find the true distance between the points.
468
Sol: Scale 1cm= 20 m: Distance= = 23.4 cm
20
Actual Scale 1cm= 40 m: True Distance= 23.4 x 40= 936 m
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2.1. Linear Measurements
Ques 5: A 20 m chain used for a survey was found to be 20.10 m at the
beginning and 20.30 m at the end of the work. The area of the plan drawn to
a scale of 1 cm = 8 m was measured with the help of a planimeter and was
found to be 32.56 cm2. Find the true area of the field.
20.10+20.30
Sol: Average length of chain L’= = 20.20 cm
2
Area of plan= 32.56 cm2
Area of ground= 32.56 x (8)2 = 2083.84 m2
L′ 2 20.20
True Area = A = ( ) x
A′= ( )2 x 2083.84 = 2125.73 m2
L 20
Alternate: A = (1+2e) x A’
∆L 20.20−20 0.20
e= = = = 0.01
L 20 20
A ≈ (1 + 2 x 0.01) x 2083.84= 2125.52 m2

Department of Mining Engineering, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad

2.1. Linear Measurements
Ques 6: The area of the plan of an old survey plotted to a scale of 10 m to 1
cm measures now as 100.2 cm2 as found by a planimeter. The plan is found
to have shrunk so that a line originally 10 cm long now measures 9.7 cm
only. There was also a note on the plan that the 20 m chain used was 8 cm
too short. Find the true area of survey.

Sol:Present length of 9.7 cm is equivalent to 10 cm length

10
Present area of 100.2 cm2 is equivalent to ( )2 x 100.2= 106.49 cm2= original
9.7
area of plan
Scale of the plan: 1 cm = 10 m
Original area of survey= 106.49 x (10)2 = 1.0649 x 104 m2
Faulty length of chain used= 20 - 0.08 = 19.92 m
19.92 2
Correct area= ( ) x1.0649 x 104 = 10564.7 m2
20

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2.1. Linear Measurements
Chaining on uneven or sloping ground: For horizontal distance
Direct method
i. Follower holds zero end of tape at A while leader selects any suitable length l1
of type and moves forward. Follower directs leader for ranging. Leader pulls the
tape tight makes it horizontal and the point 1 is then transferred to the ground
by plumb bob (drop arrow)
ii. Procedure is repeated
iii. Total length, D= l1 + l2 + l3 + l4 + l5 +…..

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2.1. Linear Measurements
Chaining on uneven or sloping ground
Indirect method: in case of a regular or even slope
Method 1: Angle measured
l1 = measured inclined distance between AB and
θ1 = slope of AB with horizontal
D1 = l1 cos θ1, BC= D2 = l2 cos θ2
Required horizontal distance= D= σ 𝑙 cos θ
Slope θ can be measured using a clinometer

Method 2: Difference in level measured:

levelling concept
D = 𝑙 2 − ℎ2

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2.1. Linear Measurements
Chaining on uneven or sloping ground
Indirect method: in case of a regular or even slope
Method 3: Hypotenusal allowance
Correction is applied at every chain length and at every point where the slope changes.
When chain is stretched on the slope the arrow is not put at the end of the chain but is placed
in advance of the end by an amount which allows the slope correction. Arrow is put at A not A’.
BC = 1 chain = 100 links = BA’
AA’= Hypotenusal allowance
BA= 100 sec θ links
BA’= 100 links
AA’= 100 sec θ – 100 links = 100 (sec θ – 1) links
θ2 5θ4 θ2
Now, sec θ = 1 + + +………(where θ is in radians) ≈ (1 + )
2 24 2
1.15θ 2
If θ is in degrees then sec θ ≈ 1 +
10000
θ 2
2 1.5 θ2
AA’= 100 (1 + – 1) links = 50 θ links (if θ in radians) = links (if θ in degrees)
2 100
1 50
If θ = then AA’ = 50 θ2 = links
𝑛 n2
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2.1. Linear Measurements
Ques: The distance between the points measured along a slope is 428 m. Find the
horizontal distance between them if (a) the angle of slope between the points is 8⁰, (b)
difference in level is 62 m and (c) slope is 1 in 4.
Sol: D = l cos θ = l cos 8⁰ = 428 cos 8⁰ = 423.82 m
D = 𝑙 2 − ℎ2 = 4282 − 622 = 423.48 m
tan θ = 1 / 4 therefore, θ = 14⁰2’, therefore, D = 428 cos 14⁰2’ = 415.23 m
Ques: Find the hypotenusal allowance per chain of 20 m length if (i) the angle of slope
is 10⁰ (ii) the ground rises by 4 m in one chain length.
Sol: (i) Hypotenusal allowance = 100 (sec θ – 1) links = 100 (sec 10⁰ -1) = 1.54 links = 0.31 m
(ii) tan θ = 4 / 20 therefore, θ = 11⁰19’, Hypotenusal allowance = 100 (sec 11⁰19’ -1) = 1.987
links = 0.31 m
Ques: In chaining a line, what is the maximum slope (a) in degrees and (b) as 1 in n,
which can be ignored if the error is not to exceed 1 in 1000.
Sol: (a) Error per chain = 1 in 1000 = 100 links/1000 = 0.1 link
1.5 θ2
= 0.1 link, therefore, θ = 2.6⁰
100
50
(b) Error per chain = 0.1 link, therefore, links = 0.1, therefore, n = 22.4, 1 in 22.4
n2
Department of Mining Engineering, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad
2.1. Linear Measurements
Errors and mistakes during chaining arise from
i. Erroneous length of chain or tape (cumulative + or -)
ii. Bad ranging (cumulative +)
iii. Careless holding and marking (cumulative +)
iv. Bad straightening (cumulative +)
v. Non-horizontality (cumulative +)
vi. Sag in chain (cumulative +)
vii. Variation in temperature (cumulative + or -)
viii. Variation in pull (compensating + or -)
ix. Personal mistakes (displacement of arrows, miscounting chain length,
misreading, erroneous booking)
These errors can be cumulative (+ or -), compensating, mistakes and blunders

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2.1. Linear Measurements

Tape corrections
i. Correction for absolute length
ii. Correction for temperature
iii. Correction for pull or tension
iv. Correction for absolute sag
v. Correction for absolute slope
vi. Correction for absolute alignment
vii. Correction for absolute sea level
viii. Correction to measurement in vertical plane

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2.1. Linear Measurements
Tape corrections
1. Correction for absolute length
If the absolute length (or actual length) of the tape or wire is not equal to its normal
or designated length, a correction will have to be applied to the measured length of
the line.
Lc
Ca =
l
where, Ca = correction for absolute length, L= measured length of the line, c=
correction per tape length, l= designated length of the tape, Ca will be of same sign
as that of c

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2.1. Linear Measurements
Tape corrections
2. Correction for temperature
If the temperature in the field is more and less than the temperature at which the
tape was standardised then the length of the tape increases and decreases
respectively and therefore, the correction is additive and negative respectively. The
temperature correction is given by
Ct = α (Tm - To )L
where, α= coefficient of thermal expansion, Tm = mean temperature in the field, To =
temperature during standardisation of the tape, L= measured length of the line

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2.1. Linear Measurements
Tape corrections
3. Correction for pull or tension
If the pull applied during measurement in the field is more than the pull at which
the tape was standardised then the length of the tape increases measured
distance becomes less and the correction is positive.
Similarly, if the pull is less, the length of the tape decreases, measured distance
becomes more and correction is negative. If Cp is the correction for pull, we have
(P− Po )L
Cp =
AE
where, P= pull applied during measurement (N), Po = standard pull (N), L=
measured length of the line (m), A= cross-sectional area of tape (cm2) and E=
Young’s modulus of elasticity (N/cm2)
The pull applied in the field should be less than 20 times weight of the tape.
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2.1. Linear Measurements
Tape corrections
4. Correction for sag
When the tape is stretched on supports between two pints, it takes the form of a
horizontal catenary. The horizontal distance will be less than the distance along
the curve. The difference between horizontal distance and the measured distance
along the curve is called sag correction. Curve can be assumed as a parabola.

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2.1. Linear Measurements
4. Correction for sag
Let l1= length of tape (m) between A & B, M= centre of tape, h= vertical sag of tape
at its centre, w= weight of tape per unit its length, Cs1 = sag correction (m) for
length l1, Cs = sag correction (m) per tape length, W1= wl1= weight of the tape
suspended between A & B, d1= horizontal length between A & B.
l1 wl1 2 l1 W21
Cs1 = =
24 P2 24 P2
If l is the total length of the tape and it is suspended in n equal number of catenary,
sag correction (Cs ) per tape length is given by
nl1 wl1 2 l wl 2 lW2
Cs = nCs1 = = =
24 P2 24P2 n2 24P2 n2
where, W= total weight of the tape, P= pull applied, L= total length measured, N=
number of whole length tape
Total sag correction= NCs + Sag correction for any fractional tape length
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2.1. Linear Measurements
4. Correction for sag
For example if the tape is standardised in catenary at 100 N pull and the pull
applied in field is 120 N then sag correction will be = sag correction for 100 N- sag
l1 W21 l1 W21 l1 W21 1 1
correction for 120 N = - = − and is +ve
24 (100)2 24 (120)2 24 (100)2 (120)2
l1 W21 1 1
If applied pull is 80 N then sag correction will be = − and is –ve
24 (100)2 (80)2
If applied pull is equal to standard pull then no sag correction

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