Jurong Pioneer Junior College

2025 JC1 H2 Chemistry (9476)

Core Idea 1 – Matter

Topic 1: Atomic Structure
Recommended Reference Books:
1. Cambridge International as and A Level Chemistry by Peter Cann and Peter Hughes
2. A-Level Chemistry (4th Edition) by E N Ramsden
3. Chemistry in Context (6th Edition) by Graham Hill and John Holman

Web-based Resources:
No Description QRCode No Description QRCode

1 Online Chemistry Website: 2 2400 years of hard work in the

Chemguide. development of the atomic
[Link] model.
[Link]
3 An Introduction to the history of 4 Rutherford Gold Foil
Atomic Chemistry. Experiment (Part 1).
[Link] [Link]

5 Rutherford Gold Foil Experiment 6 3D Visualisation of Atomic

(Part 2). Orbitals.
[Link] [Link]

Learning Outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) identify and describe protons, neutrons and electrons in terms of their relative charges and relative
masses
(b) deduce the behaviour of beams of protons, neutrons and electrons in an electric field
(c) describe the distribution of mass and charges within an atom
(d) deduce the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons present in both atoms and ions given proton
and nucleon numbers (and charge)
(e) (i) describe the contribution of protons and neutrons to atomic nuclei in terms of proton number
and nucleon number
(ii) distinguish between isotopes on the basis of different numbers of neutrons present
(f) describe the number and relative energies of the s, p and d orbitals for the principal quantum
numbers 1, 2 and 3 and also the 4s and 4p orbitals
(g) describe the shapes of s, p and d orbitals (see also Section 13) [knowledge of wave functions is not
required]
(h) state the electronic configuration of atoms and ions given the proton number (and charge)
(i) explain the factors influencing the ionisation energies of elements (see the Data Booklet) (see also
Section 5)
(j) recognise variation in the electronic configurations across a Period and down a Group
(k) describe and explain qualitatively the trends and variations in atomic radius, ionic radius, first
ionisation energy and electronegativity:
(i) across a Period in terms of shielding and nuclear charge
(ii) down a Group in terms of increasing number of electronic shells and nuclear charge
(l) deduce the electronic configurations of elements from successive ionisation energy data
(m) interpret successive ionisation energy data of an element in terms of the position of that element
within the Periodic Table

2025 JPJC JC1 H2 Chemistry (9476) 1 Topic 1: Atomic Structure

Contents:

Section Content LOs Page

1 The Sub–atomic Particles
1.1 Three fundamental sub–atomic particles (a) 2
1.2 Behaviour of particles in electric field (b) 3
1.3 Proton number and Nucleon Number (c), (d), (e) 4
1.4 Type of species (Isotopes) recall 5
2 Electronic Energy Levels and Sub–Levels
2.1 Historical perspective of the structure of atoms − 6
2.2 Principal quantum shells, subshells & orbitals (f) 7
2.3 Atomic orbitals and shapes of atomic orbitals (g) 9
2.4 Relative energies of atomic orbitals (f) 10
3 Electronic Configuration
3.1 Representation of electronic configuration (f) 11
3.2 Rules for writing electronic configuration (f) 11
3.3 Electronic configuration and the Periodic Table (j) 13
4 Radius
4.1 Factors affecting radius (k) 15
4.2 Trends in radius (k) 16
5 Ionisation energies
5.1 Factors affecting ionisation energies (k) 18
5.2 Trends in first ionisation energies (k) 19
5.3 Successive ionisation energies (l), (m) 21
6 Electronegativities (k) 24

1 THE SUB–ATOMIC PARTICLES

1.1 THREE FUNDAMENTAL SUB–ATOMIC PARTICLES OF MATTER
(a) identify & describe protons, neutrons & electrons in terms of their relative charges & relative masses

Atoms are made up of 3 fundamental particles: electron, proton and neutron.

relative relative position within

mass / kg
charge mass an atom
electron 9.1  10−31
proton 1.67  10−27 a nucleon is either a
neutron 1.67  10−27 proton or a neutron

1.1.1 The nucleus is very small, compact and it made up almost the entire mass of the
atom. It is positively charged.

1.1.2 The rest of the atom consists of empty spaces where the electrons are found.
The negatively charged electrons are attracted _______________ to the
positively charged nucleus.

1.1.3 Atoms are ________________ (i.e. no. of protons = no. of electrons).

2025 JPJC JC1 H2 Chemistry (9476) 2 Topic 1: Atomic Structure

 1.2 BEHAVIOUR OF SUB–ATOMIC PARTICLES IN ELECTRIC FIELD
(b) deduce the behaviour of beams of protons, neutrons and electrons in an electric field

1.2.1 Direction of Deflection depends on the charge on the particle.

(i.e. opposite charges attracts).

In an electric field,

–
_______ (deflected towards −ve plate)
 (not deflected)
Source _______

+
_______ (deflected towards +ve plate)

Things to note:
• Deflection only starts when the beam enters the electric field.
• Deflection of beams of electrons and protons occurs within the electric field
in a parabolic path.
• Beam continues on a straight-line path after leaving electric field.
• Angle of deflection α < Angle of deflection β
Why?

1.2.2 Angle of Deflection depends on:

(a) charge of particle, q : Greater the charge, greater the extent of
deflection.
(b) mass of particle, m : Greater the mass, smaller the extent of
deflection.

 angle of deflection 
charge, q
(i.e.
2
=
( )
charge
mass 2
)
mass, m 1 ( )
charge
mass 1

Exercise 1: When separate beam of 1H+ and 16O2− are passed through an electric field
as shown in the diagram below, the particles behave differently.

1
− H+

10°
source

(a) Sketch and label on the diagram how beam of 16

O2− are affected by the electric
field.

2025 JPJC JC1 H2 Chemistry (9476) 3 Topic 1: Atomic Structure

 (b) Given that the angle of deflection of 1H+ is +10°, calculate the angle of deflection
of 16O2−.

1.3 PROTON NUMBER & NUCLEON NUMBER

(c) describe the distribution of mass and charges within an atom
(d) deduce the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons present in both atoms and ions given proton
and nucleon numbers (and charge)
(e) (i) describe the contribution of protons and neutrons to atomic nuclei in terms of proton number &
nucleon number (ii) distinguish between isotopes on the basis of different numbers of neutrons present

1.3.1 Atomic Symbol is represented as:

X = symbol of the element

X
Z
A = proton number (or atomic number)  no. of p
A
Z = nucleon number (or mass number)  no. of p + n

Things to note:
• The proton number defines the identity of an element and is unique for each
element (i.e. no two elements can have the same proton number).

• In a neutral atom, the proton number also equals the no. of electrons.
Loss of e− forms cation (positively charged ion, no. of p > no. of e−)
Gain of e− forms anion (negatively charged ion, no. of p < no. of e−)

Exercise 2: Fill in the blanks in the table below.

particle protons neutrons electrons

19
F
39
K+ 20
32
S2– 18
81
Br2 70
26 30 23

2025 JPJC JC1 H2 Chemistry (9476) 4 Topic 1: Atomic Structure

 1.4 TYPES OF SPECIES
1.4.1 Isotopes refer to atoms of the same element having the same number of
protons but different number of neutrons.
Isotopes of an element have:

(a) similar chemical properties since the number of electrons & electronic
configuration are the same.

(b) different physical properties since the number of neutrons (and hence,
the mass number) are different.

1.4.2 Isotopic refers to atoms/ions having same number of protons.

1.4.3 Isotonic refers to atoms/ions having same number of neutrons.

1.4.4 Isoelectronic refers to atoms/ions/molecules having same number of

electrons.

Exercise 3: Consider the following table.

particles protons neutrons electrons

16
8O 8 8 8
18
8 O 8 10 8
16 2−
8 O 8 8 10
19 −
9 F 9 10 10
23 +
11 Na 11 12 10
27 3+
13 Al 13 14 10

(a) 16
8 O and 18
8 O are ____________.

(b) 16
8 O, 18
8 O and 16
8 O 2 − are ____________.

(c) 18
8 O and 19
9 F− are ____________.

(d) 16
8 O 2 − , 199 F− , 23 + 27
11Na , 13 Al
3+
are ____________.

2025 JPJC JC1 H2 Chemistry (9476) 5 Topic 1: Atomic Structure

2 ELECTRONIC ENERGY LEVELS AND SUBLEVELS

2.1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE STRUCTURE OF ATOMS

When, Who? What? Diagram

500BC Postulated Particle theory of matter: Matter is
composed of small, indivisible particles called −
Democritus
atoms.
1803 Postulated Atomic theory of matter:
John Dalton 1. All matter is composed of atoms.
2. Atoms cannot be made or destroyed. −
3. All atoms of the same element are identical.
4. Different elements have different types of
atoms.
1897 Discovered electrons though cathode ray
JJ Thomson experiment and proposed that the electrons were
embedded in a cloud of positive charge (‘Plum
Pudding’ model of the atom).

1911 Discovered protons by bombardment of gold foil

Ernest Rutherford with  particles and proposed that most of the
mass of the atom is concentrated in a very small
volume known as nucleus.
• Rutherford’s model of an atom depicts a nucleus
at the center of the atom, with electrons moving
around the nucleus (the nuclear model of the
atom).

1913 Modifying Rutherford’s model, Bohr stated

Niels Bohr that electrons are confined to well−defined
circular orbits, each having discrete
(Model
energy level (planetary model of the atom).
described at
O−Level)

1927 Using Louis de Broglie's 1924 proposal that

Erwin electrons move in waves in an atom,
Schrodinger Schrodinger wrote out a wave equation for
the electrons in an atom.
(Model
described at Solutions of the Schrodinger equation
A–Level) describe the energy level of each electron
and the region an electron is likely to be
found (called orbitals) around the nucleus
(the quantum mechanical model of the atom).

1932 Discovered neutrons by bombardment of

James Chadwick beryllium with  particles.
Neutrons are electrically neutral particles
found in the nucleus of an atom, having
the same mass as protons.

2025 JPJC JC1 H2 Chemistry (9476) 6 Topic 1: Atomic Structure

2.2 A–Level: Principal Quantum Shells, Subshells and Orbitals
(f) describe the number & relative energies of the s, p & d orbitals for the principal quantum numbers 1, 2
& 3 and also the 4s & 4p orbitals

At the ‘O’ Level – Energy Shells (K, L, M, N, etc) Around Nucleus

XX
XX
- 2D Model of an atom of neon taught at ‘O’
***Note: Level.
This model is X X
X Ne X
NOT accepted at
- Electron revolves around the nucleus in a
the ‘A’ Level!
definite orbit.
XX

In the quantum mechanical model, the electron does not revolve in a definite orbit.
Instead, the electron occupies a three-dimensional space around the nucleus.

The nucleus is thus surrounded by a three-dimensional ‘cloud of charge' or 'electron

cloud'.

The region of space in which there is a high probability of finding the electron is called the
orbital.

2.2.1 Principal Quantum Number/Shell (n)

Electrons move around the nucleus in different energy levels (i.e. principal
quantum number/shell, n), where n is an integer number (eg. 1, 2, 3…).

The larger the n → the further the principal quantum shell is from the nucleus
→ the higher the energy level of the electron in the
shell
→ the less strongly e− are attracted to the nucleus

Maximum number of electrons that can occupy any shell = __________.

Across a Period, the number of quantum shells with electrons is the same.

Down a Group, the number of quantum shells with electrons increases.

2025 JPJC JC1 H2 Chemistry (9476) 7 Topic 1: Atomic Structure

 2.2.2 Energy Sub−levels or Sub−shells (l)

Within each quantum shell, there are energy sub−levels known as sub−shells
(e.g. s, p, d and f sub–shells).

Principal No. of Types of Sub−shells Maximum no.

Quantum sub−shells sub−shells labelled as of electrons
Number, n
1 1 s 1s
2 2 s, p 2s 2p
3 3 s, p, d 3s 3p 3d
4 4 s, p, d, f 4s 4p 4d 4f

Generally, the order of energy levels for the subshells (within each quantum shell)
is s<p<d<f.

2.2.3 Atomic Orbital (ml)

Each subshell is made up of a group of degenerate orbitals (i.e. orbitals of same

energy but different orientation).

An orbital is a region of 3-dimensional space in which there is a high probability

(95 %) of finding an electron (but the electron is not confined).
Each orbital can accommodate 2 electrons.

no. of maximum no.

subshell types of orbitals
orbitals of electrons
***Note:
Draw the 3 axes
s 1 s (x, y and z) to
p 3 px , py , pz show 3D space.
d 5 dxy, dxz, dyz, dx2−y2, dz2

A quick summary:

are made up of

are made up of

2025 JPJC JC1 H2 Chemistry (9476) 8 Topic 1: Atomic Structure

2.3 ATOMIC ORBITALS & SHAPES OF ATOMIC ORBITALS
(g) describe the shapes of s, p and d orbitals [knowledge of wave functions is not required]

type of
description and shape(s) of orbital
orbital
s orbital • shape: __________
(each s • non−directional as the electron density is not concentrated in any direction
subshell
(i.e. the probability of finding an electron at a distance r from the nucleus is
has only
one s the same in all directions.
orbital) • size of s orbital  as n 
(size of orbital: 1s < 2s < 3s < 4s < …)

p orbital • shape: __________ (2 lobes with a region of zero electron density between
(each p them (node) centred at the nucleus)
subshell • directional as the electron density is concentrated along x, y and z axes.
has three
p orbitals) • The three p orbitals (px, py, pz), in the same subshell have same size and
shape but different orientation (i.e. mutually perpendicular).
• size of p orbital  as n 
(i.e. 1p < 2p < 3p < 4p < …)

Note:
A NODE is a region of
zero electron density.

d orbital Electrons in the d sub−shell give rise to many special chemical properties which will
(each d be discussed further in Transition Metals (JC2).
subshell
has five d
orbital)

2025 JPJC JC1 H2 Chemistry (9476) 9 Topic 1: Atomic Structure

2.4 RELATIVE ENERGIES OF ATOMIC ORBITALS
(f) describe the number & relative energies of the s, p & d orbitals for the principal quantum numbers 1, 2
& 3 and also the 4s & 4p orbitals

Increasing energy
electron is free from nuclear attraction

Quantum shell Sub−shell & orbital

4f
4d
4p
n=4
3d

4s
n=3 3p
(Note: Not drawn to scale)
Energy, E

3s
Relative energies of the first
four quantum shells and their
2p respective subshells and
n=2 (empty/unfilled) orbitals.
2s
Electrons with higher energy
will be less stable (i.e. more
easily lost).

- represent an orbital that

n=1 1s can hold 2 electrons

nucleus

• Within each quantum shell, the energies of subshells are s < p < d < f.

• Within each sub–shell of same quantum number, the orbitals are degenerate (i.e. same
energy).

• The energies of the 3d and 4s sub−shells are very close.

When __________, the 4s orbital has lower energy than the 3d orbital.
When __________, the 3d electrons will repel the 4s electrons further from the nucleus
and up to a higher energy level.

2025 JPJC JC1 H2 Chemistry (9476) 10 Topic 1: Atomic Structure

3 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
(f) describe the number & relative energies of the s, p & d orbitals for the principal quantum numbers 1, 2 & 3
and also the 4s & 4p orbitals

The electron arrangement taught at O-level (e.g. writing 11Na as 2,8,1) describes the number
of electrons in each quantum shell. This representation is no longer adequate at A-level!
For the A-level, a more detailed electronic configuration is required, and it describes how
the electrons of an atom are distributed among the various orbitals.

3.1 REPRESENTATION OF ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS

3.1.1 s,p,d,f notation using 11Na as example: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

3.1.2 Electron–in–box notation using 11Na as example:

3.2 RULES FOR WRITING ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

The term “ground state” is used to describe atoms whose electrons occupy their lowest
possible energy levels. Electrons are arranged in orbitals according to the following three
rules:
3.2.1 Aufbau (Building up) Principle
Electrons fill orbitals of lowest energy first before moving to an orbital of next
higher energy and so on.

Note: The 4s orbital is filled

before the 3d orbital!

3.2.2 Hund’s Rule

When electrons are added successively to a set of degenerate orbitals, they must
occupy these orbitals singly first and with parallel spins before pairing
begins. This is to ensure electrons are placed as far apart as possible to
minimise inter–electronic repulsion.

2025 JPJC JC1 H2 Chemistry (9476) 11 Topic 1: Atomic Structure

 3.2.3 Pauli Exclusion Principle
Each orbital can only hold a maximum of 2 electrons. The 2 electrons must
have spins opposite to each other.

Note: Pairing electrons in an orbital will lead to inter–electronic repulsion. To counterbalance

this repulsion, the paired electrons must spin in opposite directions to generate a
magnetic attraction between them.

represents one direction of spin while represents the other direction.

X X ✓

3.2.4 Other things to note

• Even though 4s orbital is filled before 3d, the convention is to write in
ascending order of principal quantum numbers.

• The 3d sub−shell is closer to the nucleus. Once the 3d orbitals are occupied by
electrons, it repels the 4s electrons further from the nucleus and up to a higher
energy level.  4s electrons removed first before 3d electrons, in forming
positive ions)

• When writing electronic configuration of ions,

- Write the electronic configuration of the atom first.
- Add e− or remove e− to the valence sub–shell to form anion or cation
respectively.

• The sum of superscripts must always equal to the total number of electrons
in the atom or ion.

Exercise 4: Write the full electronic configuration of the following species.

(a) 5 B:
1s 2s 2p

(b) 8 O:
1s 2s 2p

(c) 17 Cl−
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p

2025 JPJC JC1 H2 Chemistry (9476) 12 Topic 1: Atomic Structure

 3.3 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION AND THE PERIODIC TABLE
(j) recognise variation in the electronic configurations across a Period and down a Group

The position in the Periodic Table of any element can be deduced from the electronic
configuration of an atom of the element, vice–versa.

The Periodic Table is compartmentalized into blocks (s block, p block, d block and f
block). The block indicates the last subshell being occupied by electrons.

 The Periodic Table illustrates the order in which electrons are added to orbitals
(according to Aufbau building−up principle) as we move through the table from
beginning to end.

Note:
• A new Period starts when electrons enter a new principal quantum shell.
• Period number indicates the principal quantum number, n, of electrons in the
valence (outermost) shell.
• Group number provides an indication of the number of valence electrons. (Eg. an
element in Group 13 contains 3 valence electrons etc).
Elements in the same Group have the same valence shell configuration (e.g. all
Group 2 elements have ns2 valence shell configuration).
• Position in each block indicates the number of electrons in that subshell (e.g. Al
is in Period 3 and the first member of p–block  3s2 3p1)

Group 1 2 3 …. 12 13 ….. 18
Valence shell
electronic ns1 ns2 (n−1)dx nsy ns2 np1 ns2 np6
configuration

s block elements p block elements

(last e− added is in an s orbital) (last e− added is in a p orbital)

2025 JPJC JC1 H2 Chemistry (9476) 13 Topic 1: Atomic Structure

 Exercise 5: Write the full electronic configuration, in s,p,d,f notation, of the following
species.
(a) 23 V:

(b) 26 Fe:

(c) 26 Fe2+:

Exceptions:
24 Cr : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1 (not 3d4 4s2 !)
29 Cu : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1 (not 3d9 4s2 !)

Explanation : The close energy levels of 3d and 4s allow rearrangement of

electrons to achieve a configuration of lower total energy.
For 3d5 4s1 and 3d10 4s1, by having one electron in 4s orbital, the
inter−electronic repulsion is minimised.

***Note this is just a simplified explanation:

half−filled or fully−filled 3d subshells are energetically more stable due to
symmetrical charge distribution around the metal centre.

(d) 29 Cu+:

Exercise 6:
An ion X+ has the electronic configuration [Ne] 3s2 3p1.
Which group does X belong to?
A 1 B 4 C 13 D 14

Exercise 7: (2008 Nov P1 Q5)

Which particle would, on losing an electron, have a half filled set of p orbitals?
A C─ B N C N– D O+

4 TREND IN RADIUS
(k) Describe and explain qualitatively the trends and variations in atomic radius, ionic radius, first ionization
energy and electronegativity:
(i) across a Period in terms of shielding and nuclear charge
(ii) down a Group in terms of increasing number of electronic shells and nuclear charge

Atomic radius is defined as half the shortest inter−nuclear distance found in the structure of the
element. This observed ‘radius’ of the atom depends upon how the atom bonds or interacts with
its neighbours. (See Annex A)

In a simplistic manner, the atomic radius can be perceived as the distance between the
outermost electron and the nucleus.

2025 JPJC JC1 H2 Chemistry (9476) 14 Topic 1: Atomic Structure

 4.1 FACTORS AFFECTING RADIUS

4.1.1 Number of Principal Quantum Shells

As number of quantum shells increases, the outermost electrons are further from
the nucleus.
 nuclear attraction or attraction of nucleus on the outermost electrons
decreases
 atomic radius __________

4.1.2 Nuclear Charge, Zactual

As no. of protons increases, nuclear charge increases (i.e. the outermost
electrons are attracted/ pulled closer to the nucleus).
 nuclear attraction on the outermost electrons increases
 atomic radius __________

4.1.3 Shielding Effect by Inner Shell Electrons

As more quantum shells are filled, shielding effect by more inner shell electrons
increases.
 nuclear attraction on the outermost electrons decreases
 atomic radius __________

FOR Your Understanding!! 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3

What is meant by shielding? inner shell outer shell

electrons electrons
• Since all electrons are negatively charged, they repel each other (i.e. inner
shell electrons repel the outer shell electrons). This repulsion prevents the
outer shell electrons from experiencing the full effect of the nuclear attraction.
This effect is called shielding.

• The greater the shielding by the inner shells on the outer shell electrons, the
weaker the nuclear attraction on the outermost electrons (i.e. effective
nuclear charge).

Note:
• Electrons in the same shell provide very poor shielding effect for one another (i.e.
they contribute negligible shielding and can be ignored).
• For a given shell n, shielding ability of electrons decreases from
s > p > d > f.
d and f electrons usually have relatively poor shielding effect because the d and f
orbitals are rather diffused.
• Effective Nuclear Charge, Zeff, is the net electrostatic attraction of the protons in
the nucleus for the valuence / outermost electrons.
where Zeff = Zactual – Shielding effect (no. of inner shells electrons)

2025 JPJC JC1 H2 Chemistry (9476) 15 Topic 1: Atomic Structure

 4.2 TRENDS IN RADIUS (ACROSS THE PERIOD, DOWN THE GROUP)
(Refer to the Data Booklet for the radius across Period 3 and down Group 2)

4.2.1 Radius across the Period

Linked to Topic:
The Periodic Table

(a) Trend of Atomic Radius across the period

With reference to the diagram above, see graph 

Across a Period, there is an __________ in no. of protons / nuclear

charge while the shielding effect (by the inner shell electrons)
remains relatively constant.

There is an __________ in effective nuclear charge, hence greater

nuclear attraction on the outermost/valence electrons.

 atomic radii __________ across the Period.

(b) Ionic Radius

With reference to the diagram above, see graph 
Cationic radii are smaller than their corresponding atomic radii. Why?

• After the removal of outermost electrons, the cation has one less
quantum shell of electrons and less shielding effect. (e.g. Mg2+
vs Mg).

Hence the nuclear attraction on the outermost electrons of

cation is __________ and the radius of cation is __________
than its corresponding atom.
(Note: The nuclear charge of both Mg and Mg 2+ are the same!)

2025 JPJC JC1 H2 Chemistry (9476) 16 Topic 1: Atomic Structure

 With reference to the diagram above, see graph 
Anionic radii is greater than their corresponding atomic radii. Why?

• When electrons are added to the same outermost shell, there is an

increase in the electron–electron repulsion, leading to an
expansion of the electron cloud.

 results in an __________ in the radius of anion compared to its

corresponding atom (e.g. S vs S2–).

(Note: The nuclear charge, shielding effect and no. of quantum shells with electrons
for both S and S2− are the same!)

With reference to the diagram above, see graphs ,  and 

Ionic radii of each isoelectronic series decrease across a Period. Why?

• Across each isoelectronic series with same electronic

configuration, the nuclear charge increases while the shielding
effect (by the inner shell electrons) remains relatively
constant. (e.g. from Na+ to Si4+ or from P3– to Cl–)

There is an __________ in effective nuclear charge, hence

greater nuclear attraction on the outermost/valence electrons.

 ionic radii of the isoelectronic ions __________ across the

Period.

T HINK FURTHER!!
Why are the radii of anions greater than those of cations for elements
of the same Period (e.g. radius of Na+ < P3−)?

Na+: 1s2 2s2 2p6 P3−: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
P3− has 1 more quantum shell of electrons, thus valence electrons
in P3- are further away from the nucleus.
 attraction of nucleus on the outermost electrons decreases
 atomic radius increases

Nuclear attraction on the outermost shell electrons is weaker.

4.2.2 Radius down the Group

Down the Group,
• __________ in number of principal quantum shells
• valence electrons are further away from nucleus.
• __________ in shielding effect by inner shell electrons outweighs the
__________ in nuclear charge (OR increase in no. of protons).
• hence, decreased attractions between nucleus and valence electrons /
decreased nuclear attractions.
• therefore, atomic radius __________ down the group.

2025 JPJC JC1 H2 Chemistry (9476) 17 Topic 1: Atomic Structure

5 IONISATION ENERGIES (IE)
(i) explain the factors influencing the ionisation energies of elements (see the Data Booklet)
(k) Describe and explain qualitatively the trends and variations in atomic radius, ionic radius, first ionization
energy and electronegativity:
(i) across a Period in terms of shielding and nuclear charge
(ii) down a Group in terms of increasing number of electronic shells and nuclear charge
(m) interpret successive ionisation energy data of an element in terms of the position of that element within the
Periodic Table

DEFINITIONS:
First ionisation energy (1st IE) of an element is the energy required to remove one mole
of electrons from one mole of GASEOUS atoms, M, to form one mole of GASEOUS
singly charged cations, M+.
equation: M(g) → M+(g) + e− 1st IE > 0

Second ionisation energy (2nd IE) is the energy required to remove one mole of electrons
from one mole of GASEOUS M+ ions to form one mole of doubly charged gaseous
cations, M2+.
equation: M+(g) → M2+(g) + e- 2nd IE > 1st IE > 0

T HINK FURTHER!!
• Why are ionisation energies endothermic (i.e. absorb energy)?

Exercise 8: Note:
Write an equation to show the 3rd ionisation energy of Ca. State symbol is
required for equations
representing IEs!

Write an equation to show the sum of first three ionisation energies of Ca.

5.1 FACTORS AFFECTING IONISATION ENERGIES (IE)

5.1.1 Nuclear Charge (i.e. depends on number of protons)
As no. of protons increases OR nuclear charge increases.
 nuclear attraction on the electron to be removed increases.
 more energy is required to remove an outermost/valence electron.
 IE __________

5.1.2 Shielding Effect by Inner Shell Electrons

As shielding effect by more inner shell electrons increases,
 nuclear attraction on the electron to be removed decreases
 less energy is required to remove an outermost/valence electron.
 IE __________

2025 JPJC JC1 H2 Chemistry (9476) 18 Topic 1: Atomic Structure

 5.1.3 Number of Principal Quantum Shells (see Section 4)
As number of quantum shells increases, the electron to be removed is further
from the nucleus.
 nuclear attraction on the electron to be removed decreases
 less energy is required to remove an outermost/valence electron.
 IE __________

5.2 TRENDS OF FIRST IONISATION ENERGIES (IE)

5.2.1 Across the Period

Across a Period, there is an increase in no. of protons / nuclear charge
increases while the shielding effect (by the inner shell electrons) remains
relatively constant.

There is an __________ in effective nuclear charge, hence greater nuclear

attraction on the outermost/valence electrons.

 more energy is required to remove an outermost/valence electron. Hence,

1st IE __________ across the Period.

Two anomalies of 1st IE (small dips) across period

(a) ns2 vs ns2 np1 configuration (using Be and B as example)
Be: 1s2 2s2 B: 1s2 2s2 2p1

The 2p electron of B is __________from the nucleus and hence, has a

__________than the 2s electron of Be.

 1st IE of B is lower than that of Be (but still higher than that of Li!)

2025 JPJC JC1 H2 Chemistry (9476) 19 Topic 1: Atomic Structure

 (b) np3 vs np4 configuration (using N and O as example)
N : 1s2 2s2 2p3 O : 1s2 2s2 2p4

The ______________________________between the paired 2p

electrons in O makes it require less energy to remove one of the
paired electrons than the unpaired 2p electrons of N which do not
experience such repulsion.

 1st IE of O is lower than that of N (but still higher than that of C!)

5.2.2 Down the Group

Down the Group,
• __________ in number of principal quantum shells
• valence electrons are further away from nucleus.
• __________ in shielding effect by inner shell electrons outweighs the
increase in nuclear charge (OR increase in no. of protons).
• decreased attractions between nucleus and valence electrons / decreased
nuclear attractions.
• __________ energy is required to remove an outermost/valence electron.
• therefore, 1st IE __________ down the Group.

Exercise 9: [HCI Prelim 2008 P1/Q3 (modified)]

The variation in the first ionisation energy of six consecutive elements in the Periodic
Table is shown in the graph below.

Which element is from Group 14?

first ionisation energy

/ kJ mol−1
D
D
C
B

atomic number

2025 JPJC JC1 H2 Chemistry (9476) 20 Topic 1: Atomic Structure

 5.3 SUCCESSIVE IONISATION ENERGIES
(l) deduce the electronic configurations of elements from successive ionisation energy data
(m) interpret successive ionisation energy data of an element in terms of the position of that element within
the Periodic Table

The successive IE of an element gradually increases as:

• successive electrons are more difficult to remove from an increasingly
positively charged ion.
• This is because when electrons are removed, electron-electron repulsion
decreases, causing ionic radius to decrease, resulting in the valence
electrons to become closer to / more strongly attracted to the nucleus.
• hence, ____________________ is required to remove successive electrons.

The extent of the increase in successive IEs allows us to determine the (a) Group
number and (b) electronic configuration of the element.

Consider the following plot of the successive IEs of an element.

order of electron removed (from outer shell to inner shell)

As the electrons are removed gradually from outer shell to inner shell,
• a large increase between two successive IEs implies that the two electrons are from
different quantum shells;

• a moderate increase between two successive IEs implies that the two electrons are
from different subshells.

From the plot, it was observed that there is

• a large increase from 1st to 2nd IE.
 1st and 2nd electrons removed are from different quantum shells (i.e. 1st electron
in outermost shell and 2nd electron in the next inner shell).
This element has 1 valence electron. Hence, it is a Group 1 element.

2025 JPJC JC1 H2 Chemistry (9476) 21 Topic 1: Atomic Structure

 • A total of 3 sharp increases in IEs.
 this element has 3 inner quantum shells.
 It has a total of 4 quantum shells and hence, it is from Period 4.

In conclusion, this element is potassium (Period 4, Group 1) with an electronic

configuration of 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1.

Note: It is common to have lg (IE), instead of IE as the y−axis, so that the large range
of IEs can be fitted conveniently on the y−axis scale.
The lg scale also makes any big jump between successive IEs more apparent.

Exercise 10:
Y is an element in the Periodic Table. The graph below shows the energy required to remove
the first 11 electrons from element Y.

lg (IE)
25000

20000

15000

10000

5000

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
No of electrons rem oved

(a) State and explain the Group that element Y belongs to.

The large increase from 6th to 7th IE indicates that the 7th electron is removed
from an inner quantum shell, which is more strongly attracted and needs more
energy to remove the electron.

 Y has 6 valence electrons and hence, it is from Group 16 (not 6!).

(b) Explain why element Y cannot be in Period 2.

The Group 16 element in Period 2 is oxygen which has only 8 electrons while Y
has more than 8 electrons.

 Y cannot be in Period 2.

2025 JPJC JC1 H2 Chemistry (9476) 22 Topic 1: Atomic Structure

 Exercise 11:
The first seven ionisation energies (in kJ mol−1) of an element X are as follows:

1st IE 2nd IE 3rd IE 4th IE 5th IE 6th IE 7th IE

1402 2856 4378 7275 8544 53267 64360

(a) State and explain the Group that element X belongs to.

The large increase from 5th to 6th IE indicates that the 6th electron is removed
from an inner quantum shell.

 X has 5 valence electrons and hence, it is from Group 15 (not 5!).

(b) Write the valence shell electronic configuration of element X.

ns2 np3

2025 JPJC JC1 H2 Chemistry (9476) 23 Topic 1: Atomic Structure

6 ELECTRONEGATIVITY
(k) Describe and explain qualitatively the trends and variations in atomic radius, ionic radius, first ionization
energy and electronegativity:
(i) across a Period in terms of shielding and nuclear charge
(ii) down a Group in terms of increasing number of electronic shells and nuclear charge

Electronegativity refers to the ability of an atom to pull the bonding pair of electrons
towards itself. It is measured on a numerical scale with a value of 4.0 assigned to the most
electronegative fluorine atom.

6.1 Trend of Electronegativity across the Period

• nuclear charge increases,

• shielding effect is relatively constant,
• hence, effective nuclear charge increases,
• electronegativity __________ across the period.

6.2 Trend of Electronegativity down the Group

Down the Group,

• increase in number of principal quantum shells
• valence electrons are further away from nucleus.
• increase in shielding effect by inner shell electrons outweighs the increase in nuclear
charge (OR increase in no. of protons).
• hence, decreased in attractions between nucleus and valence electrons / decreased
nuclear attraction.
• electronegativity __________ down the group.

2025 JPJC JC1 H2 Chemistry (9476) 24 Topic 1: Atomic Structure

 ANNEX A: Measurement of Radius

The metallic radius of an atom is half the inter−nuclear e-

distance between two neighbouring atoms in the metal.
+ +
• Metallic radius is obviously restricted to those elements
that form metallic lattices. e-
• Example: rMg = 0.160 nm
dmet
1d
metallic radius =
2 met

The covalent radius of an atom is half the inter−nuclear

distance between two covalently bonded atoms.

• Covalent radius may be measured for most elements.

• Example: rCl = 0.099 nm
dcov
covalent radius = 1 dcov
2

The van der Waals’ radius of an atom is half the

inter−nuclear distance between the atoms which are not
chemically bonded. • •
• Van der Waal’s radius is most easily determined for
non−metals, and is particularly useful for the lighter noble
gases which do not form chemical bonds. dvdw
• Example: rAr = 0.192 nm
van der Waals’ radius = ½ d vdw

2025 JPJC JC1 H2 Chemistry (9476) 25 Topic 1: Atomic Structure

s block p block

d block

f block
26