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6 Methods of Investigation 117 Cross-Cultural Comparisons 128
Controlled Comparisons 130
Ethnographic Methods 118
Global Challenges and Opportunities
Ethnographic Fieldwork 118 The Changing Relationship Between
Problems and Issues in Field Research 120 Anthropologists and Indigenous Peoples 122
Fieldwork as a Rite of Passage 125 Concept Review Methods of
Ethnohistory 126 Investigation 132
Comparative Methods 128 Summary 132

Part Iii The Diversity of Culture

7 Culture and Nature: Interacting 8 Exchange in Economic

with the Environment 134 Systems 166
Understanding Interactions with Nature 135 Economic Systems 167
Hunting and Gathering 137 Reciprocity 169
Foraging and Culture 138 Generalized Reciprocity 169
What Happened to Hunters and Gatherers? 141 Balanced Reciprocity 170
Domestication of Plants and Animals 143 Negative Reciprocity 172
Origins of Domestication: Wheres and Whens 144 Reciprocity and Social Distance 173
Advantages and Costs of Cultivation 146 Redistribution 173
Horticulture 147 Market 175
Varieties of Horticulture 148 Money 175
Cultural Consequences of Horticulture 149 Market Exchange 177
Intensive Agriculture 150 Market Economies and Capitalism 177
Varieties of Intensive Agriculture 151 Productivity 181
Cultural Consequences of Intensive Agriculture 151 Globalization and Markets 182
Pastoralism 153 Concept Review Three Forms of Exchange in
Economic Systems 169
Nature and Culture in Preindustrial Times 156
Global Challenges and Opportunities
Industrialism 157 Globalization of Indigenous Products 184
Energy and Society 158
Summary 188
Consequences of Industrialism 158
Globalization of Industrialism 159
9 Marriages and Families 189
Globalization and the Environment 161
Some Definitions 190
Concept Review Major Forms of
Preindustrial Adaptations and Their Cultural Incest Taboos 192
Consequences 157 Marriage 195
Global Challenges and Opportunities Defining Marriage 195
Who Should Pay to Reduce Global Warming? 162 Functions of Marriage 197
Summary 164 Two Unusual Forms 198
vi contents

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 Variations in Marriage Beliefs Who’s an Aunt? Varieties
and Practices 199 of Kinship Terminology 234
Marriage Rules 199 Why Do Terminologies Differ? 236
How Many Spouses? 200 Where’s Our Backbone? 238
Polygyny 201
Global Challenges and Opportunities
Polyandry 205 Patrilineality and Globalization in China 222
Marriage Alliances 206
Concept Review Forms of Descent
Marital Exchanges 207 and Kinship 231
Bridewealth 207 Summary 239
Brideservice 208
Dowry 208
11 Gender in Comparative
Same-Sex Marriage and the Culture
Wars 209
Perspective 240
Postmarital Residence Patterns 211 Sex and Gender 241
Influences on Residence Patterns 212 Cultural Construction of Gender 242
Residence and Households 213 The Hua of Papua New Guinea 243
Kinship Diagrams 213 North American Constructions 244

Family and Household Forms 214 Multiple Gender Identities 245

Matrifocal Households 214 Native American Two Spirits 245
Extended Households 214 Hijra of Hindu India 248
Changes in Gender Identity Attitudes
Concept Review Terms for Kinship and Language 249
Groups 191
The Gendered Division of Labor 250
Global Challenges and Opportunities
Marriage and Family in Global Society: Understanding Major Patterns 251
The Case of Japan 202 Understanding Variability 256
Summary 216 Gender Stratification 258
Is Gender Stratification Universal? 259
10 Kinship and Descent 217 Influences on Gender Stratification 262
Gender Stratification in Modern Societies 267
Introducing Kinship 218
Concept Review Female and Male Differences
Why Study Kinship? 218 Affecting Division of Labor 253
Cultural Variations in Kinship 219
Global Challenges and Opportunities
Unilineal Descent 220 Bridal Photos in Taiwan: Globalization
Unilineal Descent Groups 224 and Localization 264
Descent Groups in Action 226 Summary 267
Nonunilineal Descent 229
Bilateral Kinship 229 12 The Organization
Cognatic Descent 230 of Political Life 269
Influences on Kinship Systems 231 Forms of Political Organization 270
Cultural Construction of Kinship 233 Bands 271
Logic of Cultural Constructions 233 Tribes 273
contents vii

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 Chiefdoms 275 14 Religion and Worldview 312
States 276
Inca Empire 277 Defining Religion 313
Beliefs About Supernatural Powers 313
Social Control and Law 281
Myths and Worldviews 314
Social Control 282
Rituals and Symbols 315
Law 282
Theories of Religion 316
Legal Systems 283
Intellectual or Cognitive Approaches 317
Self-Help Systems 283
Psychological Approaches 318
Court Systems 286
Sociological Approaches 320
Concept Review Political Organizations 271 Will Religion Disappear? 322
Global Challenges and Opportunities Supernatural Explanations
Multinational Corporations Versus National of Misfortune 323
Governments 278 Sorcery 324
Concept review Legal systems 283 Witchcraft 324
Summary 289 Interpretations of Sorcery
and Witchcraft 325
13 Social Inequality Varieties of Religious Organization 327
and Stratification 291 Individualistic Organizations 328
Shamanistic Organizations 329
Equalities and Inequalities 292
Communal Organizations 331
Three Systems 293 Ecclesiastical Organizations 333
Egalitarian Societies 294
Revitalization Movements 336
Ranked Societies 295
Melanesian Cargo Cults 336
Stratified Societies 296
Native American Movements 337
Castes in Traditional India 297 Fate of Revitalization Movements 340
Class in the United States 300 Concept Review Varieties of Religious
Maintaining Inequality 303 Organization 328
Ideologies 304 Global Challenges and Opportunities
American Secular Ideologies 305 Religious Diversity in the United States 338
Theories of Inequality 307 Summary 341
Functionalist Theory 307
Conflict Theory 308 15 Art and the Aesthetic 342
Who Benefits? 310 The Pervasiveness of Art 345
Concept Review Systems of Equality Forms of Artistic Expression 345
and Inequality 293
Body Arts 346
Global Challenges and Opportunities Visual Arts 349
Globalization and Inequality in China 298 Performance Arts 352
Summary 311 Art and Culture 355
Secular and Religious Art 355

viii contents

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 Art and Gender 357 Global Challenges and Opportunities
Social Functions of Art 357 The Market Economy and Traditional Visual
Arts 358
Concept Review Forms of Artistic
Expression 345 Summary 361

Part Iv Anthropology in the Global Community

16 Ethnicity and Ethnic Medical Anthropology 386

Scientific Medicine
Conflict 362 and Traditional Healing 387
Ethnic Groups 364 Population Growth 389
Situational Nature of Ethnic Identity 364 Anthropological Perspectives
Attributes of Ethnic Groups 365 on Population Growth 389
Fluidity of Ethnic Groups 367 Costs and Benefits of Children in LDCs 390
Types of Ethnic Groups 368
World Hunger 392
Civilizations 369 Scarcity or Inequality? 392
The Problem of Stateless Nationalities 370 Is Technology Transfer the Answer? 394
Conflict in Northern Ireland Agricultural Alternatives 396
and in Israel and Palestine 370 Anthropologists as Advocates 397
Conflict Between Ethnic Nationalities and Polit- Indigenous Peoples Today 398
ical Boundaries 371
Vanishing Knowledge 403
Responses to Ethnic Conflict 376 Medicines We Have Learned 404
Homogenization 377 Adaptive Wisdom 404
Segregation 379 Cultural Alternatives 406
Accommodation 379 Global Challenges and Opportunities
Results 380 The Question of Development 407
Consequences of Globalization 383 Summary 408
Concept Review Levels of Ethnic Identity 369
Global Challenges and Opportunities Glossary 410
The Global Economy, Migration, and Notes 417
Transnational Communities 372
Bibliography 426
Concept Review Responses to Ethnic
Differences 381 People and Cultures Index 438
Summary 384 Subject Index 443

17 World Problems and the

Practice of Anthropology 385
Applied Anthropology 386
Health and Health Care 386

contents ix

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Preface

P erhaps it is presumptuous to title any textbook

Humanity. The authors chose this title back in
1985, when we began working on the first edition.
We thought Humanity captures the distinctive feature
of anthropology—that it studies all the world’s peoples,
Finally, we want students and other newcomers to
anthropology to grasp the full significance of the old-
est anthropological lesson of all: that their own values,
beliefs, and actions are a product of their upbringing in
a particular human group rather than universal among
including those who lived in the prehistoric past, the all peoples. If understood properly and applied seri-
historic past, and the present day, as well as peoples ously, this principle leads individuals to question un-
who live in every world region. conscious assumptions and to view themselves as well
As a scholarly discipline, anthropology is very broad as other peoples through the complicated lens of cul-
in its scope and interests. Several generations of an- tural relativism.
thropologists have discovered a vast amount of infor- Globalization has become an increasingly impor-
mation about the human species. Paleoanthropologists tant theme throughout the last several editions. Each
are currently uncovering fossils and unwinding genetic of the 17 chapters includes a feature on globalization,
relationships that show how and when the human spe- choosing a topic that is relevant for the chapter’s con-
cies originated and evolved into modern Homo sapiens. tent. Features in various chapters deal with issues
Archaeologists are still digging into information about such as how globalization affects cultural diversity,
how prehistoric peoples lived their lives. language survival, global warming, family and mar-
Another subfield, cultural anthropology, is the main riage practices, inequality among nations, religious
subject of this book. Research done by cultural an- diversity in the United States, production and sale of
thropologists (fieldwork) often involves years of study art, and cultural and religious fundamentalism. Some
while living among some human community. Cultural discussions are primarily case studies, whereas others
anthropology describes and explains or interprets the present anthropological insights into the process or
fascinating cultural variability of the world’s peoples. In the results of globalization. Most chapters contain ma-
this text, we try to convey to students the life-enriching terial that is relevant for modern North America, such
and the educational value of discovering this variability. as climate change, recent changes in family life and
In the process, we hope students and other readers marriage practices, gender inequality, and religious
will experience a change in their attitudes about other accommodation.
cultures, about their own lives and nations, and about
humanity in general.
We also hope the book leads readers to think about New to the Eleventh Edition
their own identities as individuals, as members of a To those instructors who are previous users of
particular society with its traditions and ways of think- Humanity, the following summarizes the major changes
ing and acting, and as participants in an increasingly in the eleventh edition.
worldwide human community. To achieve this last Chapter 1 still introduces the four subdisciplines
goal, we discuss anthropological insights into some and discusses the importance of anthropological per-
current problems, such as ethnic conflicts, national spectives, methods, and factual knowledge about cul-
and global inequalities, hunger, religious intolerance, tural diversity. We have included new information on
and the survival of indigenous cultures and languages. human evolution. While retaining coverage of applied
As we describe the diversity in humanity’s cultures, we anthropology, we’ve updated the section on careers. We
suggest the implications of such diversity for contem- emphasize recent changes in anthropological interests
porary people and societies. and in research in modern societies and globalization.
x

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To illustrate the complexity of the relativistic perspec- provides information referred to extensively later in
tive, we add a new example of a Jarawa custom while the book.
retaining the example of female genital mutilation. In Chapter 8 (exchange) we include a new introduc-
The topical structure and themes of Chapter 2 tory vignette on the origin of credit cards to enhance
(culture) are intact. We continue to integrate terms student interest in the general topic. In covering reci-
like cultural identity, subcultures, roles, and social procity, redistribution, and market exchange forms, we
learning into an extended discussion of culture, with provide examples of each in the United States, using a
the goal of demonstrating that the concept of culture new example of the Affordable Care Act to illustrate
is more complicated than most people realize. New political arguments over redistribution. We move on to
material appears in the section titled “The Origins of describe capitalist economies, distinguishing between
Culture.” neoliberal/laissez-faire and social welfare capitalism
Chapter 3 (language) retains coverage of the dis- and their strengths and weaknesses. We have also
tinctive characteristics of language, structural linguis- added new material on global markets in the Global
tics, English’s incorporation of Native American words, Challenges and Opportunities feature.
sociolinguistics, and the relationship between culture In Chapter 9 (marriage and family), this edition in-
and language. Recent material appears about the use cludes the standard textbook topical structure: family
of language to acquire and enhance power, using ex- forms, incest taboos, problems of defining marriage,
amples from political speech in the American 2016 marriage forms and their implications, marital trans-
presidential campaign. The section titled “Language, actions, postmarital residence patterns, and household
Perceptions, and Worldview” now has a new and pro- forms. We have deleted the discussion of the avuncu-
vocative argument about how verb forms might affect local residence pattern to make room for an extensive
savings rates in countries with similar socioeconomic revision of the section “Same-Sex Marriage and the
conditions. We again emphasize relationships among Culture Wars,” which includes recent court decisions
culture, language, thought, and behavior over the tech- and reactions to them. We argue that anthropology’s
nical aspects of linguistics. relativistic and comparative perspective offer signifi-
Chapter 4 (cultural diversity and globalization) pro- cant contributions to these topics.
vides the historical and cultural context for later chap- Chapter 10 (kinship) also is standard, covering
ters that discuss diversity among the world’s peoples. forms of descent and kinship, influences on these
We have updated sections, added a new Concept forms, and kinship terminologies, with examples of
Review, and expanded the coverage of the globalization each topic. We give terminological systems as exam-
of academic training. ples of cultural constructions introduced in Chapter 2.
Chapter 5 (theory) continues its focus on two main The chapter concludes by discussing the implications
areas: (1) historical contacts between the West and of cultural diversity for recent and future changes in
Others that gave rise to anthropology, and (2) dis- marriage, family, and kinship forms and relationships.
tinctions between contemporary approaches, which The topics for Chapter 11 (gender) are unchanged
we categorize (broadly) as scientific and humanistic. from the last two editions. We have added new infor-
Where appropriate, we apply this distinction to ma- mation about how recognition of the complexity of gen-
terial in other chapters by stating the interpretations or der identity affects language, going beyond the obvious
explanations each broad approach would offer. LGBTQIA to include new child naming practices. The
Chapter 6 (methods) distinguishes between the ethnographic examples remain, but we have condensed
methods and goals of the main ways anthropologists some to reduce the length. Again, we suggest the rele-
learn about humanity: fieldwork and comparisons. vance of anthropological evidence about diversity and
Generally ethnographic fieldwork is the primary anthropological theorizing to modern life.
method used to describe a given people, in time and In Chapter 12 (political life), portions of the Global
space, whereas comparative methods are an essential Challenges and Opportunities feature have been ex-
part of efforts to explain or generalize. panded to include shell companies and tax haven coun-
In Chapter 7 (culture and environment) we updated tries; our discussion includes an examination of how
some factual material, including dates for the begin- these situations have allowed companies to increase
nings and spread of agriculture and information about their global economic power.
the 2015 Paris Accords on climate change. We have Chapter 13 (inequality and stratification) begins
rewritten sections to clarify their meaning and wider with a new vignette about the contrasting ideas of
implications. Like Chapters 2, 4, and 5, this chapter Bernie Sanders and Donald Trump about economic
pref ace
xi

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inequality. After describing contrasts between egali- Several pedagogical aids are intended to help stu-
tarian, ranked, and stratified (including caste) societ- dents understand and retain the material they have
ies, the chapter moves into stratification in the United just read. Each chapter begins with a set of five to eight
States. We update numerical data on the distribution Learning Objectives that focus on the key concepts,
of income and wealth in the United States, including ideas, and themes of the chapter. The learning objec-
numbers that bring home the extent to which eco- tives are tied to the end-of-chapter Summary. We
nomic inequalities have increased since 1980. The hope this helps students come away with a solid under-
distinction between religious and secular ideologies is standing of the main points of each chapter.
applied to ideas and beliefs in the United States and the We continue to include at least one Concept
West. After discussing the strengths and weaknesses Review in the chapters to condense ideas and make
of the functionalist and conflict theories, we attempt sharp distinctions in just a few words. A Glossary
to apply them to modern industrial society. We up- again is included at the end of the book. Key Terms in
dated numerical data in the Global Challenges and bold are defined immediately at the bottom of the page
Opportunities feature on China. where students first encounter them in the chapter.
In Chapter 14 (religion), in the “Sociological Anthropology is a highly visual discipline, and
Approaches” section, we added Richard Sosis’s idea that Humanity holds to the highest standards in providing
costly rituals function to demonstrate commitment to photographs, figures, and maps to illustrate the text.
group values and norms, noting its consistency with the Maps on the inside front cover show the location of
evolutionary psychology general theory (discussed in peoples and cultures mentioned in the book.
Chapter 5) For each theoretical approach we note that There are two indexes, one a traditional subject in-
religion creates as many cognitive, psychological, social dex and the other a list of peoples and cultures men-
problems as it allegedly alleviates. There is an entirely tioned in the book.
new section titled “Will Religion Disappear?” The section
“Varieties of Religious Organization” now discusses the
complexities of attempting to classify the great variety of
Resources
humanity’s religions into only a few forms or categories. Student Resources
The introductory discussion of art has been rewrit- CourseMate. The CourseMate for Peoples and Bailey’s
ten in Chapter 15 (art), otherwise the chapter is basically Humanity, eleventh edition, brings course concepts to
the same with the exception of the Global Challenges life with interactive learning, study, and exam prepara-
and Opportunities feature. This new box addresses the tion tools that support the printed textbook. Access an
question of how increased integration into the global integrated MindTap e-book, glossary, quizzes, videos,
economy and less expensive machine-made goods are and more in the CourseMate for Humanity, eleventh
changing the artistic visual traditions associated with edition. Go to [Link] to register or pur-
handmade items. chase access.
Additions to Chapter 16 (ethnicity) include new
and updated information on ethnic conflicts in the Instructor Resources
modern world. Online Instructor’s Manual with Test Bank. This
Chapter 17 (world problems and the practice of online supplement offers learning objectives, chapter
anthropology) continues to discuss anthropological outlines and summaries, key terms, suggested sup-
insights on health and health care, population growth, plementary lectures, discussion questions, and more.
and world hunger. We have also updated the seemingly The instructor’s manual also includes updated refer-
unending struggles of people like the San, Dongria ences to relevant news articles, films, and videos for
Kondh, and Kayapo to protect their lands. each chapter. The test bank provides approximately
40 multiple-choice, 15 true/false, and 5 essay ques-
tions per chapter.
Special Features Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero.
The boxed features called A Closer Look are eliminated A flexible, online system, Cognero allows you to au-
in this edition, in the interest of space and continuity. thor, edit, and manage test bank content from multiple
Each chapter still contains a feature on globalization, Cengage Learning solutions. Cognero also offers you
titled Global Challenges and Opportunities, a label the ability to create multiple tests in an instant and de-
that reflects the focus of most of their content. A photo liver them from your LMS, your classroom, or wher-
accompanies each feature. ever you want!
xii Preface

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 Online PowerPoint Slides. These vibrant, fourth, delivers an excellent introduction to the field of
Microsoft PowerPoint lecture slides for each chapter anthropology and the contributions it makes to under-
will assist you with your lecture by providing concept standing the world around us.
coverage using images, figures, and tables directly from Human–Environment Interactions: New
the textbook. Directions in Human Ecology. This module by Kathy
CourseReader: Anthropology. CourseReader: Galvin begins with a brief discussion of the history
Anthropology is a fully customizable online reader that and core concepts of the field of human ecology and
provides access to hundreds of readings and audio and the study of how humans interact with the natural en-
video selections from multiple disciplines. This easy- vironment. It then looks in-depth at how the environ-
to-use solution allows you to select exactly the content ment influences cultural practices (environmental de-
you need for your courses and is loaded with conve- terminism), as well as how aspects of culture, in turn,
nient pedagogical features like highlighting, printing, affect the environment. Human behavioral ecology is
note taking, and audio downloads. You have the free- presented within the context of natural selection and
dom to assign individualized content at an affordable how ecological factors influence the development of
price. The CourseReader: Anthropology is the perfect cultural and behavioral traits, and how people subsist
complement to any class. in different environments. The module concludes with
The Wadsworth Anthropology Video Library a discussion of resilience and global change as a result
Volumes I–IV. Enhance your lectures with new video of human–environment interactions. This module, in
clips from the BBC Motion Gallery and CBS News. chapter-like print format, can be packaged for free with
Addressing topics from the four fields, these videos are the text.
divided into short segments, perfect for introducing Medical Anthropology in Applied Perspective
key concepts with footage sourced from some of the Module. This freestanding module is actually a com-
most remarkable collections in the world. plete text chapter, featuring the same quality of peda-
AIDS in Africa DVD. Expand your students’ global gogy and written content in Cengage’s cultural anthro-
perspective of HIV/AIDS with this award-winning doc- pology texts. See your sales representative for informa-
umentary series focused on controlling HIV/AIDS in tion on bundling the module with this text.
southern Africa. Films focus on caregivers in the faith
community; how young people share messages of hope
through song and dance; the relationship of HIV/AIDS Acknowledgments
to gender, poverty, stigma, education, and justice; and Since the first edition was published in 1988, Humanity
the story of two HIV-positive women helping others. (the book, not the species) has benefited enormously
Classic Readings in Cultural Anthropology, from reviewers. Some reviewers are long-term users of
Fourth Edition. Practical and insightful, Classic the text, whereas others have not adopted it for their
Readings in Cultural Anthropology, fourth edition, is a classes. Of course, we have never been able to incor-
concise and accessible reader that presents a core se- porate all their suggestions for improvement, or the
lection of historical and contemporary works that have book would be twice as long as it is. But, over the last
been instrumental in shaping anthropological thought 25 years, we have added, subtracted, updated, re-
and research over the past decades. Carefully edited thought, and reorganized most of the book based on
by Dr. Gary Ferraro, the fourth edition includes classic reviewers’ comments. We thank all of them.
readings from the disciplines of cultural anthropology For the eleventh edition, both authors thank the re-
and linguistics. Readings are organized around eight viewers listed here (their identities were unknown to us
topics that closely mirror most introductory textbooks until publication):
and are selected from scholarly works on the basis of Frank Araujo, American River College
their enduring themes and contributions to the disci- Leslie Berry, De Anza College
pline. These selections allow students to further explore Heidi Bludau, Monmouth University
anthropological perspectives on such key topics as cul- Deborah Boehm, University of Nevada, Reno
ture, language and communication, ecology and eco- Sheilah Clarke Ekong, Univesity of Missouri,
nomics, marriage and family, gender, politics and so- St. Louis
cial control, supernatural beliefs, and issues of culture Michael Dietz, College of DuPage
change. The book also addresses pressing topics such Anna Dixon, University of South Florida,
as globalization, ethnic violence, environmental issues, St. Petersburg
and more. Classic Readings in Cultural Anthropology, Phyllisa Eisentraut, Santa Barbara City College
pref ace
xiii

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 Becky Floyd, Cypress College Scott Vandehey, Linfield College
Henri Gooren, Oakland University Mary Vermillion, Saint Louis University
Jean Hatcherson, Western Connecticut State Stephen Wiley, Normandale Community College
University Andrew Workinger, University of Tennessee,
Rachel Hoerman, University of Hawaii Manoa Chattanooga
Bennett Judkins, Southern Adventist University Stephen Zolvinski, Indian University Northwest
Ruurdje Laarhoven, Hawaii Pacific University Although we were unable to make all the changes
Paul Langenwalter, Biola University these scholars suggested, many of their comments are
Vienna Lewin, North Central University incorporated into the text. Their comments that the
Aurolyn Luykx, University of Texas at El Paso book needs to be more explicit about the relevance of
Paul McDowell, Santa Barbara City College anthropology in today’s world were especially influential.
Krista Moreland, Bakersfield College Both authors have benefited from the suggestions
Kevin Pittle, Biola University of colleagues and friends. Jim again thanks Thomas
Maureen Salsitz, California State University, Love (Linfield College) for help with the text on energy
Fullerton; Cypress College; Orange Coast in Chapter 7 and to Stacia Bensyl (Missouri Western
College State University) for assistance with Chapter 11.
Suzanne Spencer-Wood, Oakland University Garrick thanks James Faris for his assistance on
Erin Stiles, University of Nevada, Reno Nuba body painting, and Robert Canfield for help-
Cindi Sturtzsreetharan, California State University, ing to clarify some points on the Pushtun and
Sacramento Afghanistan.

xiv Preface

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

James (Jim) Peoples is currently Professor Garrick Bailey received his BA in history from
and Chairperson of Sociology/Anthropology and the University of Oklahoma and his MA and PhD
Director of East Asian Studies at Ohio Wesleyan in anthropology from the University of Oregon.
University in Delaware, Ohio. Peoples has taught His research interests include ethnohistory, world
at the University of California– Davis and the systems theory, and ethnicity and conflict, with
University of Tulsa in Oklahoma, among other a primary focus on the native peoples of North
colleges and universities. He received a BA from America. His publications include Navajo: The
the University of California–Santa Cruz and a PhD Reservation Years (with Roberta Bailey); Changes in
from the University of California–Davis. His main Osage Social Organization 1673–1906; The Osage and
research interests are human ecology, cultures of the the Invisible World; and Traditions of the Osage and
Pacific Islands, and cultures of East Asia. His first Art of the Osage (with Dan Swan, John Nunley, and
book, Island in Trust (1985), describes his fieldwork Sean Standingbear). He also was editor of Indians in
on the island of Kosrae in the Federated States of Contemporary Society, Volume 2 of the Handbook of
Micronesia. His latest project is a coauthored book North American Indians, Smithsonian Institution.
describing the prehistory, history, and contemporary Bailey has been a Senior Fellow in Anthropology
culture of Kosrae Island in Micronesia, to which at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington and
he most recently returned in July and August a Weatherhead Resident Scholar at the School of
2013. Since joining the faculty of Ohio Wesleyan American Research in Santa Fe. Actively engaged
University in 1988, he has taught courses on in contemporary Native American issues, he has
East Asia, the Pacific, human ecology, cultural served as a member of the Indian Health Advisory
anthropology, the anthropology of religion, world Committee, Department of Health, Education, and
hunger, the prehistory of North America, and Native Welfare; of the Glen Canyon Environmental Review
Americans of the southwestern United States. Committee, National Research Council; and of the
Since 2010, Peoples has been Secretary of the Japan Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation
Studies Association. When not teaching, writing, or Act (NAGPRA) Review Committee, Department of
attending meetings, he enjoys fly fishing, traveling, the Interior. Bailey has taught anthropology at the
and gardening. University of Tulsa since 1968.

xv

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Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Michael Doolittle/The Image Works

1 The Study of Humanity

▴ Subfields of Anthropology Cultural Anthropology Today

Cultural anthropology is the
discipline that studies human Biological/Physical Anthropology Anthropological Perspectives
cultural diversity, usually by Archaeology on Cultures
visiting people where they live Cultural Anthropology Holistic Perspective
and interacting with them Anthropological Linguistics Comparative Perspective
firsthand.
Applications of Anthropology Relativistic Perspective
Applied Anthropology Some Lessons of Anthropology
Careers in Anthropology

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 Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1 LIST the four major subfields of anthropology and describe their primary interests.
2 DISCUSS how anthropology differs from other disciplines that also study humans.
3 EXPLAIN some of the practical uses of anthropology in solving human problems.
4 DISCUSS how cultural anthropology has changed in the last four decades.
5 UNDER STAND the meaning and importance of the holistic, comparative, and relativistic
perspectives.
6 DESCRIBE the wider lessons one can learn from studying anthropology.

W hat makes humans different from other

animals? What is human nature, or is
there even such a thing? How and why do
the peoples of the world differ, both biologically and
culturally? Have affluent people in industrialized,
prohibit eating. In brief, anthropologists of one kind
or another are likely to investigate almost everything
about human beings: our biological evolution,
cuisines, values, art styles, behaviors, languages,
religions, and so forth.
urbanized nations sacrificed something important in Anthropologists, then, study many different
their quest for what many consider the good life? What dimensions of humanity. The broad scope of
are the implications of living in a world whose diverse anthropology is perhaps the one feature that most
peoples have recently become connected by global distinguishes it from other fields that also study humans,
corporations and international communications? These such as psychology and history. Anthropologists are
are just a few questions investigated by anthropology, interested in all human beings, whether living or
the academic discipline that studies all of humanity. dead, Asian or African or European. No people are too
Almost everything about human beings interests isolated to escape the anthropologist’s notice. We also
anthropologists. We want to know when, where, and are interested in many different aspects of humans,
how humanity originated and how we evolved into including their genetic makeup, family lives, political
what we are today. Anthropologists try to explain systems, relations with nature, and beliefs about the
the many differences among the world’s cultures, dead. No dimension of humankind, from skin color
such as why people in one culture believe they get to dance traditions, falls outside the interests of
sick because the souls of witches devour their livers, anthropology.
whereas people in another think that illness can result
from tarantulas flinging tiny magical darts into their
bodies. We want to know why most Argentinians Subfields of Anthropology
and Australians like beef, which devout Hindus and Obviously, no single anthropologist can master all
Buddhists refuse to eat. We are curious about why these subjects. Therefore, most anthropologists spe-
some New Guinea peoples ritually engorge themselves cialize in one of four principal subfields: biological (or
with pork—the same animal flesh that some religions physical) anthropology, archaeology, cultural anthro-
originating in the Middle East hold to be unclean and pology, and anthropological linguistics. (The Concept
Review summarizes the primary interests of each
subfield.) A fifth area, applied anthropology, uses an-
thropological methods and insights to help solve re-
al-world problems. Because cultural anthropology is
anthropology Academic discipline that studies
the primary subject of this book, here we briefly sum-
humanity from a broad biological and cultural
marize the other subfields and describe some of their
perspective.
major findings.
2 CHAPTER 1 The Study of Humanity

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 Concept Review Primary Interests of the Four Subfields of Anthropology

Physical/Biological Comparisons of human anatomy and behavior with other primate species; physical (genetic)
variation among human populations; biological evolution of Homo sapiens

Archaeology Excavation of material remains in prehistoric sites to reconstruct early human ways of life; study of
remains in historic sites to learn more about literate peoples

Cultural Differences and similarities in contemporary and historically recent cultures; causes and conse­
quences of sociocultural change; impacts of globalization and contacts on the world’s peoples

Anthropological Relationships between language and culture; role of language and speaking in social life of various
Linguistics peoples; how language might shape perceptions and thoughts

Biological/Physical Anthropology behavior of monkeys and apes, the physical (including

genetic) variations between different human popula-
Biological (also called physical) anthropology is tions, and the biological evolution of the human species.
closely related to the biological sciences in its goals and Within biological anthropology, researchers in
methods. It focuses on subjects such as the anatomy and primatology study the evolution, anatomy, adapta-
tion, and social behavior of primates, the taxonomic
order to which humans belong. Research on group-
living monkeys and apes has added significantly to the
understanding of many aspects of human behavior,
including tool use, sexuality, parenting, cooperation,
male–female differences, and aggression. Field studies
of African chimpanzees and gorillas, the two apes ge-
netically most similar to humans, have been especially
fruitful sources of hypotheses and knowledge.
In the 1960s, famous British primatologist Jane
Goodall was the first to observe toolmaking among
African chimpanzees. Chimps intentionally modified
sticks to probe holes in termite mounds. When termite
soldiers locked their jaws onto the intruding objects,
the chimps withdrew the probes and devoured the
tasty insects. Goodall observed adult chimps teach-
ing their young how to probe for termites, showing
that humanity’s closest animal relatives are capable of
learning complex behaviors. Some chimpanzee groups
wave tree branches in aggressive displays against other
groups. Some wad up leaves to use as sponges to soak
up drinking water. Working in West Africa, other re-
searchers have observed some chimp groups using
Steve Bloom Images/Alamy

biological (physical) anthropology Major subfield

of anthropology that studies the biological dimensions of
humans and other primates.
One of the most surprising discoveries about the great apes
is that they commonly use and even make tools. These two primatology Part of biological anthropology that studies
Ugandan chimpanzees are inserting a twig into a termite primates, including monkeys and apes.
mound to access insects for food.
CHAPTER 1 The Study of Humanity 3

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heavy round stones as hammers to crack open hard- became harmful. In high latitudes, melanin reduces the
shelled nuts. The chimps select stones of the proper penetration of sunlight in the skin, reducing its ability
shape and weight, control the force of their blows so to make vitamin D. Thus, dark pigmentation is harmful
that the nut does not shatter, and often leave the tools in high latitudes like Europe and Siberia, and over many
under nut trees for future use. centuries skin grew lighter (“whiter”) in such regions.
Other apes also use tools. Using sticks, African go- Human populations living in high altitudes also have
rillas in the wild gauge the depth of water and even lay evolved physiological adaptations. Andean peoples of
down tree trunks to cross deep pools. Researchers have South America have relatively large lungs and high levels
seen one young female gorilla use stones to smash open of hemoglobin. The blood of Tibetans circulates more
a palm nut to get at the oil inside. rapidly than most other people, allowing their muscles
These and other observations of chimpanzees and and organs to function more efficiently at elevations
gorillas dramatically altered our understanding of over 14,000 feet. Such populations evolved physiologi-
human–animal differences. Prior to such studies, mak- cal adaptations to supply oxygen to their tissues.
ing tools was widely considered to be one of the things Another aim of physical anthropology is under-
humans could do that other animals could not. Now standing when and how the human species evolved
that we know that toolmaking is not unique to human- from prehuman, apelike ancestors. Paleoanthropology
ity, we look at other reasons for human uniqueness. investigates human biological evolution. Over decades
Biological anthropologists also investigate human of searching for fossils and carrying out meticulous
variation, studying how and why human populations laboratory studies, paleoanthropologists have recon-
vary physically due to genetically inherited differences. structed the evolution of human anatomy: limbs, feet,
All humanity belongs to a single species, which taxon- hands, skull, and other physical features.
omists call Homo sapiens. One of the most important In the late 1970s, paleoanthropologists began to use
findings of anthropology is that the physical/genetic new methods to investigate human evolution. Scientists
similarities among the world’s peoples far outweigh in the field of molecular genetics can now sequence
the differences. Nonetheless, peoples whose ancestral DNA—the genetic material by which hereditary traits are
homelands lie in Africa, Asia, Europe, Australia, the transmitted between generations. By comparing DNA
Pacific Islands, and the Americas were once more iso- sequences, geneticists can estimate how closely differ-
lated than they are today. During this time, they evolved ent species are related. Studies comparing the genetic
differences in overall body and facial form, height, skin sequences of African apes with humans show that hu-
color, blood chemistry, and other genetically deter- mans share 97.7 percent of their DNA with gorillas and
mined features. Specialists in human variation mea- 98.7 percent with chimpanzees and bonobos. DNA from
sure and try to explain the differences and similarities modern humans and DNA sampled from bones of the ex-
among the world’s peoples in such physical characteris- tinct human species Neandertal are about 99.5 percent the
tics. (We return to “racial” variation in Chapter 2.) same. Similarities in the DNA of two or more species are
Often, genetic differences are related to the environ- evidence that they share a common evolutionary ancestor.
ment in which a people or their ancestors lived. Consider Also, the more similar the DNA between two or more spe-
skin color. When exposed to sunlight, human skin man- cies, the less time has elapsed since their divergence from
ufactures vitamin D, a necessary nutrient. The melanin a common ancestor. Thus, anthropologists study DNA se-
existing in human skin produces the color our eyes per- quences to estimate how long ago species separated.
ceive as dark. High levels of melanin protect darker skin Recent scientific work shows that the DNA of
against sun damage, so melanin usually is beneficial in many modern humans resulted from our ancestors’
tropical environments, where sunlight is most intense. interbreeding with now-extinct human species. Most
However, as humans migrated into more temperate re- people who are not African or African-derived have a
gions tens of thousands of years ago, too much melanin small percentage of DNA from Neandertals. (Why not
Africans too? Because Neandertal humans never lived
in Africa.) Even more surprising is a 2016 finding that
human variation Physical differences among human another extinct human species, called Denisovan, also
populations; an interest of physical anthropologists. interbred with the human branch now represented by
paleoanthropology Specialization within biological you and me. Some Melanesian people of the south-
anthropology that investigates the biological evolution of
western Pacific have higher percentages of Denisovan
the human species.
DNA than people in other world regions. It is interest-
ing (and food for thought) that the evolutionary line
4 CHAPTER 1 The Study of Humanity

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Gordon Gahan/National Geographic Creative

Paleoanthropologists use evidence from laboratory research on DNA as well as fossil discoveries. Here paleoanthropologist
Richard Leakey collaborates with a Kenyan in piecing together the skull of a human ancestor.

that led to modern humans bore offspring with two have descended from an earlier human ancestor and
other human lines that went extinct. became smaller after migrating to Flores, due to the is-
Decades ago, Neandertals were depicted as thickly land’s limited resources. Such dwarfism is well known
muscled humans who walked upright but had only the among other species.
rudiments of technology and culture. Today’s paleoan- Through discovering and analyzing fossils, com-
thropologists have a different view and recent research parisons of DNA sequences, and other methods, the
suggests they made significant accomplishments. Most outlines of human evolution are becoming clear. Most
recently, in 2016 archaeologists published evidence that scholars agree that the evolutionary line leading to
Neandertals living over 170,000 years ago constructed modern humans split from the lines leading to modern
structures deep inside a cave in France. They broke off African apes (chimpanzees and gorillas) by 6 million
hundreds of stalagmites and arranged them into six years ago, but the date of this separation is likely to
roughly circular structures. The structures were over change with additional research.
1,000 feet from the cave’s entrance, so the builders must Most biological anthropologists work in univer-
have used fire to provide light for their constructions. sities or museums as teachers, researchers, writers,
Back in 2003, researchers unearthed bones of an ex- and curators. But many also apply their knowledge
tinct human relative that was so short—around 4 feet of human anatomy to practical matters. For instance,
tall—that they nicknamed it “the Hobbit.” This species specialists in forensic anthropology work for or con-
so far has been found only on Flores, a tiny island in sult with law enforcement agencies, where they help
Indonesia. In 2016, scientists announced the discov-
ery of a jawbone and six teeth of another small human
relative on the same island. These remains are about forensic anthropology Specialization within physical
700,000 years old, which makes them far too ancient anthropology that analyzes and identifies human remains.
to be a member of our own species. “Hobbits” might
CHAPTER 1 The Study of Humanity 5

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Unit 1: Case studies and real-world applications

Learning Objective 1: Practical applications and examples
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 2: Best practices and recommendations
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 3: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 4: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 4: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 5: Case studies and real-world applications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 5: Current trends and future directions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Methodology 2: Interdisciplinary approaches
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 11: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 16: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Quiz 3: Best practices and recommendations
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 22: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 24: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 24: Practical applications and examples
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 26: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 26: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 28: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 29: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 29: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Section 4: Case studies and real-world applications
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 31: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 39: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Background 5: Experimental procedures and results
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 41: Literature review and discussion
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 42: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 44: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 44: Experimental procedures and results
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 47: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 49: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Part 6: Historical development and evolution
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 51: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 52: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 53: Case studies and real-world applications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 54: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 55: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 55: Practical applications and examples
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 57: Experimental procedures and results
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 58: Literature review and discussion
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 59: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 60: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Module 7: Research findings and conclusions
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 63: Literature review and discussion
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 69: Best practices and recommendations
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 70: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Methodology 8: Practical applications and examples
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 78: Literature review and discussion
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 79: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 80: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Discussion 9: Fundamental concepts and principles
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 84: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 85: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 85: Current trends and future directions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 86: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 88: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice 10: Best practices and recommendations
Practice Problem 90: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 92: Practical applications and examples
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 94: Literature review and discussion
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 95: Ethical considerations and implications
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 96: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 96: Study tips and learning strategies
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 97: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 99: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Unit 11: Comparative analysis and synthesis
Practice Problem 100: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 103: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 103: Ethical considerations and implications
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 108: Study tips and learning strategies
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 109: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
References 12: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 111: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 113: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 115: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 119: Best practices and recommendations
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Appendix 13: Learning outcomes and objectives
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 121: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 122: Case studies and real-world applications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 123: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 124: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
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