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Exhibits

Part I. Prepared for the Worst? The Dilemmas of Crisis Management

Case 1: Hurricane Katrina

Subcase A

Exhibit 1A-1 Metropolitan New Orleans and Lake Pontchartrain

Exhibit 1A-2 Greater New Orleans levees, floodwalls, and canals system
Exhibit 1A-3 Louisiana emergency evacuation map
Exhibit 1A-4 National Incident Management System framework
Exhibit 1A-5 Sample Joint Field Office organization during natural disasters
Exhibit 1A-6 Emergency support functions
Subcase B

Exhibit 1B-1 New Orleans area parishes

Exhibit 1B-2 Orleans Parish neighborhoods
Exhibit 1B-3 Metropolitan New Orleans elevations
Subcase C

Exhibit 1C-1 Activated National Guard personnel serving in Louisiana and Mississippi,
2005

Case 2: SARS in Toronto

Subcase A

Exhibit 2A-1 Acronyms

Subcase B

Exhibit 2B-1 Epidemiological curve of the Toronto SARS outbreak

Part II. Structuring Crisis Response

Exhibit II-1 Basic functional structure of Incident Command System

Case 3: The 1992 Los Angeles Riots

Subcase A

Exhibit 3A-1 Map of Los Angeles Police Department Bureaus and South Central Los
Angeles

8
Exhibit 3A-2 Emergency Operations Organization chart, City of Los Angeles
Exhibit 3A-3 Organization of the Los Angeles Police Department
Subcase C

Exhibit 3C-1 Rules of engagement

Case 4: The Baltimore Tunnel Fire of 2001

Subcase A

Exhibit 4A-1 Howard Street Tunnel area

Subcase B

Exhibit 4B-1 Train derailment traffic advisory—road closures

Case 5: The 9/11 Pentagon Emergency

Subcase A

Exhibit 5A-1 Initial triage and treatment sites at the Pentagon

Exhibit 5A-2 Basic Incident Command System structure

Part III. Adapting to Novelty

Case 6: The Hurricane Floyd Evacuation in Florida

Subcase A

Exhibit 6A-1 Florida roadways

Exhibit 6A-2 Hurricane Floyd evacuation assessment: Transportation/clearance time data
summary (for selected counties)

Case 9: Wal-Mart’s Response to Hurricane Katrina

Subcase A

Exhibit 9A-1 Wal-Mart organization chart, 2005

Exhibit 9A-2 Map of New Orleans Hurricane Katrina impact area
Exhibit 9A-3 Additional Wal-Mart contributions to the Katrina relief effort

Part IV. Improving Performance: Dealing with Novelty and Cognitive Bias

Case 10: The Forest Service and Transitional Fires

Exhibit 10-1 Standard firefighting orders

Part V. Anticipating Disaster: Event Planning

Case 12: Security Preparations for the 1996 Centennial Olympic Games
Subcase A

Exhibit 12A-1 Acronyms

Exhibit 12A-2 The new Olympic Support Group planning structure

9
Exhibit 12A-3 Map of the Atlanta Olympic ring
Subcase B

Exhibit 12B-1 Timeline of terrorist attacks preceding the Olympics, 1993–1996

Subcase C

Exhibit 12C-1 Timeline of the 911 call (abridged transcript), July 28, 1996

Case 14: The Seattle Millennium Security Threat

Subcase A

Exhibit 14A-1 The Seattle and Vancouver area

Case 15: Security Planning for the 2004 Democratic National Convention
Subcase A

Exhibit 15A-1 Boston Democratic National Convention Steering Committee members

and subcommittees
Exhibit 15A-2 FleetCenter and the Boston area
Subcase B

Exhibit 15B-1 Partial list of operational platforms

Conclusion: High Performance in Emergencies: Two Modes of Operation

Exhibit C-1 Comparison of response modes for routine emergencies and crises

10
Preface

D evastating crisis events of massive size, which we refer to as landscape-scale disasters, have been occurring
with distressing regularity—notably the tsunami that hit South Asia at the end of 2004, thought to
have taken over 300,000 lives (more than two-thirds of them in the first hour, principally in one location);
Hurricane Katrina on the Gulf Coast of the United States; the earthquake in Pakistan in late 2005; Cyclone
Nargis in Myanmar; and the devastating snowfalls and Wenchuan earthquake, both in China in 2008.
Smaller-scale emergency events, like any number of serious transportation accidents or the 2008 Mumbai
terror attacks, directly affect a smaller number of people than do large natural disasters, but they nonetheless
create—indeed, are sometimes designed to create—high levels of fear and disruption. Such events frequently
dominate the headlines and force us to think about whether we as individuals and society as a whole are
prepared for disaster and ready to cope with the consequences. Perhaps because these events are so salient,
how effectively we handle them often becomes a defining characterization of both our values and our
competence.
What can we do in advance to prepare to respond to major emergency events? What forms of organization
are most likely to be helpful and effective? What approaches to training and equipping responders and
codifying procedures have the best chance of achieving productive results? What kinds of behavior are most
valuable and effective “in the moment”—that is, during rapidly unfolding, urgent, and high-consequence
events?
These are complex questions, and they yield no simple answers. A great many good treatments of
emergency management describe methods of organization, training, and response procedures. They range
from highly technical manuals focusing on specific kinds of events (such as wildland fires or floods) or on
specific forms of response (such as search and rescue following earthquakes) to broader treatments on how to
organize the response to a major event through more general approaches such as the incident management
system. In these works, readers will find descriptions of historical events, well-developed theories of how
responses should be designed and executed, and cogent advice about both preparation and response. In our
research and teaching about crisis management, we often use materials of this kind, and we are grateful to
have them. We find, however, that the descriptions of events provided in these treatments tend to be relatively
spare, so that they constitute illustrations rather than the central subject of the work. Given that these works
are principally concerned with developing more general frameworks, their use of compressed examples seems
fair enough—but it often leaves us wanting richer, more complete descriptions of the events to inform and
expand our thinking and make our teaching more salient. For students (and teachers) who never have
experienced disaster situations firsthand, it may be hard to identify with the conditions that prevail or the

11
challenges faced by those enmeshed in such events—and we find that deeper, more comprehensive
descriptions can help all of us get a more vivid sense of these dramatic circumstances.
On the other hand, we can also find quite detailed treatments of individual crisis events, with rich,
comprehensive descriptions of how the events unfolded, the sequence of both the damage and the emergency
response, and the flow of consequences emanating from the disaster. These accounts—written from first-
person or journalistic perspectives—frequently provide an excellent understanding of the evolution of the
events. But they typically do not illustrate or provide much data about the relationship between the emergency
organization structures and concepts of emergency management, on the one hand, and the performance and
effectiveness of the response, on the other.
This book—a case-based examination of crisis and emergency management—attempts to fill the gap
between these genres by providing detailed cases about specific emergency events in the context of discussions
about concepts, terminology, hypotheses, and theories about emergency management. In our teaching, we
find that the depth of the event descriptions in the cases we have included in this book bring these historical
events alive in the classroom, galvanizing both our own and our students’ interest. But we also find that we
need to put these cases in a teaching context in which we examine well-organized ideas about how
emergencies differ from one another, what kinds of responses are necessary, and how different forms of
organization and behaviors (or the lack thereof) contribute to successful (or less successful) performance and
results. In that way, we can draw more deeply on the rich material these cases provide to guide the work of
future emergency managers and, more broadly, to inform both their colleagues in government and the citizens
who support their efforts.
There are several ways that instructors and students can use the case studies presented in this book in a
classroom, but two are probably most common. First, the cases can be used as detailed illustrations of concepts
and theories that already have been presented to students to show how they play out in specific circumstances.
Most of the teaching in this approach then focuses on the abstract concepts, with some class time allocated to
explore how they are demonstrated or illustrated by the events of the associated cases. (This is sometimes
referred to as a “deductive” approach, where concepts are developed from first principles and then conclusions
are deduced or applied to illustrations.) In teaching the “wisdom of crowds” concept, for example, which can
be illustrated by the case describing the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Team B,
“CDC Develops Its ‘Team B’” (Case 11), the discussion will first focus on the theoretical underpinnings of
the “wisdom of crowds” idea. Once that has been fully developed as a concept, the discussion will turn to the
Team B case:“How does the CDC’s experience with Team B illustrate the advantages and the difficulties of a
‘wisdom of crowds’ approach?”
The alternative—which is the approach that we use in most of our teaching—is to begin by discussing the
case itself, drawing out its potential implications for the concepts and theories, which will be examined in
detail only after the event-based discussion. In this approach, the case is central to the discussion, but the ideas
are central to the learning. (This is sometimes referred to by case-based instructors as an “inductive” approach;
the ideas and commentary about the ideas emerge from the cases.) In the class session about the CDC and
Team B, the class focuses on the case without first concentrating on the concepts. An instructor may begin by
asking students to examine the sequence of devices used by the CDC at different times in different

12
circumstances. “How did the problems they were confronting differ from one another? Why did they use
different approaches to Team B in these different circumstances? How well did they work? For which kinds of
challenges is the Team B approach most likely to be useful?” Students can thus explore the issues in the case,
forming their own ideas and impressions about what worked and what did not. After working on the events in
the case, the class can turn back to the conceptual issues: “What does this tell us about the general idea of the
‘wisdom of crowds’ approach?” Collateral readings about the concepts may be assigned along with the case
study or can be introduced after the case has been discussed.
Using either approach, both the concepts and the case examples can be examined in detail. To aid this
process, we have provided some additional material. Introductions to each of the five sections of the book
highlight and succinctly develop the main analytic themes of the sections. Brief introductions to each case
study set up its key issues, and suggested discussion questions guide the students’ reading of each case. In
addition, lists of key actors and chronologies of the main events are presented at the end of each case for
student reference during and after reading.A concluding chapter summarizes the major themes of the book
and places them in the perspective of two modes of response, which we term routine emergencies and crisis
emergencies. Also, teaching notes and PowerPoint lecture slides created by the authors are available from CQ
Press to assist faculty in the classroom use of these case studies.
Perhaps the essential point: using a well-developed set of principles and a collection of detailed case
examples together, an instructor and class can produce a much richer, more complete, more interesting, and
ultimately more satisfying examination of the key features of crisis management and leadership. That was our
fundamental purpose in developing these cases for our own teaching and the primary reason for collecting
these cases to share with other faculty and their students. We hope that this book helps you understand the
nature of these critical events better and helps you figure out how better to prepare for and respond to those
that still lie in our collective future.

Acknowledgments
Early in our careers as faculty members teaching about public management and leadership, we became
intrigued by cases about crisis situations because they offered a degree of clarity about success and failure that
is unavailable in cases about more ordinary circumstances. Two decades later, in the late 1990s, we became
more focused on the management problems of effective emergency response. We began working together on
crisis management issues in 2001. Together we founded a Harvard Kennedy School research and teaching
program— Emergency Preparedness, Crisis Management, and Disaster Recovery. Today that program is
deeply involved in a number of executive education initiatives; a diverse set of research projects; advisory work
in several cities; and, most pertinent here, curriculum development.
As we look toward publication of this volume, we recognize with gratitude how many people and
institutions have provided support and encouragement as these case studies were written, tested in the
classroom, and revised. We can say—with no reservations whatsoever—that this book would never have been
produced without their involvement.
Perhaps our greatest debt is to the “sources”: the many officials, responders, journalists, and other
participants and observers who granted personal interviews to the case writers. Generous with their time and

13
patient in working with the researchers, these people were also, in most cases, very candid and helpful in
securing additional information. Almost to a person, they were motivated by a desire to help others learn from
their experiences and improve the emergency management system. All of us involved in producing this book
thank them for their willingness to participate.
We owe another enormous debt to the extremely talented case writers who researched and wrote these
studies. We commissioned each of these cases, helped define their scope and focus in concert with their
authors, and worked with the authors in revising drafts, but the case writers conducted their research and
writing very independently. The results on view in this book are attributable to these authors’ incredibly
dedicated work:

Howard Husock, now vice president of policy research at the Manhattan Institute and director of its
Social Entrepreneurship Initiative, was for many years the director of the Harvard Kennedy School Case
Study Program. His thoughtful advice and firm editorial hand are visible in most of the cases in this
volume, and he is the author of one of them.
Esther Scott is the editor at the case program.
Pamela Varley is a senior case writer.
Kirsten Lundberg, after her years at the case program, is now director of the Knight Case Studies
Initiative at the Columbia University School of Journalism.
Susan Rosegrant, also a longtime staff member at the case program, now teaches writing at the
University of Michigan’s Residential College and works at the university’s Institute for Social Research.
John Buntin, formerly at the case program, is now a staff writer for Governing magazine and a coauthor
of Governing States and Localities and author of the forthcoming L.A. Noir: The Struggle for the Soul of
America’s Most Seductive City.
David Tannenwald, a recent Harvard College graduate, wrote his case as an undergraduate research
assistant.
Jerry Williams, since retiring as national director of the Fire and Aviation Management Program at the
U.S. Forest Service, has conducted research on wildland fire policy.

Another indispensable partner was David Giles, a senior research associate in our Program on Emergency
Preparedness, Crisis Management, and Disaster Recovery. He helped us abridge longer versions of the cases,
perceptively provided editorial advice, and dealt with the multitude of tasks and relationships essential to
move from manuscript to published book. He is equally adept at creative intellectual work and the exacting
tasks of formalizing or creating footnotes and proofreading—all of which made a significant difference in the
quality of this volume. Throughout, too, he has worked on several separate research projects with energy,
intellectual vigor, and persistent good humor.
Others in the Program on Emergency Preparedness, Crisis Management, and Disaster Recovery have also
been valued colleagues: Doug Ahlers, Arrietta Chakos, David Tannenwald, Jerry Williams, Carolyn Wood,
and Tom Wooten.
Both Harvard Kennedy School and Harvard University as a whole are incredibly stimulating and highly
supportive environments for research and teaching. We have been fortunate indeed to spend our student days

14
and professional lives at this university. It is impossible to name every colleague who has contributed ideas or
asked searching questions on the matters at hand, but we especially wish to thank Doug Ahlers, Graham
Allison, Alan Altshuler, Max Bazerman, Robert Behn, Robert Blendon, Hannah Riley Bowles, Ashton
Carter, Jack Donahue, Amy Edmondson, David Ellwood, Richard Falkenrath, David Gergen, Richard
Hackman, Frank Hartmann, Philip Heymann, James Honan, Juliette Kayyem, David Luberoff, Leonard
Marcus, Judith McLaughlin, Matthew Meselson, Steven Miller, Joseph Nye, Tony Saich, Terry Scott, Jessica
Stern, Christopher Stone, Guy Stuart, and Peter Zimmerman.
We thank our close Chinese faculty colleagues as well, particularly Xue Lan and Peng Zongchao of
Tsinghua University, Zhong Kaibin of the China National School of Administration, and Zhang Qiang of
Beijing Normal University, who have been instrumental in launching our China Crisis Management research
and executive education program.
Our case study development took off during the four years that one of us (Howitt) directed the Executive
Session on Domestic Preparedness (ESDP), sponsored at Harvard by the Office of Justice Programs, U.S.
Department of Justice. He cofounded this program with Richard Falkenrath, who left Harvard to serve as a
senior director at the White House National Security Council, then deputy director of the Homeland Security
Council, and now deputy commissioner for counterterrorism of the New York City Police Department.
Falkenrath ignited Howitt’s interest in emergency preparedness and crisis management, for which Howitt is
very grateful. Juliette Kayyem, now Massachusetts deputy secretary of public safety and homeland security
adviser to the governor, was a challenging and congenial intellectual partner during the remaining three years
of the project. Other stimulating ESDP research and staff colleagues include Gregory Koblentz, Rebecca
Storo, Robyn Pangi, Kendall Hoyt, Kerry Fosher, Laura Donahue, Patricia Chang, and Gavin Cameron.
The practitioner members of ESDP—most senior officials in local, state, or federal government agencies—
were an incredible group to work with over four years. Among them, Thomas Antush, Joseph Barbera, Hank
Christen, Rebecca Denlinger, Peter LaPorte, Marcelle Layton, Paul Maniscalco, Gary McConnell, Andrew
Mitchell, Leslee Stein-Spencer, Darrel Stephens, Patrick Sullivan, Ralph Timperi, A. D. Vickery, and
Frances (Winslow) Edwards deserve special thanks. We’ve also had the privilege of working with seasoned
and dedicated practitioners in many other venues. Among these, we are particularly grateful to Christopher
Combs, Gary Margolis, Joseph Pfeifer, Marc Rounsaville, James Schwartz, and Jerry Williams.
Theodore C. Sorensen has repeatedly given the gift of his time as a guest faculty member in our
Leadership in Crises executive education program; he is inspiring as both a teacher and practitioner of crisis
management.
We have benefited tremendously from and gratefully acknowledge intellectual and institutional support
from several research centers at Harvard Kennedy School and especially from their faculty directors: Alan
Altshuler and Edward Glaeser of the Taubman Center for State and Local Government, Graham Allison of
the Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, Anthony Saich of the Ash Institute for Democratic
Governance and Innovation, and David Gergen of the Center for Public Leadership. Special thanks also go to
David Luberoff and Sandra Garron, our longtime colleagues at the Taubman Center.
We have thankfully worked with a dedicated and talented team at Harvard Kennedy School Executive
Education, including Jane Latcham, Christine Letts, Kristi Scafide, Maryellen Smyth, and Peter

15
Zimmerman. Extra special thanks goes to Annette Wilson, our coconspirator in so many training endeavors.
Likewise, we thank our colleagues in the Ash Institute/Asia Programs—Julian Chang, Jessica Eykholt, Laura
Ma, and Kathy O’Brien— and at Tsinghua University, Meng Bo. David Gergen, Leonard Marcus, and
Donna Kalikow have our sincere thanks for their support of case development as a component of the National
Preparedness Leadership Initiative. At the Harvard Kennedy School Case Study Program, we have had
consistent administrative support from Howard Husock, Mary Flaherty, Anne Drazen, and Leslie Adkins-
Shellie, as well as those staff writers already mentioned. Joseph Zolner at the Harvard Graduate School of
Education has provided invaluable backing in launching the Crisis Leadership in Higher Education program.
A number of teaching venues have provided us with the opportunity to test these cases and, in turn, get
ideas for future case development. Harvard Kennedy School attracts superb participants to its executive
education programs, mainly senior officials from federal, state, and local governments in the United States and
other countries, as well as individuals from nongovernmental organizations and business firms. Not passive
consumers of the case studies, these “students” have probed and commented vigorously in discussions inside
and outside the classroom. First and foremost, we have taught these cases in Leadership in Crises, our original
and most frequently offered program, and in the National Preparedness Leadership Initiative, sponsored at
Harvard by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. A new program, Crisis Leadership in
Higher Education, in collaboration with colleagues at the Harvard Graduate School of Education (HGSE),
debuts in 2009, following in the footsteps of earlier presentations in HGSE programs for university leaders.
Shorter modules on crisis management have been included in several other Harvard Kennedy School executive
education programs aimed mainly at officials from the United States, including the Senior Executives in State
and Local Government and the Leadership for State Health Officials programs. We have also taught these
cases in Harvard Kennedy School international executive education programs, including a one-week version of
Leadership in Crises for participants from South and Southeast Asia at the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public
Policy at the National University of Singapore. With colleagues from Tsinghua University, we have taught
China Crisis Management in Beijing. Shorter modules on crisis management have also been included in
Harvard Kennedy School’s China’s Leaders in Development Program, the Leadership Enhancement and
Development Program for Hong Kong, the Beijing Executive Public Management Training Program, the
Taiwan Executive Leadership Program, and the Pakistan Executive Leadership Development Program.
Leonard has taught this material at the Australian–New Zealand School of Government and in two Harvard
Business School programs: the South Africa Senior Executive Program and the Senior Executive Program for
the Middle East. Howitt has taught a version of Leadership in Crises at the Cascade Center for Public
Service at the University of Washington, Seattle; one-day courses at annual meetings of the National
Conference of State Legislatures and the Conference of Minority Transportation Officials; and a graduate
course, Crisis Management and Emergency Preparedness, at the Harvard Extension School.
Overall, nearly 2,000 executive education participants and other students have read and discussed the cases
in this volume. Through discussion and criticism, they have helped us frame and refine our thinking about the
events depicted, develop more general ideas about the leadership and management processes of emergency
preparedness and response, and gain confidence in the value of our approach to the critical questions and
issues faced by practitioners of emergency management.

16
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 Financial support for these case studies has come from the Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of
Justice; the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; the New England University Transportation
Center, a U.S. Department of Transportation program; the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation; and the
Taubman Center for State and Local Government at Harvard Kennedy School. We also acknowledge
financial support for related research from Dean David Ellwood’s Acting in Time project at Harvard Kennedy
School, which has informed our thinking for some of the analytic material in this book, and from the Harvard
China Fund, to launch our parallel research and teaching in China. We deeply appreciate the faith in our
work that such support indicates but proclaim with more than normal vehemence the usual disclaimer: These
case studies do not necessarily reflect the views of any of these funders or of Harvard University; any errors of
commission or omission are ours and ours alone.
The President and Fellows of Harvard College (the Harvard Corporation), which owns the original
copyrights to these cases, has graciously permitted us to seek their publication.
The following reviewers provided feedback on the proposal for this volume and helped shape its
development: John Donaldson, Liberty University; Herbert Gooch, California Lutheran University; Jamie
Mitchem, California University of Pennsylvania; Tim Murphy, Findlay University; Bill Newmann, Virginia
Commonwealth University; Bill Parle, Oklahoma State University; Scot Phelps, Metropolitan College of
New York; Eugene Rovai, University of California-Chico; Steven Stehr, Washington State University; and
Robert Whelan, University of New Orleans.
Our partners at CQ Press have been an extraordinary group to work with: supportive, extraordinarily
patient, persistent in pressing us to finish, and endlessly helpful in maneuvering through the myriad steps
remaining when we thought (and wished) we were almost there. Charisse Kiino has championed this book
from the beginning; Julie Nemer has edited our copy with painstaking intelligence; and Allison McKay and
Anne Stewart have been extraordinary in turning the manuscript into printed pages. To all of them, sincere
thanks!
Our children and grandchild—Mark, Alexandra, Molly, and Matt and Melissa Howitt and their daughter,
Allison; and Dana and Whitney Leonard—light up our lives even when the matters claiming our professional
attention are grim. Maryalice Sloan-Howitt and Kathryn Angell are our treasured life partners. With great
love, we dedicate this book to Maryalice and Kathy.
Finally, as academics who do not work in the trenches of emergency response, we want to express our
admiration, respect, and gratitude to the many thousands of men and women in the United States and around
the world who go to work every day willing to place themselves in harm’s way—and who, not infrequently,
directly insert themselves between us and the perils that would otherwise befall us. It is no exaggeration to say
that they provide a fundamental building block of civilization by standing ready to help others, even at the risk
of their own lives. That they deserve our thanks goes without saying. We hope to do more in this book by
calling attention to the substantive tasks of their profession, conveying the difficult challenges they face, and
showing the courage and skill they need to cope with those demands. It is a most fitting tribute, we feel, to
help a new generation begin thinking about how to make the emergency management profession and system
even better in the future.

17
 Arnold M. Howitt and Herman B. “Dutch” Leonard
Cambridge, Massachusetts
January 2009

18
Part I Prepared for the Worst?
The Dilemmas of Crisis Management

I n the brief history of the twenty-first century, a number of searing events have focused attention on
society’s capacity to respond to emergencies—some naturally occurring, some the result of human agency.1
These include:

natural catastrophes such as the Asian tsunami in 2004, Hurricane Katrina in the United States in 2005,
the wildfires in Greece in 2007, and the Sichuan earthquake in China in 2008
outbreaks of new, threatening diseases such as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in 2003 and the
perceived threat of avian influenza
technology failures and industrial accidents such as mine cave-ins in the United States in 2006 and
regularly in China, and major transportation disasters such as the foundering of an Egyptian ferry in
stormy seas that took the lives of more than 1,000 people in 2006
terrorist attacks such as the fateful 9/11 assaults on the World Trade Center towers and the Pentagon,
the anthrax-laced letters that closely followed in 2001, the train bombings in Madrid in 2004, and the
London subway and bus bombings in 2005

Disasters—some more dire than these—have always plagued human society. But the scale, density, and
interconnectedness of modern life magnify the impact of present-day catastrophes. The relative ease of
modern transportation means that some potential emergencies—most notably, emergent infectious diseases or
terrorism—can travel very rapidly within a single country or across national boundaries, as SARS did from
China to other countries in Asia and then to Canada. Of course, those immediately in the path of a major
emergency are severely affected, but others linked by family or social ties or by connections to disrupted
economic networks experience the disaster indirectly. Many individuals who suffer no harm directly may
nonetheless live in fear that future catastrophes will affect their families; others empathically identify with the
pain of victims. Society, moreover, pays high monetary costs—through public budgets and charitable and
personal resources—in reconstructing damaged physical infrastructure, struggling to restore community
vitality, and rehabilitating disrupted lives.
Interconnectedness has also increased both the visibility and the potential political impact of modern
disasters. The near omnipresence of contemporary communications media means that we learn faster and in
greater detail about most disasters. Videos and photos are quickly flashed even from remote areas, and the
immediacy and visual impact of human tragedy seen on television or the Internet accentuate the emotional
effects. The effectiveness of response is also visible. In some cases, resourcefulness, heroism, and resilience are
prominent. In others, lack of preparedness, poor communications among emergency responders, and weak

19
coordination expand the consequences and increase the pain that catastrophe imposes on society. In the face
of disaster, elected leaders must increasingly explain why serious emergencies that might realistically have been
prevented occurred on their watch or why their jurisdictions failed to respond effectively to emergencies that
occurred through no fault of their own, while political rivals try to hold them accountable both for failures of
prevention and for how well response and recovery efforts were conducted.

A Distinctive Public Management Problem

Many people have come to see connections, too, among disaster types, noting important similarities in terms
of what society must do to get ready for and respond to major threats. In the United States, the idea of “all
hazards” emergency preparedness has been official doctrine for over half a century, but the reality at all levels
of government has fallen short of the ideal. Far more must be done to ensure that overall capacity is adequate;
that small and large jurisdictions are protected; and that different agencies and professional groups, as well as
different levels of government, collaborate in building response capabilities, work together in the event of
disaster, and coordinate action effectively under the stress of dangerous events.
To develop robust response capabilities we must see emergency preparedness as a distinctive problem of
public management that requires different approaches than other management tasks with which we tend to be
more familiar. Effective emergency management is not a matter of administering routine operations or service
delivery, where the key problem is matching the supply of service in time and space to a more or less
continuous, although varying, flow of demand from citizens or organizations. It is not project management,
where a unique capital facility or operational activity is conceived, planned, and executed on schedule. Nor is it
an overhead or staff function like budgeting, human resources, planning, or policy development that, on behalf
of senior executives or legislative overseers, supports, analyzes, and critiques operations.
Instead, emergency management demands different capabilities. It requires readiness, as near to
instantaneous as possible, for a wide range of contingencies that happen only episodically—or not at all—in a
particular place. Responders thus must plan for events whose precise nature (timing, type, location, and
specific requisites of response) can only be loosely predicted and for which prior training, experience, and drill
may not have been appropriate or adequate. The effort required by emergency conditions will certainly involve
those who think of themselves as emergency responders (for example, firefighters and law enforcement and
emergency medical personnel). But, under severe circumstances, it may also involve others whose normal
activities and professional identities do not center on disaster management. These may include, for example,
personnel in public health, transportation, public works, social services, and schools, as well as a variety of
private-sector entities. Ideally, all these individuals and the professions they represent will be ready for the
contributions they will need to—or could usefully—make in the event of catastrophe.

Emergent Views of Preparedness and Response Capacity

In the United States, elected officials and the public pay intense attention to emergency management mainly
when highly visible events are handled poorly and concerns are then raised about the adequacy of disaster
preparedness for future contingencies.

20
 In 1992, quite notably, the massive destruction caused by Hurricane Andrew in Florida and the subsequent
weak performance of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) led to major reforms in FEMA’s
organization and leadership (and probably contributed to the defeat of George H. W. Bush in the presidential
election that immediately followed the storm). Nearly a decade later, the 9/11 terrorist attacks stimulated
renewed scrutiny of the adequacy of emergency management at all levels of government and led to the
reorganization of federal agencies into the Department of Homeland Security. During roughly the same
period, the appearance of West Nile virus in New York City in 1999, the threat of bioterrorism dramatized by
the anthrax attacks in 2001, and SARS in Asia and Canada in 2003 focused attention on the potential
widespread outbreak of an emergent infectious disease, concern that intensified in the next several years with
the possibility that A(H5N1) avian influenza might spark just such a pandemic. Yet it was nature’s fury in
Hurricane Katrina, which lashed the gulf coast in late August 2005, that most vividly exposed serious
weaknesses in U.S. emergency response capabilities.

A Bottom-Up System
Of course, not all emergencies pose challenges of the magnitude of a Hurricane Katrina, nor require an
extraordinary commitment of resources from every level of government. In the United States, as in most
countries, the initial—and usually major—responsibility for disaster response rests with local authorities. This
bottom-up system of emergency management has a long history and continues to make sense in most
circumstances. Because local governments are proximate to disaster sites and have at least some emergency
capacity, they can respond quickly to initial alerts. They have detailed knowledge of local conditions and, in
many cases, have agreements for mutual aid to secure additional help rapidly from nearby jurisdictions.
Aid from state or national sources is provided mainly when local capability is inadequate or has been
exhausted. State government may have important specialized resources and capabilities, but because its
resources may be farther away, it is usually less able to respond immediately (its resources may have to travel a
considerable distance to get to a disaster site). Federal government responders are likely to be even more
distant—hence, much slower to arrive on a significant scale—and lack both local knowledge and integration
with local and state responders. FEMA, with relatively few deployable staff, has historically played a much
larger role in pre-event planning and post-event recovery than in the management of a disaster-in-progress.
Other federal agencies have more operational resources but are generally deployed as backup.
Notwithstanding the reorganization of emergency response at the federal level as a consequence of the
establishment of the Department of Homeland Security, the bottom-up system remains the normal model of
disaster response.

Core Challenges of Large-Scale Disaster Response

Quite clearly, however, the normal model was inadequate to handle the results of an event of the scale of
Hurricane Katrina. It is thus worthwhile to look at a number of core challenges that figure in major disasters of
various types. These challenges tend to recur and thus are critical design parameters for the emergency
management system.

Routine and Crisis Emergencies: Recognizing

21
Novelty and Effectively Improvising Necessary Responses
Emergency responders ready themselves for a wide range of urgent circumstances. These involve high stakes,
danger, and outcomes that are critically contingent on responders’ own effective action. Although quite
demanding, many of these situations can be regarded as routine emergencies, not because they are in some sense
“easy” but because the predictability of the general type of situation permits agencies to prepare in advance and
take advantage of lessons from prior experience. Such anticipatable events are routine for both the agencies
and individuals concerned. Response organizations develop contingency plans, train personnel, practice their
skills, and ready or stockpile necessary resources so that they are ready when such predictable challenges occur.
For example, when forecasters predict that hurricane winds will make landfall, emergency organizations in
areas where hurricanes are common launch a range of programmed actions to protect property, provide
temporary shelter and supplies, make rescues as needed, and provide emergency medical care and other
assistance. Public health agencies and medical care providers, similarly, have annual routines to get ready for
and deal with the problems of flu season. In a fast-moving routine emergency, individual responders can rely
on this preparation and on their own near-instantaneous recognition of complex patterns to size up cause and
effect and trigger swift implementation of the appropriate protective measures.
The capacity to treat a wide range of contingencies, including quite severe ones, as routine constitutes an
enormous source of strength for emergency response personnel and organizations. They have thought through
how to act. They are equipped. They have trained and practiced. Their leaders’ judgment has been honed by
experience. In moments when delay may literally make a difference of life or death, they don’t need to size up
the situation for an extended period, plan their response from scratch, assemble people and resources, and
divide up roles and responsibilities. Responders are ready, in multiple dimensions of the term.
But not all emergencies fit the mold. Katrina was not merely another hurricane; SARS was not just another
wave of influenza. Such crisis emergencies are distinguished from more common routine (although possibly very
severe) emergencies by significant elements of novelty. These novel features may result from threats never
before encountered (for example, an earthquake in an area that has not experienced one in recent memory or
an emergent infectious disease like avian flu); from a more familiar event occurring at an unprecedented scale,
outstripping available resources; or from a confluence of forces, which, although not new, in combination pose
unique challenges. Katrina was a crisis primarily because of its unusually large scale and the novel mixture of
challenges that it posed, not least the failure of the levees in New Orleans. SARS was novel not only because
it was caused by a new bug but also because its pattern of infectiousness departed from the norm. It should be
clearly noted, however, that novelty, from this perspective, is subjective. It is something new from the
perspective of the jurisdictions, organizations, and individuals involved in response and possibly—but not
necessarily—from the experience or point of view of other jurisdictions, organizations, or individuals. A severe
fire in a chemical plant may pose novel conditions to the firefighters confronting it, even though other fire
departments in other states may have previously encountered these conditions.
An important consequence flows from considering novelty to be the defining feature of a crisis. Because of
the novelty, predetermined emergency plans and response behavior that may function quite well in dealing
with routine emergencies are frequently grossly inadequate or even counterproductive. That proved true in
New Orleans, for example, in terms of evacuation planning, law enforcement, rescue activities, sheltering, and

22
provisions for the elderly and infirm. SARS defeated the normal precautions that hospitals take to prevent the
spread of respiratory infections, resulting in the contamination and shutdown of several hospitals in Toronto.
By contrast with routine emergencies, therefore, crises require quite different capabilities. In crises,
responders must first quickly diagnose the elements of novelty (for example, in New Orleans, the widespread
need for assisted evacuation, the likely consequences when the levees failed, and the unexpected use of the
convention center for sheltering immobile refugees). Then they need to improvise response measures adequate
to cope with the unanticipated dimensions of the emergency (for example, quickly procuring vehicles for
evacuation, making emergency repairs to the levees, and providing food and law and order in an unprepared
shelter). These measures, born of necessity, may be quite different from or exceed in scale anything responders
have done before. The responders must be creative and extremely adaptable to execute improvised tactics.
Equipping organizations to recognize the novelty in a crisis and improvise skillfully is thus a far different (and
far more difficult) matter than preparing them mainly to implement preset emergency plans.
Many crisis situations occur suddenly and are unavoidably noticeable as something novel: a major
earthquake, the landfall of a major hurricane, a bomb blast. But some forms of crisis do not arrive suddenly.
They fester and grow, arising from more ordinary circumstances that often mask their appearance. We term
such situations emergent crises—a special and especially difficult category. When SARS emerged in south
China in winter 2002–2003, it appeared first as a series of unexplained deaths in a region that has, annually,
many unexplained deaths. The famous 1979 nuclear accident at the Three Mile Island power plant in
Pennsylvania started as a simple pump failure, out of which spun an escalating series of failures and mistakes
until a major crisis was underway.
Emergent crises pose special challenges for responders in terms of recognizing novelty because they look
much like routine emergencies in their early stages, only later revealing their unusual characteristics. By then,
responders may well have committed to treating the situation as they would a routine emergency and could be
slow to see the new features that require different forms of response—so slow that the emergency may by then
be difficult to control.

Scalability and Surge Capacity

In many disasters, responders must cope with far greater numbers of endangered people or more extensive
damage than is typical of a routine emergency. Crisis impacts may occur very intensively in a delimited area, as
was true of Katrina, or be spread across a wide geographical region, as proved the case with SARS. To scale
up operations to handle this surge of demand, emergency agencies require access to resources in larger
quantities than they normally do and frequently to specialized equipment or personnel. If an emergency lasts
for days or weeks, there also must be enough people and resources to cope with exhaustion of the personnel.
No local jurisdiction—or even state—could bear the expense of keeping these assets in reserve for a large-
scale disaster that might never occur there. When such an event strikes, therefore, it is virtually inevitable that
the jurisdictions affected will have to import and effectively absorb support from surrounding areas or—in very
severe circumstances, such as Katrina—from around the nation.
Some emergency professions have incorporated the idea of surge capacity into their regular operating
patterns. In firefighting, most jurisdictions already have mutual aid agreements with neighboring communities
that enable any of them to expand the available workforce and equipment. In case of a major fire, each

23
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Summary 1: Comparative analysis and synthesis

Learning Objective 1: Current trends and future directions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 2: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 2: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
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• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Learning Objective 4: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 5: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 7: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 7: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 9: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 10: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
References 2: Theoretical framework and methodology
Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 15: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 16: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 17: Case studies and real-world applications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 18: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 20: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Test 3: Study tips and learning strategies
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 21: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 22: Ethical considerations and implications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 24: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 25: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 27: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 30: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Section 4: Current trends and future directions
Practice Problem 30: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 32: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 35: Key terms and definitions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Summary 5: Literature review and discussion
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 42: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 45: Current trends and future directions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 48: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Discussion 6: Interdisciplinary approaches
Practice Problem 50: Case studies and real-world applications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 51: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 51: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 57: Experimental procedures and results
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 58: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 59: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 60: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Quiz 7: Critical analysis and evaluation
Practice Problem 60: Ethical considerations and implications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 62: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 63: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 67: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 69: Key terms and definitions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Conclusion 8: Research findings and conclusions
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 71: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 73: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 74: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 77: Study tips and learning strategies
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Abstract 9: Key terms and definitions
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 81: Study tips and learning strategies
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 82: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 84: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 84: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 86: Best practices and recommendations
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 88: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 90: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Chapter 10: Comparative analysis and synthesis
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 91: Literature review and discussion
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 92: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 95: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 97: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 100: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Abstract 11: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 102: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 104: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 104: Key terms and definitions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 105: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Lesson 12: Historical development and evolution
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 113: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 114: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 114: Best practices and recommendations
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 117: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 117: Study tips and learning strategies
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 119: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Summary 13: Fundamental concepts and principles
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 121: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 121: Case studies and real-world applications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 123: Study tips and learning strategies
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 126: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 127: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Lesson 14: Study tips and learning strategies
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 137: Historical development and evolution
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Part 15: Statistical analysis and interpretation
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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