JADAVPUR UNIVERSITY

ASSIGNMENT REPORT
ON

TUNDISH METALLURGY AND SEN

SUBJECT- STEEL MAKING TECHNOLOGY

NAME-AKSHAY MANDAL
ROLL NO-002411302002
YEAR-PG-1
SEMESTER-2nd
DEPARTMENT-Metallurgical & Material Engineering

COURSE-M.E. in Metallurgical Engineering

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Table of Contents
1. Introduction to Continuous Casting Process ...............................................4

2. Role of Tundish in Continuous Casting ..........................................................4

3. Types of Continuous Casting Machine ...........................................................5

4. Components of Continuous Casting Unit .......................................................6

5. Tundish Metallurgy .................................................................................................6

6. Introduction to Physical Modeling ............................................................... ..15

7. Concept of Similarity in Physical Modeling .................................................15

8. Dimensional analysis .......................................................................................... ..16

9. Physical Modeling of Iso-thermal and Non-Iso-thermal system .........17

10. Consideration in Aqueous Modeling .............................................................17

11. Introduction to Stimulus Response Techniques .....................................18

12. Characterization of Flow ....................................................................................19

13. Characterization of Flow in Actual Systems ..............................................19

14. Analysis of RTD Curves ....................................................................... ...............20

15. Plug, Mixed and Dead Regions in Tundish ................................................. 20

16. Fluid Flow Fundamentals .................................................................... ..............21

17. Mass Conservation Equation ................................................................. ...........22

18. Momentum Conservation Equation ..................................................... .........22

19. Energy Conservation Equation ............................................................. ..........23

20. Navier Stokes Equations for Newtonian Fluid ......................................... 24

21. Introduction to Turbulence in Fluid Flow ................................................ ..24

22. Characteristics of Turbulent Flow ..................................................................25

23. RANS Equations .................................................................................. ...................25

24. Turbulent Flow Calculations ................................................................ ...........26

25. Turbulence Modeling Using k-ε Model ..................................................... ...27

26. Introduction to Heat Transfer Phenomena ................................................28

27. Numerical Methods for Governing Equation ........................... .................28

28. Finite Volume Method for Convection and Diffusion Problems ........29

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29. Different Discretization Schemes ..........................................................29

30. Assessment of Discretization Schemes ................................................30

31. Elements of Mathematical Modeling in Tundish Steelmaking ..31

32. Boundary Conditions ..................................................................................31

33. Flow Analysis in Tundish .................................................................... ….32

34. Analysis of Fluid Flow and Mixing in Tundish ................................ 33

35. Non-iso-thermal Flow Considerations in Tundish ........................33

36. Intermixing in Tundish ..............................................................................34

37. Introduction to Submerged Entry Nozzle (SEN) .............................35

38. Purpose of Submerged Entry Nozzle (SEN) ......................................35

39. Key Design Aspects of SEN.............................................................. ........ 36

40. Port Design ...................................................... .............................................. 37

41. Flow Control Devices.................................... .............................................. 39

42. Key Materials Used in SEN Construction ............................................40

43. METHODS OF SEN ................................................ .......................................40

44. Integration: Tundish and SEN in Continuous Casting....................42

45. Why Integration Matters .......................................................................... 43

46. Challenges SEN Operations ........................................... ....................44

47. Solutions For SEN ........................................... ............................................45

48. Conclusion ........................................... ..........................................................47

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1. Introduction to Continuous Casting Process
Continuous casting is a process by which molten metal is lidified into a semi-finished billet, bloom, or
slab for subsequent rolling in finishing mills. Unlike traditional ingot casting, which involves pouring
metal into static molds and subsequent reheating, continuous casting offers higher productivity,
better yield, and improved quality. This process has revolutionized modern steelmaking by enabling
direct and continuous solidification of molten steel from ladle to desired shapes without
intermediate stages.

The process begins by pouring molten steel from the ladle into a tundish, which acts as a reservoir
and distributor to the molds. From the tundish, the molten steel flows through submerged nozzles
into the water-cooled copper mold. Inside the mold, a lid shell forms around the outside of the steel.
The strand is continuously withdrawn while it solidifies further as it passes through a series of water
spray cooling zones.

The key advantages of continuous casting include:

1.High productivity due to continuous operation.

2.Reduced energy consumption.

3.Superior surface and internal quality.

4.Enhanced process control.

Today, nearly all steel production globally uses continuous casting due to its significant economic
and quality advantages.

2. Role of Tundish in Continuous Casting

The tundish plays a pivotal role in continuous casting, serving not merely as a reservoir but as a
crucial metallurgical reactor. Positioned between the ladle and the mold, its primary functions
include distributing molten metal to one or more strands, maintaining consistent flow, minimizing
temperature loss, and aiding in the removal of non-metallic inclusions.

Key roles of the tundish include:

1. Flow Distribution: It ensures that molten steel is evenly distributed among the molds in
multi-strand casting.

2. Inclusion Removal: By encouraging flotation and agglomeration of inclusions, the tundish

improves steel cleanliness.

3. Temperature Control: Tundish covers, refractory linings, and insulation techniques help
minimize heat loss.

4. Transition Management: Tundish helps during grade changes, facilitating intermix

minimization and transition control.

5. Flow Control Devices: Use of dams, and baffles inside the tundish regulate steel flow
patterns, enhancing inclusion removal efficiency.

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Modern tundishes are engineered to function as active refining vessels rather than passive
intermediaries, integrating both physical and chemical processes to enhance final product quality.

3. Types of Continuous Casting Machine

Several types of continuous casting machines are employed based on the steel product being cast:

a. Vertical Casting Machine:

• Simple Design: The vertical casting machine has a straightforward structure, making it
easier to operate and maintain.

• Suitable for Thick Sections: It is particularly advantageous for casting large and thick
sections due to the uniform metallostatic pressure along the vertical axis.

• Requires Large Vertical Space: Installation demands a significant height clearance, which
can be a limitation in compact plant lats or low-ceiling foundries.

b. Curved Mold Casting Machine:

• Most Commonly Used: This is the standard design in modern continuous casting plants due
to its versatility and efficiency.

• Curved Mold Design: The Mold is slightly curved to facilitate the horizontal or near-
horizontal withdrawal of the ladyfying strand, reducing the risk of strand breakage.

• Space-Efficient Lat: The curved design saves significant vertical space and enables a more
compact and economical plant lat.

c. Oval-Type Casting Machine:

• Used for Large Slab Casting: This design is suitable for casting very large cross-section
slabs, where traditional vertical or curved machines may not be feasible.

• Rarely Used: Due to its complex construction, challenging strand withdrawal path, and high
operational costs, it is seldom implemented in modern steel plants.

d. Horizontal Casting Machine:

• Horizontal Strand Exit: In this design, molten steel is cast and withdrawn horizontally from
the Mold, eliminating the need for strand bending and straightening.

• Ideal for Special Applications: Commonly used for casting special steels, copper alloys, and
small cross-sections such as billets, blooms, and rods.

• Compact Installation: The horizontal is space-saving and suited for specific metallurgical
applications requiring clean surfaces and precise dimensions.

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e. Bow-Type Continuous Casting:

• Incorporates Arc Segments: Features a curved Mold and a series of support rollers
arranged in a bow-like arc to guide the strand during solidification and withdrawal.

• Strand Support and Control: The arc-shaped roller segments provide continuous
mechanical support, minimizing strand deformation and cracking.

• Ideal for High-Production Facilities: ll-suited for mass production of billets, blooms, and
slabs, especially in integrated steel plants.

• Efficient Space Utilization: Offers a balance between vertical and horizontal designs,
allowing for high throughput with a relatively compact footprint.

4. Components of Continuous Casting Unit

A continuous casting unit consists of several major components:

1. Ladle: Holds molten steel from the converter or furnace.

2. Tundish: Distributes steel to Molds, acts as a metallurgical reactor.

3. Mold: Water-cooled copper Mold initiates solidification.

4. Oscillator: Imparts oscillations to the Mold to avoid sticking.

5. Spray Chamber: Continuously sprays water to cool the strand.

6. Roller Table: Guides the partially liquefied strand through the machine.

7. Cutting Mechanism: Torch or mechanical cutters cut the strand into desired lengths.

8. Dummy Bar: Used during the start-up to support the initial cast.

5. Tundish Metallurgy
We have already discussed about the role of tundish in continuous casting and know that the
tundish is acting as a metallurgical reactor. This steel is coming from the ladle and then going from
the tundish to the mold. The treatments are even done before the metal enters into the tundish,
includes like there treatments to the melts. , that certain kind of inclusions are basically filtered out
or for controlling the composition of the steel.

Hover, those aspects which needs to be studied regarding the treatment which is done in the
tundish al which has basically the bearing on the metallurgical behaviour of the product and those
capabilities which affect that way. Those phenomena which are take place inside like can have
certain treatments related to the modification or treatment, that the inclusion removal is more or
aspects like the vortex formation.

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Normally as a metallurgical reactor, feel that in the tundish should be working in such a manner that
there should be heat throughout the domain in the tundish. Then there should be proper flow,
configuration inside the tundish.

There is proper use of the space which is there or proper use of the volume of the tundish, then
flow control has to be minimum of the inclusions which should further goes down the tundish
outlet, towards the mold. And there is no vortex formation when there is decrease in the level of the
tundish, then there should not vertexing phenomena.

The process may have certain additions like inclusion modifiers like calcium or calcium silicon at the
very last minute in the tundish itself. Certain treatment, that inclusions are try to trap them, the
minimum of the inclusions come into the tundish.

If the inclusions are coming inside the tundish, then certain treatment and add like inclusion
modifiers like calcium or calcium silicon; at the very last minute in the tundish. this basically will
help in the control of the inclusions or it will help in the treatment of the inclusions, that inclusions
either float or inclusions are modified.

There are modifications to shape and size of those inclusions or their properties. , that ultimatum is
that this inclusion should be minimum in the melt.

Another important aspect is temperature adjustment in the tundish, as the molten steel flows
directly from the tundish into the mold. If the temperature drops too low at this stage, it can
negatively impact the quality of the casting. The steel needs to enter the mold at an appropriate
temperature to ensure proper flow and solidification. If the temperature is too low, premature
solidification may occur, leading to defects in the cast product.

Many times, heating is applied in the tundish to ensure that the proper temperature is maintained
throughout the entire volume of molten steel. However, temperature differences within the tundish
can lead to changes in flow patterns. These temperature gradients may result in the formation of
convection loops and thermal currents within the melt, which can significantly alter the intended
flow configuration inside the tundish. Many times, if the temperature drops too low in certain areas
of the tundish—typically in dead zones—there is a risk of local solidification. To prevent this, it is
important to have a temperature adjustment mechanism in place. Heating systems may be required
to maintain the temperature of the molten steel in these regions, ensuring it stays above the steel’s
freezing point. This helps avoid undesirable events such as premature solidification inside the
tundish, which can disrupt the casting process and affect product quality.

Plasma or induction heating is especially useful when casting with very low superheat. In such cases,
even a slight temperature drop in certain regions of the tundish can lead to undesirable outcomes,
such as premature solidification or flow disruptions. To prevent needs localized heating mechanisms
like plasma torches or induction heaters are employed to obtain the desired temperature and ensure
stable and uniform casting conditions.
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The ultimate aim in the tundish will be to have the clean steel and that is because this requirement
for the steel has been increasing over the years. it is because that they are used for critical
applications and the presence of these inclusions make the properties of the steel inferior. What
has been the practice that try to improvise those technologies are working on the better
technologies we can get rid of the inclusions. And in fact, our effort is to go for the inclusions
because there are mechanisms to filter out the larger size inclusions, but then have to see that these
size inclusions critical size inclusion sizes become less and which must be removed.

Because all these properties like strength, ductility, durability, corrosion resistance. They are
working on it to have the its improved properties over the years.

And possible normally if making the steel cleaner of the non-metallic inclusions which are most likely
deteriorating these properties for which normally use steel. Like if the inclusions are there, the
strength may go down ductility may go down and durability as corrosion resistance all these things
are impaired; all these properties are impaired if the presence of these non-metallic inclusions. And
al is possible normally if making the steel cleaner of the non-metallic inclusions which are most likely
deteriorating these properties for which normally use steel. Like if the inclusions are there, the
strength may go down ductility may go down and durability as corrosion resistance all these things
are impaired; all these properties are impaired if have the presence of these non-metallic
inclusions.

The non-metallic inclusions in steel normally they are of two types:

1. Indigenous oxide inclusions, they normally are formed by the de oxidation of the steel melt.

2. Exogenous inclusions.

1.Indigenous oxide inclusions:

Indigenous oxide inclusions, they are basically removed during the refining and degassing of melt in
the ladle itself.

Try to remove these indigenous oxide inclusions by during that refining as the degassing of the melt
in the ladle. But these non-metallic oxide inclusions of a small size still remain suspended in the melt.

2.Exogenous inclusions:

Then have the second variety of inclusions that is r exogenous inclusions. , they are formed by the
reoxidation of deoxidized steel melt by air or by the entrained slag into the melt during the melt
transfer from the ladle to the mold. There are further chances of reoxidation and al because of this slag

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which is these that slag into the melt which may pass down. The exogenous origin which is formed
because of the reoxidations, they are normally much larger than the indigenous ones and they are very
harmful, larger inclusions will be harmful than the smaller ones. They are harmful because these
inclusions what they do is they will be causing the problems during the casting rolling and heat-
treating processes. If there are inclusions, they will be as the defect in the cast product. If they are in
the rolling, they make difficulties during the heat treatment process. In all these processes because
when there are inclusions their properties not as same as that of the parent metal. It has not the same
ductility and brittle. The result in the failure of the steel during its application. These in inclusions are
need to be removed mostly and try to remove these inclusions to the extent as can. Steels with more
demanding processing and applications require inclusions which are smaller in size and number
density, Thats means that production of steel of better quality.

The requirement is that the inclusion size should be smaller and similarly the number density should
be is a smaller number of inclusions should be there as these smaller inclusions. The more
demanding processing and applications are required nowadays and critical inclusion size decreases
as demands become more and more stringent. The inclusion size should be no more than this size
critical size whenever the very demanding steels or wherever the use the steel for the critical
applications, or the end user will specify that the critical inclusion size. It means should not have any
inclusion which is of larger size than a particular size that is r critical size of the inclusions. They will
be elongated in the steel matrix as thin stringers along the rolling direction. When larger inclusions
are present and the slabs, billets, boules, or ingots are subjected to further rolling operations, these
inclusions tend to elongate and appear as thin stringers aligned with the rolling direction.

If we consider the rolling direction, the rolls move in opposite directions— for example, the upper
roll rotates one way and the lower roll rotates the other. This motion pushes the metal strip forward.
Larger inclusions present in the material will be elongated in the same direction. If an inclusion has
an initial size, it will be flattened and stretched along the rolling direction, appearing elongated
within the steel matrix.

Now, when the hot-rolled steel is further subjected to cold rolling, the temperature drops, causing
the material to become more brittle. As a result, during cold rolling, the previously elongated
inclusions tend to break into smaller pieces due to their brittleness at lower temperatures. This
fragmentation is a direct consequence of the reduced ductility during cold rolling. This affects the
homogeneity of the component, alters the material properties, and may lead to failure at those points.

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The harmful effects of large inclusions can be reduced by modifying their chemical composition to
lower their melting temperature and make them deformable during hot rolling. As we have seen, if
larger inclusions are present, one effective method is to chemically alter their composition. By
lowering their melting point, the inclusions become more deformable during hot rolling, which
minimizes their negative impact. This type of treatment is one way to reduce the harmful effects of
such inclusions.

Impurities that dissolve in the melt and form precipitates during solidification also need to be
minimized. These impurities tend to remain dissolved in the molten steel and later form unwanted
precipitates as the metal solidifies. Therefore, it is essential to control and reduce these elements to
ensure that the steel becomes cleaner and of higher quality.

If we look at these impurities, they typically include elements like phosphorus and sulfur. These
elements tend to form phosphides and sulfides, respectively. Phosphides usually form at the
austenite grain boundaries, while sulfides are found in and around the austenite grains.

Normally they are making this formability of the steel they challenge that property of the steel.

It is difficult to remove these impurities in the tundish because, ideally, they should be minimized
during earlier stages such as hot metal treatment, the BOF (Basic Oxygen Furnace) process, and ladle
furnace refining—before the melt reaches the continuous casting station. Once the melt enters the
tundish, further removal of these impurities becomes very challenging, as it would require specific
chemical treatments or reactions that are not typically feasible at that stage.

Our efforts should focus on removing these impurities during the earlier stages, such as hot metal
treatment, the BOF process, or ladle furnace processing. Before bringing the melt to the tundish, it is
important to minimize the levels of phosphorus and sulfur to reduce the formation of phosphides
and sulfides, especially at the grain boundaries.

It is essential to ensure that the chances of forming such compounds at the grain boundaries, or in and
around the austenitic grain boundaries, are minimized.
What we normally do is aim for the flotation of inclusions. One common method is to design the flow
pattern in the tundish in such a way that the inclusions tend to float upward. Even with the best ladle
metallurgy practices, some inclusions still remain, so encouraging their flotation in the tundish
becomes an important step in producing cleaner steel.

Some inclusion particles will still remain in the melt. As discussed, treatments are carried out in the
ladle to remove most of the inclusions at that stage. However, despite these efforts, some inclusions
are likely to carry over into the tundish. Therefore, additional measures must be taken in the tundish
to further remove these remaining inclusions.
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In the tundish, we cannot carry out the same types of treatments that are possible earlier in the ladle
or during ladle metallurgy. However, by altering the flow pattern within the tundish, it is possible to
promote the removal of inclusions. One effective method is to manage the residence time of the melt
and control its flow in such a way that inclusions have enough time to float to the surface and be
separated.

It is essential to ensure that the chances of forming such compounds at the grain boundaries, or in and
around the austenitic grain boundaries, are minimized.
What we normally do is aim for the flotation of inclusions. One common method is to design the flow
pattern in the tundish in such a way that the inclusions tend to float upward. Even with the best ladle
metallurgy practices, some inclusions still remain, so encouraging their flotation in the tundish
becomes an important step in producing cleaner steel. Some inclusion particles will still remain in
the melt. As discussed, treatments are carried out in the ladle to remove most of the inclusions at that
stage. However, despite these efforts, some inclusions are likely to carry over into the tundish.
Therefore, additional measures must be taken in the tundish to further remove these remaining
inclusions.

In the tundish, we cannot carry out the same types of treatments that are possible earlier in the ladle
or during ladle metallurgy. However, by altering the flow pattern within the tundish, it is possible to
promote the removal of inclusions. One effective method is to manage the residence time of the melt
and control its flow in such a way that inclusions have enough time to float to the surface and be
separated. If adequate residence time is provided in the tundish, there will be an opportunity for at
least the larger inclusion particles to float out. As we discussed earlier, the tundish plays an important
role in the casting process. The molten steel entering the tundish spends a certain amount of time
inside before exiting through the tundish outlet—this duration is known as the residence time.

If the residence time is too short, the inclusion particles entering the tundish may not have enough
time to rise to the surface and be removed. Therefore, maintaining sufficient residence time is crucial
for effective inclusion flotation and cleaner steel production. If the residence time is too short, the
chances for inclusions to float out become smaller and smaller. The key is to ensure adequate
residence time. The flow structure in the tundish should be designed in such a way that, once the
liquid steel enters, it flows in a controlled manner, allowing sufficient time for the inclusions—
especially the larger ones—to rise to the surface. This is because larger inclusions typically have
lower density compared to the molten steel, which helps them float out when given enough time In
adequate residence time is provided in the tundish, there will be an opportunity for at least the larger
inclusion particles to float out.

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As we discussed earlier, the tundish plays an important role in the casting process. The molten steel
entering the tundish spends a certain amount of time inside before exiting through the tundish
outlet—this duration is known as the residence time. If the residence time is too short, the inclusion
particles entering the tundish may not have enough time to rise to the surface and be removed.
Therefore, maintaining sufficient residence time is crucial for effective inclusion flotation and cleaner
steel production.

If the residence time is too short, the chances for inclusions to float out become smaller and smaller.
The key is to ensure adequate residence time. The flow structure in the tundish should be designed
in such a way that, once the liquid steel enters, it flows in a controlled manner, allowing sufficient
time for the inclusions—especially the larger ones—to rise to the surface. This is because larger
inclusions typically have lower density compared to the molten steel, which helps them float out
when given enough time. Once the inclusions have enough time to remain in the melt, they are
subjected to buoyant forces due to their lower density compared to the molten steel. Over time, these
inclusions will gradually float upward. This process is known as the flotation of inclusions. It is a
natural phenomenon that occurs due to the density difference between the inclusions and the
surrounding melt. Typically, the density of inclusions is about 0.5 to 0.67 times that of molten steel,
which enables them to rise to the surface when adequate time is provided.

The inclusions will have a chance to float up, but for that to happen, as discussed earlier, the residence
time must be adequate. If the residence time is too short, there are ways to increase it within the
tundish. One common approach is to use flow modifiers. These devices help control and optimize the
flow pattern of molten steel, allowing inclusions more time to rise to the surface. Additionally,
tundish design plays a crucial role. By positioning the inlet and outlet strategically, the residence time
can be maximized for a given geometry. Thus, both flow modifiers and thoughtful tundish
configuration are key methods to enhance inclusion removal efficiency.

If the residence time is short or the tundish is poorly designed, short-circuiting or bypassing of the
flow can occur. In such cases, inclusions are retained in the steel, resulting in a poor-quality finished
product. When the tundish design does not promote sufficient residence time, the inclusions entering
the tundish are likely to flow directly toward the outlet without having enough time to float out. As a
result, these inclusions may pass through the tundish and enter the mold, compromising the
cleanliness and quality of the final cast product. Once the inclusions enter the mold, they are much
more likely to become part of the final product. As they move into the solidifying regions of the melt,
they get trapped and become embedded within the solid steel. This negatively affects product quality
and can lead to the rejection of the final material. Therefore, it is essential to prevent short-circuiting
or bypassing in the tundish to ensure that inclusions are effectively removed before the steel reaches
the mold.

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Once the inclusions enter the mold, they are much more likely to become part of the final product. As
they move into the solidifying regions, they become trapped and permanently embedded in the steel.
This reduces the quality of the product and increases the chances of it being rejected during inspection.
Therefore, it is essential to avoid short-circuiting or bypassing in the tundish to give inclusions enough
time to float out before reaching the mold.

This problem mostly occurs due to poor tundish design or the improper use of flow modifiers. These
concerns must be addressed beforehand, and it is essential to check the average residence time of the
molten steel in the tundish. A longer residence time increases the likelihood that inclusions will float
to the surface of the tundish, where they can be trapped and removed. This is one of the primary
mechanisms by which inclusions are eliminated during continuous casting. Another important aspect
to understand in the context of the tundish is vortexing. This phenomenon becomes a concern when
vessels or containers, such as ladles, are being emptied. In the continuous casting process, the ladle
delivers molten steel from the steelmaking shop and pours it into the tundish. The tundish, in turn,
delivers the melt to the mold. During this transfer, especially near the end of ladle emptying, vortex
formation can occur, which may lead to undesirable outcomes such as slag entrainment or air
aspiration. When one ladle is emptied, another ladle is brought in to continue the casting process.
However, if it is necessary to completely siphon out the remaining liquid metal from the tundish—
especially when the next heat or cast grade is significantly different in composition—it becomes
important to lower the tundish level. Only after reducing the level can the new grade of steel be poured
into the tundish, minimizing the risk of mixing between dissimilar steel grades.

Now, while emptying the tundish, as the liquid level drops to a certain point, vortex formation may
occur at the outlet—particularly when the level falls below a critical value. When this happens, the
flow pattern changes, and a vortex can form above the outlet, drawing in slag or air. This can be better
understood with a simple visualization: imagine the tundish with an outlet located near the bottom.
As the molten steel level approaches this outlet level, the surface depression caused by the draining
flow can evolve into a vortex, increasing the risk of contamination. Now, what happens is that when
the inlet is positioned and liquid metal begins to flow out of the tundish, the level of molten steel
gradually decreases. As the level comes down and reaches a certain critical point, vortex formation
may occur near the outlet. This vortex is essentially a swirling motion of the liquid, and it typically
forms when the molten steel level falls below a specific height. Even though flow modifiers are used
to control flow behavior, if the level drops too much, vortex formation becomes more likely. This can
lead to undesirable consequences such as slag entrainment or gas aspiration into the stream. This
level is referred to as the critical level, and vertexing is a phenomenon that occurs when the molten
steel level drops below this point. Vertexing causes the formation of swirling currents that can entrap
air. These entrapped air bubbles may enter the molten steel stream and lead to oxidation of the steel,
which is highly undesirable. Such oxidation can deteriorate the quality of the final product. Therefore,

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it is crucial to avoid allowing the steel level in the tundish to fall below this critical limit to
prevent vortex formation and its harmful effects. Vortexing is particularly undesirable
when the liquid level falls below the critical value. This phenomenon is a concern in both
ladles and tundishes. In either case, if vortexing occurs, it can lead to the entrapment of both
air and slag. This happens because a layer of slag is usually present on top of the molten
steel, and the swirling motion caused by vortexing can draw this slag into the steel stream.
This slag and air entrapment can degrade the cleanliness and quality of the steel, making
vortex prevention essential during casting operations. If vortexing occurs, it can lead to the
entrapment of air or slag into the molten steel. Once these are drawn into the steel stream,
they can cause serious problems. The entrapped slag may result in slag inclusions, while
the entry of air can lead to oxidation of the molten steel. Both slag inclusions and oxidation
are harmful to the final product, as they degrade the steel’s cleanliness and mechanical
properties.

It is essential to ensure that vortexing is avoided during the casting process. Vortex
formation can be minimized through proper tundish design, particularly by strategically
placing flow control devices such as inlet refractory structures (IRS), baffles, and dams.
These components, often referred to as tundish furniture, help regulate the flow pattern,
reduce turbulence, and prevent the formation of vortices. A well-designed tundish, along
with the correct placement of these flow modifiers, plays a key role in minimizing vortexing
and ensuring cleaner steel. It is important to ensure the appropriate placement of IRS (Inlet
Refractory Structures) and baffles within the tundish. Proper placement of these flow
modifiers plays a crucial role in preventing vortex formation. They help guide the flow of
molten steel in a controlled manner, reducing turbulence and minimizing the risk of
vortexing. This is a key aspect that must be carefully considered when determining the
mechanisms to avoid vortexing in the tundish and ensure smooth and clean casting
operations. Apart from flow control, another important mechanism is maintaining
temperature uniformity within the tundish. This can be achieved through the use of heating
systems, such as plasma torches or other heating methods. These systems help keep the
temperature homogeneous throughout the tundish. This becomes especially critical when
casting steels with very low superheat, where even small temperature drops can lead to
issues like premature solidification or unstable flow. Plasma torches are commonly used
for this purpose, helping to maintain the desired temperature and support consistent
casting quality.

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6. Introduction to Physical Modeling
Physical modeling in metallurgy involves the use of scaled-down, non-metallic models to
simulate fluid flow and heat transfer phenomena occurring in high-temperature
metallurgical processes like those in the tundish. These models use fluids like water to
replicate the behaviour of molten steel in a controlled, safe, and cost-effective environment.

Purpose:

1. Understand flow behaviour.

2. Optimize tundish design.

3. Test effects of flow control devices.

4. Study inclusion trajectories and residence time distribution.

Advantages:

1. Visual insight into fluid flow.

2. Cost-effective experimentation.

3. Safe, as it avoids high temperatures.

4. Easy to modify and repeat.

Physical models are often used in conjunction with numerical simulations and industrial
trials to build a comprehensive understanding of tundish behaviour.

7. Concept of Similarity in Physical Modeling

To ensure the validity of results obtained from physical models, certain similarity
conditions must be satisfied. These similarities ensure that the model mimics the actual
process accurately despite differences in scale and materials.

Types of Similarity:

1. Geometric Similarity: Model and prototype have the same shape but different size,
with dimensions scaled using a constant ratio.

2. Kinematic Similarity: Velocities at corresponding points are in the same direction

and have proportional magnitudes.

3. Dynamic Similarity: Ratio of forces acting at corresponding points in the model and
prototype are the same.

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 Key dimensionless numbers used to achieve similarity:

• Reynolds number (Re): Inertial forces to viscous forces.

• Froude number (Fr): Inertial forces to gravitational forces.

• Péclet number (Pe): Convective to diffusive transport.

Among these, Froude number similarity is most commonly applied in tundish water
modeling, where gravity-driven flow is dominant.

8. Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional analysis is a method of reducing physical quantities to their fundamental
dimensions (Mass, Length, Time, etc.) to derive dimensionless numbers that govern a
system's behaviour.

Steps:

1. Identify all variables involved in the system.

2. Express each in terms of basic dimensions.

3. Use Buckingham π-theorem to reduce the variables into a set of independent

dimensionless groups.

Application in Tundish Modeling:

1. Helps identify the dominant forces (e.g., inertia, gravity, viscosity).

2. Ensures correct scaling between model and prototype.

3. Provides insights into flow behaviour, inclusion flotation, and temperature gradients.

Examples of key dimensionless groups in tundish metallurgy:

• Reynolds number (Re)

• Froude number (Fr)

• Prandtl number (Pr)

• Péclet number (Pe)

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9. Physical Modeling of Iso-thermal and Non-Iso-thermal System
Physical modeling can be classified into iso-thermal and non-iso-thermal systems based on
whether temperature gradients are considered.

Iso-thermal Modeling:

• Assumes constant temperature throughout the fluid.

• Used to study flow patterns, residence time distribution (RTD), and inclusion behaviour.

• Typically uses water as the working fluid.

• Simpler and cheaper to implement.

Non-Iso-thermal Modeling:

• Accounts for temperature variation in the fluid.

• Simulates heat loss, thermal stratification, and solidification onset.

• Requires advanced instrumentation (e.g., heaters, thermocouples).

• More realistic but complex and costly.

In tundish studies, iso-thermal models are widely used to optimize tundish design and
placement of flow modifiers, while non-iso-thermal models are applied in thermal
management and solidification studies.

10. Consideration in Aqueous Modeling

When water is used as a working fluid in physical modeling of molten steel flow, certain
important considerations must be made to ensure validity and relevance:

1. Density and Viscosity Differences:

• Water has lor density and viscosity than molten steel.

• Froude number similarity must be maintained to correctly scale the effects of gravity
and inertia.

2. Scale Ratio:

• Models are typically built at 1:2 to 1:5 scale.

• Too small a scale may lead to deviation from prototype behaviour due to wall effects.

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3. Air Bubble and Surfactant Effects:

• Surface tension and air entrainment may introduce errors.

• Use of surfactants or degassed water can reduce such anomalies.

4. Tracer Studies:

• Dye or salt solution is injected as a tracer to study RTD.

• Sensor measure concentration vs. time at outlets.

5. Geometrical Fidelity:

• Accurate replication of refractory shapes and flow control devices is essential.

Aqueous modeling remains an industry standard for design optimization, operator training,
and troubleshooting of tundish operations.

11. Introduction to Stimulus Response Techniques

Stimulus Response Techniques (SRT) are experimental methods used to evaluate flow
patterns and mixing behaviour in metallurgical vessels like tundishes. They involve
introducing a "stimulus" (typically a tracer) into the system and monitoring its "response" at
one or more outlets over time.

Objectives:

1. To determine residence time distribution (RTD).

2. To identify flow anomalies such as short-circuiting and dead zones.

3. To quantify mixing efficiency.

Common Types:

1. Impulse Technique: A small quantity of tracer is injected instantaneously, and

concentration at outlets is measured as a function of time.

2. Step Input: Tracer is injected continuously and suddenly, simulating a step change in
input composition.

3. Pulse Input: A finite amount of tracer is injected rapidly.

SRTs are essential tools in understanding and improving flow dynamics within the tundish,
thereby ensuring better steel quality and consistency.

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12. Characterization of Flow
Flow characterization in tundish metallurgy involves analyzing the flow of molten steel to
identify different regions and patterns. It is critical for optimizing inclusion removal,
temperature control, and consistent delivery to molds.

Main Parameters:

• Residence Time: The time molten steel remains in the tundish.

• RTD Curve (E-curve): Captures exit age distribution of the tracer.

• Flow Pattern Identification: Plug flow, mixed flow, dead zones.

Techniques:

• Tracer Studies: Used to create RTD curves.

• Flow Visualization: In water models using dyes or particles.

• Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD): Simulates flow numerically.

Flow characterization helps improve tundish design, refine flow control devices, and ensure
more efficient metallurgical reactions.

13. Characterization of Flow in Actual Systems

While physical models provide insights, real industrial tundishes must al be evaluated to
ensure optimal flow behaviour. This involves more complex and precise techniques due to
high temperature and opacity of molten steel.

Methods:

• Tracer Injection: Radioactive or chemical tracers are injected in actual tundishes to

track flow patterns and RTD.

• Temperature Mapping: Thermocouples are installed at various positions to

understand thermal behaviour.

• Slag Layer Observation: Assessed for uniformity and effectiveness.

Challenges:

1. Difficult operating environment (high temperature, molten slag).

2. Need for remote sensing and real-time monitoring.

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 3. Safety and regulatory concerns in tracer usage.

Despite the challenges, actual system characterization validates physical and numerical
models and confirms the effectiveness of design changes in the tundish.

14. Analysis of RTD Curves

Residence Time Distribution (RTD) curves are critical outputs from tracer studies. They
describe how long various fluid elements reside within the tundish before exiting. RTD
analysis provides direct insight into the nature of flow inside the tundish.

Key RTD Functions:

1. E(t): Exit age distribution function.

2. F(t): Cumulative residence time distribution.

Interpretation:

• Early peaks: Suggest short-circuiting.

• Broad curves: Indicate strong mixing.

• Long tails: Indicate dead zones or stagnant regions.

Ideal Flow Types:

• Plug Flow: Single sharp peak (ideal flow).

• Perfectly Mixed Flow: Exponential decay curve.

• Real Systems: Often a combination, analysed using multi-flow model.

Understanding RTD helps metallurgists identify inefficiencies and implement targeted

improvements in tundish operations.

15. Plug, Mixed and Dead Regions in Tundish

Flow within a tundish is rarely ideal. It is typically a combination of three zones:

1. Plug Flow Region:

• Molten steel flows in a straight path from inlet to outlet.

• Offers minimal mixing.

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 • Encouraged for minimizing intermixing during grade transitions.

2. Mixed Region:

• Steel is mixed, with no clear flow path.

• Inclusions have a better chance to float out.

• Too much mixing may lead to grade contamination.

3. Dead Zone:

• Areas with stagnant or recirculating flow.

• Little or no steel movement.

• Can cause thermal stratification, inclusion entrapment.

Design:

• Flow Control Devices (FCDs): Dams, turbulence inhibitors to optimize region

proportions.

• Geometry Modification: Tundish shape can enhance plug flow and reduce dead
zones.

Balancing these zones is essential for achieving optimal inclusion removal, uniform
temperature, and reduced transition losses in continuous casting.

16. Fluid Flow Fundamentals

Understanding fluid flow is central to tundish metallurgy. It governs how molten steel
moves within the tundish and influences inclusion removal, temperature uniformity, and
flow to the mold.

Classification of Flow:

1. Laminar Flow: Occurs at low Reynolds numbers; smooth and orderly.

2. Turbulent Flow: High Reynolds numbers; chaotic and mixed. Most tundish flows
are turbulent.

3. Transitional Flow: Beten laminar and turbulent regimes.

Key Concepts:

• Velocity Field: Describes how fast and in what direction steel moves.

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 • Streamlines: Paths that represent fluid motion.

• Vortices: Circular motion that can enhance mixing or trap inclusions.

Flow control is achieved by modifying tundish design and using flow modifiers to enhance
inclusion removal and reduce dead zones.

17. Mass Conservation Equation

The mass conservation equation, al known as the continuity equation, ensures that mass is
neither created nor destroyed in the fluid flow system.

For incompressible fluids, the equation is:

∂ρ/∂t+∇⋅(ρv⃗)=0

For constant density (incompressible):

∇⋅v⃗=0

In Tundish Applications:

1. Ensures that incoming and outgoing steel flow rates are balanced.

2. Helps track fluid entry and exit in CFD simulations.

3. Used in modeling to validate flow stability and residence time.

This equation is the foundation for more complex flow models like momentum and energy
equations.

18. Momentum Conservation Equation

The momentum conservation equation, based on Newton’s second law, describes how the
velocity of fluid changes due to applied forces.

ρ(∂v⃗/∂t+v⃗⋅∇v⃗)=−∇p+μ(∇^2)v⃗+F⃗

Where:

• ρ = density,

• v⃗ = velocity vector,

• p = pressure,

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 • μ = dynamic viscosity,

• F⃗ = body forces (e.g., gravity).

Relevance in Tundish:

• Models the impact of gravity, buoyancy (for inclusion removal), and wall resistance.

• Helps simulate real molten steel flow using CFD tools.

• Crucial for understanding how baffles or dams influence flow.

This equation underpins numerical simulations used to optimize tundish design.

19. Energy Conservation Equation

The energy conservation equation accounts for heat transfer within the fluid system. In a
tundish, maintaining the steel's temperature is critical to prevent premature solidification.

The general form is:

ρCp(∂T/∂t+v⃗⋅∇T)=k(∇^2)T+Q
Where:

• Cp = specific heat,
• T = temperature,

• k = thermal conductivity,

• Q = internal heat generation (if any).

Applications:

1. Evaluates temperature gradients within the tundish.

2. Assesses heat losses through the tundish lining.

3. Supports decisions on preheating, insulation, and tundish cover use.

Energy modeling enables better thermal control, ensuring casting quality and minimizing
defects.

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20. Navier–Stokes Equations for Newtonian Fluid
The Navier–Stokes equations are the complete set of equations governing fluid motion. For
a Newtonian fluid, they combine the continuity, momentum, and energy equations to
provide a full dynamic description.

General Form:

ρ(∂v⃗∂t+v⃗⋅∇v⃗)=−∇p+μ∇2v⃗+F⃗

These equations are complex and often require numerical methods (CFD) .

In Tundish Simulation:

• Describe turbulent flow, recirculation, and vortex formation.

• Predict steel behaviour under different tundish designs.

• Allow optimization of flow modifiers and thermal strategies.

Navier–Stokes equations are the foundation of computational fluid dynamics (CFD), which
is widely used in tundish flow and heat transfer studies.

21. Introduction to Turbulence in Fluid Flow

Turbulence is a flow regime characterized by chaotic changes in pressure and velocity. In
tundish metallurgy, molten steel flow is typically turbulent, which significantly affects heat
and mass transfer, inclusion flotation, and mixing behaviour.

Characteristics of Turbulent Flow:

1. Irregular and chaotic motion.

2. High Reynolds number (Re > 4000).

3. Enhanced mixing and momentum transfer.

4. Formation of vortices and eddies.

Importance in Tundish:

1. Promotes inclusion flotation by disrupting laminar layers.

2. Enhances temperature uniformity.

3. Must be controlled to avoid slag entrapment or re-oxidation.

Turbulence is both beneficial and challenging. Its proper understanding and control are
essential to achieving clean steel and efficient casting.

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22. Characteristics of Turbulent Flow
Turbulent flow exhibits a range of unique characteristics that make it complex but useful in
metallurgical processes like continuous casting.

Key Features:

1. Randomness: Velocity and pressure fluctuate in time and space.

2. Eddies: Rotational fluid elements that span various length scales.

3. Energy Cascade: Energy is transferred from large eddies to smaller ones until
dissipated by viscosity.

4. High Momentum Transfer: Enhances mixing compared to laminar flow.

Quantitative Measures:

• Turbulent kinetic energy (k): Represents energy in velocity fluctuations.

• Dissipation rate (ε): Rate at which turbulent energy is lost due to viscosity.

In tundish design, balancing turbulent intensity is critical. Excess turbulence may disturb
slag-metal interface, while too little turbulence reduces mixing and inclusion removal
efficiency.

23. RANS Equations

The Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations are used to simplify turbulence
modeling by decomposing the flow into mean and fluctuating components.

v⃗=v⃗ˉ+v⃗

Where:

• v⃗ is the time-averaged velocity,

• v⃗′ is the fluctuating part.

RANS Form:

ρ(∂vˉi/∂t+vˉj∂vˉi/∂xj)=−∂pˉ/∂xi+μ(∂^2(vˉi)/∂xj^2)−∂τij/∂xj

Where τij is the Reynolds stress tensor due to turbulence.

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Use in Tundish CFD:

• Simplifies complex turbulent flow.

• Provides a manageable approach for industrial applications.

• Forms the basis of turbulence models like the k-ε model.

RANS models are widely used for simulating flow in tundishes due to their balance between
accuracy and computational efficiency.

24. Turbulent Flow Calculations

Turbulent flow calculations are essential for designing tundishes and optimizing steel
quality. These calculations are performed using turbulence models embedded within CFD.

Key Turbulence Models:

1. k-ε Model: Revels equations for turbulent kinetic energy (k) and its dissipation rate
(ε).

2. k-ω Model: Better for near-wall treatment.

3. Large Eddy Simulation (LES): Revels large turbulent structures directly.

Parameters Required:

a) Turbulent viscosity.

b) Turbulent kinetic energy (k).

c) Dissipation rate (ε).

Outputs:

a) Velocity profiles.

b) Turbulent intensity distribution.

c) Pressure and temperature fields.

Turbulent flow modeling helps optimize the use of flow modifiers, slag practices, and
tundish geometry for efficient and consistent casting.

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25. Turbulence Modeling Using k-ε Model
The k-ε model is the most commonly used turbulence model in engineering applications
due to its balance between accuracy and computational cost.

Governing Equations:

• Turbulent kinetic energy (k):

∂k/∂t+v⃗⋅∇k=Pk−ϵ+∇⋅((νt/σk)∇k)

Dissipation rate (ε):

∂ϵ/∂t+v⃗⋅∇ϵ=C1ϵ(ϵ/k)Pk−C2ϵ(ϵ2/k)+∇⋅((νt/σϵ)∇ϵ)

Where:

• Pk = production of turbulence,

• νt = eddy viscosity.

Constants:

• C1ϵ=1.44C

• C2ϵ=1.92C

• σk=1.0

• σϵ=1.3

Applications in Tundish:

a) Simulate turbulent steel flow.

b) Analyse effects of flow control devices.

c) Optimize residence time and inclusion removal.

The k-ε model is an industry standard for modeling flow in continuous casting tundishes
and refining their design

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26. Introduction to Heat Transfer Phenomena
Heat transfer is a critical aspect of tundish operation, as maintaining the proper steel
temperature is essential for casting quality and avoiding solidification problems.

Modes of Heat Transfer in Tundish:

1. Conduction: Heat transfer through tundish lining materials.

2. Convection: Within molten steel; dominant in turbulent flow.

3. Radiation: Heat lost from exposed liquid metal surface.

4. Evaporation: Minor losses due to slag/cover interaction.

Influencing Factors:

• Tundish refractory material and thickness.

• Use of insulating powder or tundish cover.

• Preheating and temperature of incoming steel.

Controlling heat transfer in the tundish helps minimize temperature drop, maintain steel
superheat, and reduce casting defects such as breakout and cold shuts.

27. Numerical Methods for solving Governing Equations

To simulate and analyse flow, temperature, and inclusion behaviour in the tundish,
numerical methods are employed to solve the conservation equations (mass, momentum,
energy).

Common Numerical Techniques:

1. Finite Difference Method (FDM): Approximates derivatives using pointwise values

on a grid.

2. Finite Element Method (FEM): Uses shape functions to model field variables;
suitable for complex geometries.

3. Finite Volume Method (FVM): Integrates governing equations over control

volumes; conserves fluxes and widely used in CFD.

Steps in Numerical Modeling:

• Discretize geometry and equations.

• Apply boundary and initial conditions.

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 • Using iterative levers (e.g., SIMPLE algorithm).

• Validate with experimental/industrial data.

These methods enable engineers to predict flow behaviour, optimize tundish design, and
enhance steel quality without excessive physical trials.

28. Finite Volume Method for Convection and Diffusion Problems

The Finite Volume Method (FVM) is the most widely used numerical technique in fluid flow
modeling, particularly in computational fluid dynamics (CFD).

Key Concepts:

• The domain is divided into small control volumes (cells).

• Governing equations (conservation laws) are integrated over each volume.

• Fluxes across boundaries are used to update variable values.

Applications in Tundish:

• Modeling of convection (flow-driven transport) and diffusion (gradient-driven

transport).

• Accurate simulation of velocity, temperature, and inclusion concentration fields.

FVM ensures conservation of mass, momentum, and energy over each control volume,
making it ideal for accurate simulation of molten steel behaviour in the tundish.

29. Different Discretization Schemes

In numerical simulations, discretization schemes are used to approximate the differential
terms (like derivatives) with algebraic expressions that can be solved on a grid.

Common Schemes:

1. Upwind Scheme:

o Simple and stable.

o Introduces numerical diffusion.

o Suitable for high-velocity flows.

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 2. Central Difference Scheme:

o Higher accuracy.

o Less stable near sharp gradients.

3. Hybrid Scheme:

o Combines upwind and central for better accuracy and stability.

4. Por Law Scheme:

o Based on the analytical solution of convection-diffusion equation.

o Balances between diffusion and convection effects.

Application:

Choosing the right discretization scheme affects the accuracy, convergence, and stability of
the CFD. In tundish simulations, it influences the prediction of flow paths and temperature
gradients.

30. Assessment of Discretization Schemes

Once a simulation is performed using a specific discretization scheme, it is critical to
evaluate its accuracy and appropriateness for the problem.

Criteria for Assessment:

1. Stability: Scheme should not lead to divergence or unphysical oscillations.

2. Accuracy: Captures real physical gradients (velocity, temperature, concentration).

3. Convergence: Should reach a steady-state or acceptable residual level.

4. Computational Cost: Should be efficient in terms of time and memory.

Validation:

• Compare with analytical solutions (if available).

• Use experimental data (e.g., from water models).

• Perform grid-independence test.

Proper assessment ensures that tundish simulations are reliable and can be used for
practical decision-making.

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31. Elements of Mathematical Modeling in Tundish Steelmaking
Mathematical modeling in tundish steelmaking involves using equations that represent
physical phenomena such as fluid flow, heat transfer, and inclusion behaviour.

Key Elements:

1. Governing Equations:

Continuity, momentum (Navier–Stokes), energy, and species transport equations.

2. Boundary Conditions:

Define how fluid interacts with tundish walls, inlet, and outlet.

3. Material Properties:

Density, viscosity, thermal conductivity, etc.

4. Turbulence Models:

Typically, k-ε or RANS models.

5. Inclusion Transport Models:

Consider buoyancy, drag, and collision-coalescence effects.

Mathematical modeling allows for predictive analysis, design optimization, and

troubleshooting without excessive physical trials.

32. Boundary Conditions

In any simulation or analytical model, boundary conditions are essential to define the
physical limits and behaviours at the domain edges.

Types:

1. Inlet Boundary:

Specifies velocity, temperature, turbulence intensity of incoming steel.

2. Outlet Boundary:

Usually assumes fixed pressure or extrapolated conditions.

3. Wall Boundary:

No-slip condition for velocity (fluid velocity = 0 at wall).

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 Adiabatic or heat flux condition for temperature.

4. Symmetry/Axis Boundary:

Applied when geometry or flow is symmetrical.

Importance:

Correct boundary conditions ensure physical realism, numerical stability, and predictive
accuracy of the simulation. Misapplication may lead to incorrect conclusions in tundish
modeling.

33. Flow Analysis in Tundish

Flow analysis helps understand how molten steel moves within the tundish, and how this
affects metallurgical performance.

Analysis Methods:

• CFD Simulation: Provides velocity, turbulence, and RTD maps.

• Water Modeling: Visualize flow paths and tracer movement.

• RTD Measurement: Quantify residence time and mixing.

Objectives:

a) Ensure even flow distribution to all strands.

b) Minimize dead zones and short-circuiting.

c) Promote inclusion flotation and removal.

Typical Observations:

a) Swirl near inlet due to ladle shroud.

b) Recirculation zones influenced by dams.

c) Temperature gradients along length and depth.

Flow analysis is critical for tundish design improvement, grade transition management, and
steel cleanliness enhancement.

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34. Analysis of Fluid Flow and Mixing in Tundish
Efficient mixing in the tundish ensures chemical and thermal homogeneity, reducing casting
defects and improving quality.

Parameters to Analyse:

1. RTD Curve:

Determines the extent of mixing and flow type (plug vs. mixed).

2. Mixing Time:

Time required for homogenization after a change (e.g., alloy addition).

3. Inclusion Path lines:

Visualize and analyse inclusion removal trajectory.

4. Velocity Field:

High velocities near inlet, near outlets.

Tools:

• CFD software (ANSYS Fluent, Open FOAM).

• Physical models using water and dye tracers.

• Experimental validation via actual steel plant trials.

Mixing analysis informs the placement and design of flow modifiers to optimize
metallurgical performance.

35. Non-Iso-thermal Flow Considerations in Tundish

Most CFD and physical models assume iso-thermal flow, but in reality, molten steel exhibits
non-iso-thermal behaviour due to temperature gradients.

Effects of non-Iso-thermal Flow:

a) Thermal Stratification: Hotter steel at top, colder at bottom.

b) Buoyancy Effects: Temperature-induced density differences create natural

convection.

c) Inclusion Behaviour: Floatation rates vary with local temperatures.

d) solidification Risk: Low-temperature regions near walls may initiate premature

shell formation.

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Modeling Considerations:

• solve energy conservation equation along with momentum equations.

• Use proper boundary conditions for heat loss (radiation, conduction).

• Include thermal properties of slag, steel, and refractory lining.

Non-iso-thermal modeling provides realistic predictions for thermal management, casting

start-up, and preheating strategies.

36. Intermixing in Tundish

Intermixing refers to the blending of different steel grades or heats within the tundish
during transition from one ladle to another. It is a critical issue in continuous casting,
especially when casting different grades or colors of steel back-to-back.

Causes of Intermixing:

• Unsteady flow during ladle change.

• Poor control of incoming and outgoing steel.

• Insufficient residence time in the tundish.

Consequences:

• Quality deviation in the transition zone.

• Need to scrap or downgrade intermix portion.

• Increased cost due to yield loss.

Minimization Strategies:

• Use of flow control devices to promote plug flow.

• Dynamic flow control with stopper rods or slide gates.

• Mathematical modeling to predict transition volumes.

• Physical barriers like dams to delay intermixing spread.

A properly designed tundish with controlled flow can significantly reduce intermixing and
transition loss.

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 Submerged Entry Nozzle (SEN)

37. Introduction

The Submerged Entry Nozzle (SEN) is a critical component in the continuous casting process
of steel. It is a tube-like refractory nozzle that connects the tundish to the mold, and as the
name suggests, it is submerged below the molten steel meniscus within the mold.

The primary function of the SEN is to deliver molten steel from the tundish into the mold in
a controlled and protected manner, while minimizing exposure to air to prevent reoxidation
and inclusion formation. The SEN plays a vital role in maintaining the quality of the cast
product by regulating the flow dynamics, temperature, and turbulence within the mold.

Typically made of high-grade refractory materials such as alumina-graphite, zirconia, or

magnesia-carbon, the SEN must withstand thermal shock, corrosive attack from molten steel,
and mechanical erosion during casting.

In modern steelmaking, SEN design has evolved to optimize mold flow patterns, reduce
meniscus turbulence, and limit the risk of clogging. Features such as angled side ports, argon
purging systems, and anti-clogging coatings have made SENs more efficient and reliable,
especially when casting high-quality and clean steels.

38. Purpose of Submerged Entry Nozzle (SEN)

The Submerged Entry Nozzle (SEN) serves multiple critical purposes in the continuous
casting process:

1. Controlled Delivery of Molten Steel

The SEN directs molten steel from the tundish into the mold at a controlled flow rate
and pattern, ensuring smooth and stable casting conditions.

2. Minimization of Reoxidation
By being submerged under the molten steel meniscus, the SEN prevents direct
exposure of liquid steel to atmospheric oxygen, reducing the risk of reoxidation and
oxide inclusion formation.

3. Reduction of Turbulence in the Mold

Properly designed SENs (especially those with angled side ports) help to control the
flow pattern in the mold, minimizing turbulence and meniscus fluctuations, which
are known to cause surface defects and entrapment of slag or gas.

4. Temperature Uniformity
SENs aid in maintaining temperature homogeneity by directing the hot liquid steel
deeper into the mold cavity, promoting uniform solidification.

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 5. Protection from Entrapped Slag
The submerged nature of the nozzle helps in separating slag and preventing it from
entering the mold, thereby improving steel cleanliness.

6. Facilitation of Argon Purging

Many SEN designs incorporate argon gas purging to prevent clogging by inclusions
(e.g., alumina) and to assist in floatation of non-metallic particles.

7. Strand Center ling and Symmetry

By guiding the steel in a symmetrical flow pattern, SENs help in maintaining strand
center line, minimizing defects such as center line segregation or off-corner
shrinkage.

39. Key Design Aspects of SEN:

1. Bore Size: The bore refers to the internal diameter of the nozzle through which
molten steel flows.
a) Larger bore:
Allows higher steel flow rates, supporting greater throughput. However, it tends to
create increased turbulence in the mold, which can lead to surface defects and
entrapment of slag or inclusions.
b) Smaller bore:
Provides better control of flow and smoother mold filling.
More prone to clogging, especially from inclusion buildup (e.g., Al₂O₃), which can
disrupt casting operations and reduce strand quality.

2. Port Design and Angle:

SENs typically feature side ports that direct the molten steel flow into the mold
cavity.
a) Downward-angled ports (usually 15° to 30°) reduce mold surface turbulence and
assist in even heat distribution.
b) Proper port design ensures:
o Symmetrical flow in the mold.
o Stable meniscus, minimizing surface disturbances.
o Inclusion floatation without re-entrainment.

3. Nozzle Shape and Length:

SENs come in various shapes such as straight, tapered, or multi-step designs.
A longer SEN provides better protection against reoxidation but may increase
pressure drop and clogging risk.
The nozzle tip may be round, oval, or chamfered to optimize mold flow
characteristics.

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4. Materials of Construction: SENs are constructed from high-grade refractories like:

i. Alumina-carbon (Al₂O₃-C)
ii. Zirconia-carbon (ZrO₂-C)
iii. Magnesia-carbon (MgO-C)

These materials offer:

i. High thermal resistance

ii. Chemical stability
iii. Resistance to erosion and clogging

5. Anti-Clogging Features: SENs often incorporate technologies to reduce clogging:

i. Argon gas purging systems through porous plugs or small capillaries to

dislodge solid inclusions.
ii. Coated inner linings with anti-wetting materials (e.g., spinel or ZrO₂) to
reduce alumina adhesion.
iii. Segmented or multi-layered inserts to manage thermal gradients and flow
stability.

6. Compatibility with Flow Control Systems: SENs work in conjunction with slide gate
systems or stopper rods mounted on the tundish to:

i. Control start/stop operations.

ii. Regulate flow rate and strand speed.
iii. Respond to emergency shut-off requirements.

40. .Port Design:

The port design of a Submerged Entry Nozzle (SEN) plays a crucial role in controlling the flow
pattern of molten steel within the mold. Proper port design ensures optimal mold filling,
minimizes turbulence, and promotes high-quality casting.
Most SENs are equipped with two symmetrical side ports, which allow molten steel to be
discharged laterally into the mold rather than directly downward. These side ports are
typically angled downward to direct steel flow beneath the mold meniscus.

A. Port Angle (15°–30° downward): The angle of inclination of the ports—usually

between 15° to 30°—is carefully chosen to:
a) Prevent excessive surface turbulence.

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 b) Reduce meniscus fluctuations, which could lead to defects like surface
cracks, slag entrapment, or oscillation marks.

c) Enhance inclusion removal, as gentle flow promotes flotation of non-

metallic inclusions.

B. Effect on Mold Flow Pattern:

I. Shallow angles (e.g., ~15°): Promote wider horizontal spread, reducing

vertical velocity—suitable for thin slab casting.

II. Steeper angles (e.g., ~30°): Direct steel deeper into the mold, enhancing
mixing but increasing turbulence—useful when strong thermal or
compositional homogenization is required.

C.Port Size and Shape:

I. Typically rectangular or elliptical to ensure uniform flow distribution.

II. Larger ports increase flow but may cause more turbulence and erosion of
mold walls.

Key Objectives of Port Design:

a) Achieve a stable and symmetric flow inside the mold.

b) Minimize entrainment of mold slag.
c) Improve solidification front stability and overall strand quality.

41. Flow Control Devices:

Effective control of molten steel flow from the tundish to the mold is essential for
maintaining casting stability and strand quality. Flow control devices are installed
above the SEN to regulate the steel flow rate, respond to emergency situations,
and enable start/stop operations during continuous casting.

There are two primary types of flow control mechanisms:

A) Slide Gates Mechanism: Slide gates consist of refractory plates with matching holes
that slide over each other to open or restrict the passage of molten steel.

Features:

a) Precise control over flow rate by adjusting the overlap of the holes.
b) Allow for rapid shutoff in emergencies.
c) Commonly used in slab and bloom casting, where flow demands are
higher.

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Advantages:

a) Robust and simple to operate.

b) Easy to automate.
c) Suitable for high-throughput casting.
B) Stopper Rods Mechanism: A ceramic rod is vertically lowered into the tundish
nozzle to control the opening and thus regulate the steel flow into the SEN.

Features:

i. Precise positioning of the rod tip adjusts the annular gap, controlling the
steel flow.
ii. Often used in billet and bloom casting, or where finer control is required.

Advantages:

i. Fine-tuned flow regulation.

ii. Smooth transitions in flow rate.
iii. Suitable for smaller-section casting or cleaner steel grades.

Function of Flow Control Devices: Maintain constant and optimal flow rate through the
SEN.

Adjust flow as needed during:

i. Start-up
ii. Grade changes
iii. Tundish draining
iv. Provide emergency shut-off to prevent overfilling of mold
or SEN breakout.
v. Help maintain strand quality by avoiding turbulence due
to flow surges.

Materials of Flow Control Devices :

The Submerged Entry Nozzle (SEN) is continuously exposed to extreme operating conditions,
including high temperatures, chemical attack, and mechanical erosion during continuous
casting. Therefore, it is made from high-performance refractory materials that can withstand
these harsh environments.

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42. Key Materials Used in SEN Construction:

A. Alumina–Carbon (Al₂O₃–C): Most commonly used material for SEN bodies.

Alumina (Al₂O₃) offers excellent refractoriness and chemical stability.

Carbon (usually in the form of graphite) enhances thermal shock resistance and
improves non-wettability, which helps in reducing inclusion adhesion.

However, carbon may oxidize, especially at high temperatures, so SENs often have
protective coatings.

B. Zirconia (ZrO₂):
Often used as an insert or lining material, especially at the nozzle tip or port area.

Provides superior resistance to erosion and wetting by molten steel and

inclusions.

Ideal for casting clean steels, such as ultra-low carbon or stainless steels, where
clogging is a serious issue.

C. Magnesia-Carbon (MgO–C):
Less commonly used in SENs, but offers good slag resistance.

Suitable for applications where magnesia compatibility is needed (e.g., high-

basicity slags).

D. Spinel-Based Composites (MgAl₂O₄):

Used in some SEN linings for their improved thermal stability and low reactivity
with steel.

Good resistance to chemical corrosion and inclusion buildup.

E. Low-Alumina Refractory Compositions:

By reducing the alumina content in SEN materials or replacing it with spinel or
zirconia-based systems, alumina accumulation from the melt can be reduced.

F. Low-Alumina Refractory Compositions:

By reducing the alumina content in SEN materials or replacing it with spinel or
zirconia-based systems, alumina accumulation from the melt can be reduced.

G. Use of Zirconia (ZrO₂) Inserts:

ZrO₂ inserts are placed at high-wear and high-adhesion zones within the SEN,
especially at the bore neck and port regions.

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 Benefits:

ZrO₂ has exceptional corrosion resistance and low wettability, making it ideal for
clean steel applications.

Helps to maintain smooth flow, even during long casting sequences.

Materials are selected not only for durability but also for their ability to resist clogging
by:

a) Having low wettability with oxides and molten steel.

b) Incorporating dense coatings or non-wetting barriers.
c) Enabling argon gas purging, which helps dislodge attached particles.

43. METHODS OF SEN

a. Anti-Clogging Techniques:

Clogging is one of the most frequent and serious operational problems

associated with Submerged Entry Nozzles (SENs). It occurs when non-metallic
inclusions, particularly alumina (Al₂O₃), adhere to the inner walls of the nozzle,
gradually reducing the bore diameter and disrupting the molten steel flow.

To combat this, several anti-clogging techniques have been developed and widely
implemented in modern continuous casting operations.

Anti-Clogging Properties:

One of the major challenges in SEN operation is clogging due to oxide buildup,
especially from alumina (Al₂O₃) and calcium aluminates formed during
deoxidation or modification treatments

b) Argon Gas Purging Method:

c) A small quantity of argon gas is injected either through the stopper rod,
porous plug, or directly into the SEN wall.

Purpose:

i. The argon gas creates a protective barrier along the inner surface of the
SEN bore.
ii. It dislodges adhered oxide particles (especially Al₂O₃), reducing buildup.
iii. It also lowers the oxygen partial pressure, reducing the rate of
reoxidation.

Benefits:

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 i. Significantly extends nozzle life.
ii. Maintains consistent flow rate throughout the cast.
iii. Improves strand surface quality by stabilizing the flow.

Optimization:

Requires precise control of flow rate (typically 2–10 L/min).

Excess argon can cause bubble entrapment or surface defects.

d) Coated Nozzles Description:

SENs can be internally coated with anti-wetting materials, such as ZrO₂,
MgAl₂O₄, or other ceramic-based films.

Function:

Coatings reduce the adhesion of inclusions by making the surface less reactive or
less wettable by molten steel and oxides.

Advantages:

1. Delay the onset of clogging.

2. Lower the maintenance frequency.
3. Enhance casting efficiency and cleanliness.

e) Smooth Surface Finishing

Polishing or refining the inner bore surface minimizes rough areas where
inclusions can anchor.
Reduces mechanical trapping of particles and extends clog-free operation
time.

44. Integration: Tundish and SEN in Continuous Casting

The tundish and Submerged Entry Nozzle (SEN) work in close coordination within the
continuous casting process to ensure that molten steel is delivered to the mold with
optimal cleanliness, flow characteristics, and thermal consistency. While they serve
different physical roles, their functions are interdependent and together have a direct
influence on strand quality, product yield, and operational stability.

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Role of the Tundish:

The tundish acts as a metallurgical reactor, refining and conditioning the molten steel
after it leaves the ladle.

It allows for:

i. Inclusion removal through flotation to the slag layer.

ii. Alloy homogenization and temperature equalization.
iii. Flow control using dams, weirs, or turbulence inhibitors.
iv. The final composition, temperature, and cleanliness of steel are established here
before the steel enters the mold.

Role of the SEN:

The SEN transfers steel from the tundish to the mold in a controlled, submerged manner.

It protects steel from:

i. Reoxidation by shielding it from ambient air.

ii. Slag entrapment by keeping the entry below the mold meniscus.
iii. It also maintains:
iv. Laminar, symmetric flow in the mold.
v. Thermal consistency, ensuring uniform solidification.
vi. Cleanliness, by preventing secondary contamination and inclusion re-
entrainment.

45. Why Integration Matters:

A) Preserving Metallurgical Quality:

The inclusion removal, desulfurization, and homogenization achieved in the tundish can
be easily compromised if the SEN permits reoxidation, slag entrapment, or turbulent
mold entry.

A properly designed SEN ensures that the cleanliness levels achieved in the tundish are
carried through to the mold.

B) Flow Control Synergy:

The tundish and SEN together regulate the rate, pattern, and direction of molten steel
flow.

The tundish influences macro-flow, while the SEN governs micro-flow entering the mold.

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 C) Thermal and Compositional Uniformity:

Turbulence control and flow path design in the tundish maintain temperature uniformity.

SEN design ensures that this uniformity is not disrupted during mold entry.

D) Operational Continuity:

Clogging in the SEN or poor flow design in the tundish can interrupt casting.

Therefore, proper integration minimizes risks of breakouts, flow surges, and quality
defects.

46. Challenges SEN Operations:

Despite advancements in design and process control, the tundish and Submerged Entry
Nozzle (SEN) systems face several operational challenges that can compromise steel
quality, casting efficiency, and equipment life. These challenges are especially critical
when casting clean steels, low superheat grades, or running long casting sequences.

1. Clogging of SEN Issue: One of the most frequent and disruptive problems during
continuous casting.

Caused by the buildup of non-metallic inclusions, especially alumina (Al₂O₃) or calcium

aluminates, on the inner walls of the SEN.

Consequences:

Gradual narrowing of the bore, reducing steel flow rate.

Leads to strand quality defects, casting interruptions, or even strand breakouts.

Root Causes:

a) Improper deoxidation practices.

b) Lack of effective argon purging.
c) Inadequate nozzle materials or coatings.

2. Thermal Loss in Tundish Leading to Low Superheat Issue:

During prolonged casting, the tundish can lose heat to the surroundings.

Especially critical when casting low superheat steels, where the temperature margin is
minimal.

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Consequences:

a) Risk of premature solidification or "cold shuts".

b) Reduction in inclusion flotation efficiency.
c) Compromised flow behaviour and increased clogging risk.

Solutions: Use of tundish heating systems such as:

i. Plasma torches
ii. Induction coils
iii. Tundish insulation covers and preheating of refractory linings.

3. Reoxidation at Tundish-Slag Interface or Air Contact Issue: The surface of the molten
steel in the tundish is exposed to slag and sometimes ambient air, which can lead to
reoxidation.

Consequences:

a) Formation of alumina or silica inclusions.

b) Compromises steel cleanliness achieved during secondary metallurgy.
c) Contributes to SEN clogging and flow instability.

Mitigation Strategies:

a) Use of synthetic slags with low oxygen activity.

b) Tundish argon shrouding to limit oxygen pickup.
c) Deep immersion nozzles or cover fluxes to shield the steel surface.

Overall Impact: These challenges, if not properly addressed, can result in:

a) Poor surface and internal quality of the cast strand.

b) Increased downtime due to nozzle replacement or strand breakout.
c) Higher operational costs and lower yield.

47. Solutions For SEN :

To ensure stable continuous casting, high steel cleanliness, and consistent product
quality, several technical solutions and innovations have been developed to counteract
the operational challenges posed by the tundish and Submerged Entry Nozzle (SEN).
These focus on thermal management, flow control, inclusion removal, and clogging
prevention.

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1. Advanced Tundish Design with Flow Modifiers

What It Does: Improves steel flow pattern inside the tundish to promote plug flow and
minimize dead zones.

Key Features:

a) Use of dams, weirs, turbulence inhibitors, and flow control boxes.

b) Enhances inclusion flotation to the slag layer and reduces short-circuiting of steel.

Benefits:

a) Better temperature and compositional uniformity.

b) More efficient metallurgical refining inside the tundish.
c) Increased strand cleanliness and casting consistency.

2. Preheated or Plasma-Heated Tundishes

Purpose:

Prevents thermal loss and ensures adequate superheat in the steel as it moves from ladle
to mold.

Methods:

Gas preheating of tundish refractory before casting begins.

Plasma heating torches during casting to maintain bath temperature.

Benefits:

Enables casting of low superheat steels without freezing risks.

Improves inclusion removal efficiency due to enhanced flotation kinetics.

Reduces refractory damage caused by thermal shock.

3. Argon Purging in SEN

Mechanism: Small quantities of argon gas are injected through the SEN or stopper rod to
dislodge oxide inclusions and prevent alumina clogging.

Benefits:

a) Maintains steady and laminar flow in the SEN.

b) Extends casting sequence length without nozzle change.
c) Minimizes strand defects caused by interrupted flow.

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 Control:

a) Requires optimized flow rates (typically 2–10 L/min).

b) Excess purging can cause argon bubble entrapment in the strand.

4. Use of Ceramic Filters or Purging Plugs

Ceramic Filters:

a) Installed at the tundish nozzle base to trap large inclusions before steel enters the
SEN.
b) Especially useful for clean steel casting (e.g., automotive, pipe grades).

Purging Plugs:

a) Porous refractory plugs that inject argon into the tundish floor to:
b) Promote upward flow, aiding inclusion flotation.
c) Disrupt stagnant zones for better temperature homogenization.

Benefits:

a) Improves overall tundish cleanliness.

b) Reduces inclusion size and volume entering the mold.
c) Supports longer SEN life by reducing clogging load.

48. Conclusion
The integration of optimized tundish practices and advanced Submerged Entry Nozzle
(SEN) technologies is essential for achieving efficient, stable, and high-quality continuous
casting. The use of design improvements, active thermal management, and clogging
mitigation techniques—such as flow modifiers, preheating, argon purging, and ceramic
filtration—has significantly enhanced the performance of tundish and SEN systems.

These solutions collectively ensure:

A. Improved steel cleanliness

B. Stable mold flow conditions
C. Extended casting sequence lengths
D. Reduced operational downtime

Importantly, steelmakers can customize the selection and combination of these technologies
based on specific steel grades, production goals, and casting conditions. This flexibility allows
for optimized performance, cost-effectiveness, and enhanced product quality across a wide
range of applications.

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A) Improved steel cleanliness

Improved steel cleanliness – By minimizing reoxidation, controlling inclusion flotation,

and reducing turbulence-induced entrapment, these technologies limit the presence of non-
metallic inclusions in the final product. Flow control devices in the tundish promote
inclusion flotation and removal, while argon purging in the SEN prevents nozzle clogging
and reduces the risk of inclusion entrapment. Ceramic filters and well-designed flow paths
further enhance impurity separation, resulting in cleaner steel with superior mechanical
properties and surface finish.

B) Stable mold flow conditions

Stable mold flow conditions – Optimized SEN port geometry, controlled casting speeds,
and balanced flow distribution ensure a symmetrical and predictable flow pattern in the
mold. This stability minimizes meniscus fluctuations, reduces the risk of level oscillations,
and prevents defects such as slag entrapment, breakout, and surface cracks. Proper flow
control also promotes uniform heat transfer and solidification, reducing segregation and
improving slab internal quality. In addition, argon purging and clogging prevention
measures help maintain consistent flow rates throughout the casting sequence, supporting
dimensional accuracy and surface uniformity.

C) Stable mold flow conditions

Stable mold flow conditions – Optimized SEN port geometry, controlled casting speeds,
and balanced flow distribution ensure a symmetrical and predictable flow pattern in the
mold. This stability minimizes meniscus fluctuations, reduces the risk of level oscillations,
and prevents defects such as slag entrapment, breakout, and surface cracks. Proper flow
control also promotes uniform heat transfer and solidification, reducing segregation and
improving slab internal quality. In addition, argon purging and clogging prevention
measures help maintain consistent flow rates throughout the casting sequence, supporting
dimensional accuracy and surface uniformity.

d) Reduced operational downtime

Reduced operational downtime – Enhanced tundish and SEN performance minimizes

unplanned stoppages caused by clogging, unstable flow, or inclusion-related defects.
Proactive thermal management and argon purging reduce the need for emergency
interventions, while improved refractory life and controlled wear patterns extend
maintenance intervals. By preventing sudden casting interruptions and minimizing
equipment cleaning or replacement requirements, these technologies ensure higher plant
availability. The combined effect is improved scheduling flexibility, reduced labor-intensive
maintenance, and greater overall throughput.

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REFFERENCES:
BOOKS:
1. Ghosh, A., and Chatterjee, Amit, “Ironmaking and Steelmaking”.

2. A K Chakrabarti, “Steelmaking”.

3. Y Sahai and T. Emi, “Tundish technology for clean steel production”, World scientific

REFERENCES And JOURNALS:

1. ECPH Encyclopedia of Mining and Metallurgy
Defines tundish metallurgy as the refining process of molten steel in the tundish—
encompassing inclusion removal, prevention of reoxidation, microalloying,
superheat control, and more.

Editors: Xu Kuangdi

2. Review, Analysis, and Modeling of Continuous Casting Tundish Systems

(Mazumdar, 2018)
Offers a comprehensive overview, covering fluid flow, turbulence, thermal and
compositional homogenization, inclusion flotation, and transient multiphase
modeling in tundish operations. https://doi.org/10.1002/srin.201800279

3. JOURNAL: Melt Flow Characterization in Continuous Casting Tundish

Author information: Yogeshwar Sahai (Department of Materials Science and

Engineering, The Ohio State University) and Toshihiko Emi (Base Metal Research
Station, Institute for Advanced Materials Processing, Tohoku University)

Online ISSN : 1347-5460

Print ISSN : 0915-1559
ISSN-L : 0915-1559

4. NPTEL ONLINE COURSE: Modeling of tundish steelmaking process in

continuous casting.
By Prof. Pradeep Kumar Jha | IIT Roorkee
https://onlinecourses.nptel.ac.in/noc20_mm01/preview

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SEN Flow Enhancements & Swirling Flow Techniques
5. Application of a Swirling Flow Producer in a Conventional Tundish (Ni et al.,
2017)
Demonstrates how installing a swirling flow producer in a conventional tundish can
generate rotational flow in the SEN to reduce slag entrainment and inclusion carry-
over .

Author information

• Peiyuan Ni

Key Laboratory of Ecological Metallurgy of Multi-metal Intergrown Ores of Education

Ministry, School of Metallurgy, Northeastern University
KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Division of Process, Department of Material Science and
Engineering

• Lage Tord Ingemar Jonsson

KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Division of Process, Department of Material

Science and Engineering

• Mikael Ersson

KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Division of Process, Department of Material

Science and Engineering

• Pär Göran Jönsson

KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Division of Process, Department of Material

Science and Engineering

6. Effect of Swirling-Flow Tundish SEN Outlet Design (Bai et al., 2019)

Investigates how swirling flow induced by SEN outlet modifications affects
multiphase flow and heat transfer in the mold—key for enhancing cleanliness and
casting quality .

https://doi.org/10.1080/03019233.2019.1630215

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