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Lecture Notes on Astronomy
1. Introduction to Astronomy
Definition: Astronomy is the
scientific study of celestial
objects (stars, planets, comets,
galaxies) and phenomena that
occur outside Earth’s
atmosphere.
Branches:
Astrophysics – physics of
celestial bodies.
Cosmology – study of the
universe as a whole (origin,
structure, evolution).
Planetary Science – study of
planets and their systems.
Observational Astronomy –
collecting data using telescopes
and satellites.
Theoretical Astronomy – using
models and simulations to
explain observations.
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2. Historical Development
Ancient Astronomy:
Egyptians: Used the stars for
calendars and farming cycles.
Babylonians: Recorded planetary
motions.
Greeks: Pythagoras & Aristotle
proposed
geocentric models.
Islamic Astronomy: Scholars like
Al-Battani and Al-Zarqali refined
planetary models and developed
star catalogs.
Copernican Revolution (16th
century): Nicolaus Copernicus
proposed the heliocentric model
(Sun at the center).
Galileo Galilei: Improved the
telescope; observed Jupiter’s
moons.
Isaac Newton: Explained
planetary motion using gravity
and laws of motion.
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3. The Universe
Age: ~13.8 billion years.
Origin: The Big Bang Theory –
universe expanded from a hot,
dense state.
Structure:
Stars → Galaxies → Galaxy
clusters → Superclusters.
Observable universe: contains
over 2 trillion galaxies.
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4. Solar System
Components: Sun, 8 planets,
dwarf planets (e.g., Pluto),
moons, asteroids, comets,
meteoroids.
Planets:
Terrestrial planets (Mercury,
Venus, Earth, Mars) – rocky.
Gas giants (Jupiter, Saturn) –
mostly hydrogen and helium.
Ice giants (Uranus, Neptune) –
icy composition.
Earth: Only known planet with
liquid water and life.
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5. Stars
Formation: From clouds of gas
and dust (nebulae).
Life Cycle:
Protostar → Main sequence star
→ Red giant/supergiant → End
(white dwarf, neutron star, or
black hole).
Classification: Based on
temperature and brightness (O,
B, A, F, G, K, M classes).
Example: The Sun is a G-type
star.
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6. Galaxies
Types: Spiral (e.g., Milky Way),
elliptical, irregular.
Milky Way: Our galaxy,
containing about 100–400 billion
stars.
Andromeda Galaxy: Nearest
large galaxy to the Milky Way.
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7. Tools of Astronomy
Telescopes:
Optical (light).
Radio telescopes.
Space telescopes (e.g., Hubble,
James Webb).
Spectroscopy: Used to analyze
the light from stars to determine
composition, temperature, and
motion.
Space Probes: Voyager, New
Horizons, etc.
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8. Modern Topics
Exoplanets: Planets orbiting
other stars; thousands
discovered.
Dark Matter: Invisible mass that
holds galaxies together.
Dark Energy: Mysterious force
causing accelerated expansion
of the universe.
Black Holes: Regions of space
with extremely strong gravity.
Cosmology questions: What is
the ultimate fate of the universe?
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9. Importance of Astronomy
Helps us understand the origin
and fate of the universe.
Provides context for Earth’s
place in the cosmos.
Drives technological innovations
(satellites, GPS, imaging).
Inspires curiosity and
exploration.
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10. Summary
Astronomy studies everything
beyond Earth.
The universe is vast, structured,
and still expanding.
Stars, galaxies, and planets
follow natural laws.
Modern astronomy combines
observation and theory to answer
fundamental questions about
existence.
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