Living Primates

UNIT 1 LIVING PRIMATES

Contents
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definition
1.3 Characteristics
1.4 Evolutionary Trends
1.5 Classification
1.6 Distribution
1.7 Adaptation
1.8 Summary
1.9 Glossary
References
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions

Learning Objectives &

We consider ourselves as the highest among all beings. But we hardly know
about ourselves. Once you have studied, this unit you will be able to understand
the
Ø distribution of MAN including non-human primates (our closest relatives);
Ø characteristics of MAN including non-human primates;
Ø classification of MAN including non-human primates; and
Ø evolution of MAN including non-human primates.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
That modern MAN, Homo sapiens sapiens, is a primate and a close cousin of
monkeys and apes cannot be denied. Yet, few people understand the relationship
between them. Neither man nor the non-human primates can be defined on the
basis of one or two features. They can be best defined on the basis of the general
pattern displayed by them or by the complexes of their characteristics. So, what
do we mean by the term primate (as this term also includes human beings)?
Unless we know this, it would be difficult for us to proceed with our discussion
on living primates, “our close relatives”.
Carl von Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist, chose the term ‘primate’(meaning first
or the highest amongst all), for the specific order Primates of Animal Kingdom,
Class Mammalia, including humans and the nonhuman primates, i.e., lemurs,
tree-shrews, lorises, aye-ayes, pottos, bush babies, tarsiers, monkeys and apes.
From a little shrew like ancestor, these animals are dominating this kingdom.
The evolutionary story of the primates – beginning from the prosimians at
one end of the spectrum to the highly complex man at the other end – is
now revealed in an ever new and fascinating manner.
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Primate Study Within the Class Mammalia, there is tremendous diversity — from tiny shrews
to gigantic whales, from flying bats to burrowing badgers, from pronghorns to
sloths, from opossums to artists and engineers and mammalogists.

1.2 DEFINITION
Primates are multicellular animals (metazoans), possess an internal skeleton
(chordata), segmented vertebral column (vertebrates), maintain constant body
temperatures within a few degrees like other mammals and birds (homeotherms),
are mammals for they possess a complex of traits such as mammary glands,
suckling of young ones, hairy body, give birth to young ones, warm blooded,
heterodontism, have a single dental arch which articulates with the squamosal
bone of the skull, have the thorax separated from the abdomen by a muscular
diaphragm and are diphyodont. The primates have retained rather a primitive
and generalised anatomy, which lacks many specialisations; they are not radically
changed from earliest mammals, especially those ancestral to primates.

Primates represent the 7th largest order (including both living and extinct) with
51 genera and 168 species. Of these, 16 genera and 50 species are in the New
World. This order is often considered to be the most important of the mammals.
No one denies that modern man is a primate yet few people understand why man
is classified with animals such as the tree shrew, loris and aye-aye. Most nonhuman
primates occur in tropical areas. Because of his (Man’s) cultural and biological
plasticity, man adapts to most biomes.

None of these traits characterise all members of the order Primate. There are
always exceptions to singular traits. Even today the classic definition of the order
Primate propounded by Mivart in 1873 holds good. Primates cannot be easily
defined as they are characterised by a combination of primitive features and
progressive trends; for instance, primates can be defined as under:

“Unguiculate, claviculate, placental mammals; with orbits encircled by bony

rim; three kinds of teeth; at least at one time of life; brain always with a posterior
lobe and a calcarine fissure; the innermost digits of at least one pair of extremities
opposable; hallux with a flat nail or none; a well-developed caecum; penis
pendulous; testes scrotal; always two pectoral mammae (Mivart, 1873)”.

1.3 CHARACTERISTICS
There are no distinguishing features which characterise them all – except a
negative one, i.e. their lack of specialisation. Primates are distinguished from
other mammals by one or more of the following traits: unspecialised structure,
specialised behaviour, a short muzzle, comparatively poor sense of smell,
prehensile five-digit hands and feet possessing flat nails instead of claws, acute
vision with depth perception due to forward-facing eyes, a large brain, and
prolonged pre- and post-natal development. Most species bear a single young
and live in troops headed by a male. They include the prosimians or lower monkeys
lemurs, lorises and tarsiers and the anthropoids or higher primates (New World
monkeys, Old World monkeys, and apes and man). Primates range in size from
the Mouse Lemur, which weighs only 30 grams (1.1 oz) to the Mountain Gorilla
weighing 200 kilograms (440 lb). Monkeys range in size from the Pygmy
Marmoset measuring 140 to 160 millimeters (5½–6½) long (including tail) and
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weighing 120 to 140 grams (4–5 oz), to the male Mandrill of about one metre Living Primates
(3.3 ft) length and having a weight of 35 kilograms (77 lb). Some are arboreal
(living on trees) while others live in the savanna. Their diet differs amongst
various species. It may contain any of the following: fruits, leaves, seeds, nuts,
flowers, eggs and small animals (including insects and spiders).

In the past, tarsiers (commonly called as owl monkey) have been grouped together
with the strepsirhines as prosimians, because they retain many primitive features
which are absent in higher primates. Tarsiers are crepuscular and have very large
eyes unlike in any other primate. They have adapted to a specialised lifestyle as
vertical clingers and leapers. However, tarsiers share a number of distinctive
specialisations with anthropoids that suggest that they are more closely related
to each other than to the strepsirhines. Hence, tarsiers and anthropoids (higher
primates) are classified together as haplorhines.
The following are the main characteristics of the primates:
v The anatomy of Primates enables them to maintain semi-erect and erect
postures and locomotor patterns.
v They have pentadactyl hands and feet (a very primitive trait).
v They have flattened nails on each of their digits excepting tree shrews.
v They possess a relatively low density of body hairs (hair instead of fur).
v They have fewer tactile hairs.
v The olfactory area of their brain is reduced. They thus have an increased
dominance of vision over smell, and reduction in the length of the (nose)
snout
v The visual area of their brain is expanded.
v Their eye sockets are completely encircled by a bony ridge. Their eyes are
more forwardly directed on the skull (for binocular vision) suggesting
development of a stereoscopic vision.
v They show an increased reliance on stereoscopic vision at the expense of
smell (the dominant sensory system in majority of the mammals).
v Some primates have developed a three color vision.
v They have pseudo-and true-opposability of the thumb and the great toe (i.e.,
the two function, to a varying degree, independently of the other digits.
They are widely separated from them); usually they have both these digits,
on hands and feet, opposable for grasping purposes.
v Some have prehensile tails.
v They possess relatively larger and complex brains.
v Most female primates have a simple unicornuate uterus.
v They are placental mammals with longer gestation period and generally
give birth to only one or two infants at a time.
v They have year round fertility.
v Their infants have prolonged physical and emotional dependence upon their
mothers, i.e. they have a longer period of infant dependency and parenting.
v They have prolonged growth and maturation periods and long life spans.
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Primate Study v They display a reduction in the number of teeth, i.e. they have an incisor
and premolar less in each half of the upper and lower jaws unlike those in
the primitive placental mammals.
v They have retained a primitive clavicle.
v They possess a separate radius and an ulna in the forearm and a separate
tibia and a fibula in the lower leg (excepting tarsier).
v They show reduction in the length of their external tail.
v They possess a shortened vertebral column.
Prosimians, the simplest and the lowliest of the primates, have comb-like incisors
and canines (lower front teeth forming a toothcomb; also known as procumbent
lower incisors and canines); and a specialised claw on their back feet for grooming
whereas monkeys use their hands.
Platyrrhines display a variety of quadrupedal locomotor types ranging from
squirrel like scrambling to leaping and forelimb suspension. Atelines and capuchin
monkeys are distinctive among primates in having a specialised prehensile tail
that can grasp around branches for extra support. Their dental formula (DF) is
2.1.3.3. Though this DF is similar to that of prosimians yet the typical prosimian
tooth comb is absent in them.
Strepsirhines have elongated and forwardly projecting lower front teeth that form
a toothcomb. These teeth are used for grooming the fur and for obtaining resins
and gums from trees as source of food. The digits of the hands and feet bear
flattened nails, rather than claws, excepting the second toe, which has a sharp
toilet claw for grooming. They also have a moist, naked rhinarium and cleft
upper lip (similar to the wet noses of dogs). Most strepsirhines are nocturnal and
have large eyes. Their brain size is relatively small and the snout tends to be
longer than the haplorhines.
The Old World monkeys include some terrestrial species such as the baboons
and man, whereas the New World monkeys are exclusively arboreal. Some New
World monkeys have a prehensile tail for grasping. Cercopithecids or the Old
World monkeys, and the hominoids or apes and humans are distinguished from
Ceboidea in the development of a tube like (rather than ring like) tympanic bone
to support the eardrum (refer table below):
Ceboidea Cercopithecoidea Hominoidea
Platyrrhines Catarrhines Apes (Pongidae)
New World Monkeys Old World Monkeys Man
(NWM) (OWM) ( Hominidae)
Flat nosed Sharp nosed Sharp nosed
Broad nasal septum Narrow nasal septum Narrow nasal septum
D.F. 2.1.3.3; an D.F. 2.1.2.3 D.F. 2.1.2.3
extra premolar
Bilophodont Dryopithecus pattern of
lower molar
Incisors broad and Incisors broad and
spatulate spatulate
Prehensile tail Tail never prehensile Tail altogether absent
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 Living Primates

(Broad nasal septum) (Narrow nasal septum)

Platyrrhines (Ceboidea or NWM) Catarrhines (Cercopithecoidea or Hominoidea; OWM)
Source: Seth, P.K and Seth, S. 1986. The Primates, New Delhi, Northern Book Centre

Diagrammatic representation of the nasal septum in the NWM and OWM

Catarrhines (OWM; DF 2.1.2.3) are a highly successful group comprising more
than 80 species. They are distinguished from other anthropoids in having
bilophodont molar teeth which bear a pair of transverse crests. They also have
naked, roughened sitting pads on their rumps called ischial callosities - a feature
they share with hylobatids.
Hominoidea is the superfamily to which both apes and humans belong. MAN
shares numerous structural similarities with the apes but the most significant
feature is the absence of tail, large body size and shortened trunk. Hominoids are
distinguished from cercopithecoids by the occurrence of primitive nonbilophodont
molars, larger brains, longer arms than legs (except in humans), a broader chest,
a shorter and less flexible lower back, and absence of tail. Many of these
specialisations are related to a more upright posture in apes associated with a
greater emphasis on vertical climbing and forelimb suspension.
Hominoids contain two families: pongidae and hominidae. Pongidae includes
the hylobates (gibbons and siamangs), and the great apes (orangutan, chimpanzee
and gorilla). The Hominidae includes the humans (Homo sapiens) only. The
gibbons and siamang (Hylobates) are the smallest of the hominoids (4–11 kg or
9–24 lb), and due to which they are sometimes referred to as the lesser apes. The
nine or so species are common throughout the tropical forests of Asia.
The great apes are remarkable in having the longest arms in any primates, which
are 30–50% longer than their legs. The gibbon and the closely related siamang
of the superfamily Hylobatinae are characterised by their highly specialised mode
of locomotion, called brachiation, by which they swing below the tree branches
using only their forelimbs. They are small tailless, arboreal apes having ischial
callosities and exceptionally long arms including prehensile hands.
The Gibbons are fruit eaters, whereas the larger siamang consumes a higher
proportion of leaves in its diet. Hylobatids live in monogamous family groups in
which males and females are similar in size.
The Great apes are included together in their own subfamily of Ponginae to
distinguish them from humans, who are placed in the family Hominidae. However,
recent anatomical, molecular, and behavioural evidence has confirmed that
humans are closely related to the great apes, especially the African apes. For this
reason, most scientists now classify them together in a single family, the Hominidae. 9
Primate Study Let us now find out the typical characteristics in which MAN differs from Apes

MAN APES
Orthograde locomotion Pronograde locomotion
Great toe largest Great toe not the largest
Forward positioning of foramen Foramen magnum backwardly directed
magnum
Strong development of mastoid Mastoid processes not well developed
processes
Vertebral column has moved Vertebral column dorsally placed
anteriorly into thorax
Dorsal shift of shoulder joints Shoulder joints and scapula laterally
and scapula placed
Largest brain Small brain
Marked reduction in the size of Large face and lower jaw
face and lower jaw
Everted chin Receding chin
Forward positioning of eyes Obliquely laterally directed eyes
Post-canine length less More post canine length
Canine size same as other teeth Canine protrudes out of the tooth rows

1.4 EVOLUTIONARY TRENDS

The oldest known fossil remains of primates appeared about 60 mya. Man, even
today, is regarded as the most evolved among the primates. These earliest primates
were small, forest dwelling, and insectivorous mammals not larger than a rat.
The Primate adaptive radiation began sixty-five to seventy million years ago in
the Palaeocene epoch. Though the living primates could be arranged in order of
increasing their anatomical and behavioural complexity, they are the end products
of their own evolutionary lines.

Early Tertiary Period

The climate of the early Tertiary period — about 66.4 million years ago - was
warm with wide tropical and subtropical zones extending from the equator up to
the higher latitudes in both the Old and the New World. During this period, the
most primitive of the primates were in existence. During the Palaeocene epoch,
which lasted for about 8.6 million years (c.66.4 million-c.57.8 million years
ago), there were many primates in existence. Three of these families had long
chisel-shaped teeth that resembled those of the rodents with which they competed
for a similar ecological niche, or habitat.

During the Palaeocene and Eocene epochs (from about 66.4 million to about
36.6 million years ago) early in the Tertiary period, more advanced primates
appeared. During these epochs, an explosive primate radiation took place which
dwindled in the Oligocene (Oligo = small). Lemuroids, Tarsioids and Platyrrhines
have been recognised in the Palaeocene and Eocene epochs of America, Europe,
Egypt and Burma. The Adapidae family represented by the Lemuriformes, was
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the most widespread one as per the fossil record. The Tarsiiformes are known Living Primates
from one family, the Omomyidae. The characteristic tarsioid (tarsier-like)
specialisation of the skull and hind limbs were already well advanced in the
known fossil forms, but some of the European genera have some structures
indicating relationships with the early monkeys.

The New World witnessed the appearance of three-fourth of the primates. Their
development and human origins probably took place in the Old World.
Amphipithecus, implying both ways an ape, a platyrrhini, found in the Eocene
of Burma is considered to be ancestral to the Parapithecus (Para = near) of
Egypt. Generally speaking, there is hardly any fossil evidence of the Eocene
ancestors of the Old World monkeys and apes. Thus, the Eocene epoch terminated
after about 30 million years of primate evolution with lemur-like and tarsier-like
forms.

Later, during the Oligocene epoch (36.6 to 23.7 million years ago) which followed,
there came into existence primitive monkeys and exceedingly primitive
anthropoid apes. The Fayum deposits of the Oligocene epoch in Egypt yielded
fossil remains of Propliopithecus (Pro = before, Plio = more), the earliest
anthropoid ape on record (they had small brains, long snouts, skulls resembling
those of monkeys or lemurs and their teeth like those of modern apes; they lived
in trees and had tails) and Parapithecus (known from some lower jaws 30 mya),
a very small sized (squirrel-like) and earliest Old World Monkey on record having
a generalised Tarsioid appearance. Gregory regarded Propliopithecus as a
primitive gibbon and Parapithecus as a primitive monkey. These fossils are
distinguished by traits normally necessary for adaptation to arboreal life: grasping
extremities, nails instead of claws, pentadactyly, an opposable thumb and a big
toe, forearm consisting of ulna and radius, reduced snout, forwardly directed
eyes and orbits closed from behind, and enlarged visual centers.

Apidium, which is also included in the family of Parapithecidae, could be the

forerunner of African monkeys. The Egyptian Oligocene epoch also contributed
to several primitive fossil apes including Aeolopithecus, which may be an ancestral
gibbon, and Aegyptopithecus, which may be ancestral to the modern great apes.
One other fossil ape from the Fayum that deserves special mention is
Propliopithecus, formerly believed to be an ancestral gibbon. It has been
suggested, primarily on the basis of its generalised dentition, that Propliopithecus
is possibly ancestral to the hominids.

The Miocene Epoch

About 23.7 million years ago the Miocene epoch began and lasted about 18.4
million years. It was a incredible phase in primate evolution which witnessed an
increase in the number of larger primates that were widely spread throughout the
Old World, including Europe, Asia, and Africa. The large Miocene hominoids
appear to belong to three groups, the Sivapithecus, the Dryopithecus, and the
Proconsul groups.

The Miocene fossil forms of Asian and African apes suggest that the Asian apes
formed a distinct category which diversified in Asia and Southeast Europe by
fourteen million years ago (e.g., Sivapithecus, Ramapithecus, etc). There were
other significant fossils reported from the Miocene of Europe, Egypt and Africa.
The lower Miocene epoch is often referred to as the ‘Age of Apes’. Skeletal
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Primate Study remains from Africa were classified into three major groups: Proconsul (a non-
specialised ape), Sivapithecus (a transitional form between the anthropoids and
man), and Limnopithecus (an early type of gibbon).

From Europe, the fossil material of Pliopithecus was recovered. The name means
that the individual is thought out as ancestral to the modern gibbons. A small-
sized primitive gibbon (Prohylobate) frequented Egypt during the Miocene. This
ape was slightly bigger in size than the Propliopithecus. This epoch, thus, saw
the rise of the generalised apes of large size which are regarded as the offshoots
of Propliopithecus of Oligocene.

Dryopithecids (a very heterogeneous group) and Oreopithecus were inhabiting

in India and Europe during the Pliocene. Pliocene signals the decline, both in
numbers and diversification, of these closely related Miocene forms and the
commencement of the primitive hominids. The Dryopithecus group comprises
the first specimen of the Dryopithecus fontani found in 1856 in Saint-Gaudens
in France. Its molars possess five cusps and the Y-5 pattern -its fissure pattern is
typical of dryopithecines.

The Proconsul groups are known from the early Miocene period of Africa. It
includes three species— Proconsul africanus, Proconsul nyanzae, and Proconsul
major—as well as Rangwapithecus gordoni and several other smaller-bodied
apes. The second group of Middle Miocene apes (all from East Africa) is
represented by the Oreopithecidae, which includes Nyanzapithecus, the large
Afropithecus, and two species of Kenyapithecus.

Dryopithecinae
These fossil remains represent the most interesting and the controversial part of
the primate evolution. The entire subfamily Dryopithecinae has been named after
a mandible (Dryopithecus fontani) by Lartet. Similar finds have been reported
from China, northern India, Africa and parts of Europe, viz., France, Germany,
and Spain. The dryopithecines are a very heterogeneous group representing a
stage of primate evolution rather than a single phylum and its branches. Numerous
species of Dryopithecus have been described. They show considerable variation
in their dental anatomy, some suggesting closeness to the chimpanzee, some to
the orangutans and yet others to the gorilla.

This ape complex is represented by teeth, jaw fragments, cranial and long bones
(humerus shaft, ulna and a femur). The humerus bone, with its both ends missing,
was reported from France and uncertainly labeled as that belonging to
Dryopithecus fontani. A complete femur found in Germany has been assigned to
Paidopithex (Boule and Vallois, 1957). These long bones are gibbon-sized.
Dryopithecinae fossils range in size from animals as big as gibbons to as large or
larger than the modern gorillas. They are distinguished from the Hominidae on
the basis of their dentition alone.

The incisors are small and more vertical compared to those of the Ponginae.
Canines are larger than those in the Hominidae. The lower premolar is sectorial
in shape. The molars usually increase in size within the series M1<M2<M3.
Their characteristic ‘Y-5’ cusp pattern is not commonly found in modern man.
This suggests that the pattern is of fossil origin. The primordial crown pattern of
human lower molars is comprised of set of three grooves in the form of ‘Y’ lying
12
on its side with its tail pointing forwards and its two arms pointing to the rear. In Living Primates
each obtuse angle are stationed two cusps, and in the acute angle, a fifth cusp is
located forming the Y-5 pattern (Coon, 1963). In the teeth of modern human
beings, the molar crown patterns have been simplified in two ways: the groove
pattern has changed from ‘Y’ to a simple ‘+’ and the number of cusps has reduced
from five to four or even less (three or two).

Pliocene of Siwalik Hills in North India is a highly productive radiation center

of fossil pongids during the second half or late Miocene and lower Pliocene.

Dryopithecus
Dryopithecus, a genus of extinct apelike animals, is representative of a group of
small, generalised apes that contains the ancestors of both the modern apes and
humans. Although Dryopithecus has been known by a variety of names based
upon fragmentary material found over a widespread area including Europe, Africa,
and Asia, it appears that only a single genus is represented. Dryopithecus is
found as fossils in Miocene and Pliocene deposits (23.7 to 1.6 million years old)
and apparently originated in Africa.

Ramapithecus
The first Ramapithecus fossils (fragments of an upper jaw and some teeth) were
discovered in 1932 in fossil deposits of the Siwalik Hills of Northwestern India.
No significance was attached to these fossils until 1960, when Elwyn Simons of
Yale University began to study them and ‘fit’ the jaw fragments together (refer
Figure below). Based on his observations of the shape of the jaw and dentition
¯ which were transitional between those of apes and humans, Simons advanced
the theory that Ramapithecus represented the first step in the evolutionary
divergence of humans from the common hominoid stock that produced modern
apes and humans.

Ramapithecus (from the Middle and Late Miocene epochs) represents the earliest
known hominid and its existence establishes from that of the African apes fifteen
million years ago. This basic tenet is now regarded as questionable, even if an
alternative ‘correct’ answer cannot be provided. Lewis (1933) first described the
fossil remains of a fragment of an upper jaw from Haritalyangar in the Siwalik
Hills (India) and christened it Ramapithecus brevirostris. This fragment has a
wide curving jaw with an arched palate (man-like feature) and was so named as
it resembled the Indian God ‘Lord Rama’. It has a short snout, a feature
characteristic of the apes.

Ramapithecus punjabicus (upper and lower jaws fit very well)

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Primate Study According to Simons, the two jaws fit i.e., this lower jaw fits with the widely
curving upper jaw fragment denoting that the two might have belonged to same/
similar individuals. The facial features (sloped and slightly concave facial profile)
and the anterior dentition (forward jutting of canines) suggest similarities with
orangutans.

From amongst the various ramapithecinae finds, the ‘Brahmapithecus’ lower

wide jaw fits well with the upper jaw fragment of Ramapithecus brevirostris
(Simon, 1961). This clearly shows that the two are the same.

Gigantopithecus

Gigantopithecus mandible

Gigantopithecus remains from the Siwaliks of India have been dated as ca. 6.3
mya. Hominid features of Gigantopithecus bilaspurensis from the Indian Siwaliks
(for instance, marked reduction of the front teeth, relatively small canine and
tooth wear) suggest that hominid-like tendencies were already underway some 5
to 10 mya in the Pliocene period. Being considerably older than the Chinese
Gigantopithecus, these remains provide newer insights into the initial stages of
differentiation of hominoids and man-like primates. These Siwalik finds were
found associated with antelopes and primitive elephants further indicating that
they inhabited open woodland areas. It can also be argued that the hominoids
were displaced from India and after the emergence of MAN, they made a re-
entry? The Siwalik hominoids probably used ad-hoc tools to compensate for the
reduction of the anterior dentition, exposure to forest ecology accompanied by
dietary change and emergence of incipient bipedality (Simons and Pilbeam, 1965).

Lower jaw of Gigantopithecus blacki and right lower molar of Gigantopithecus

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 Living Primates
1.5 CLASSIFICATION
There are numerous classifications of primates suggested by various scientists.
However, the classification of Simpson (1945), based on their morphology, is
widely accepted, and is given below:
Taxonomic Groups including Members
category primates
Kingdom Animalia Multicellular (have sexual reproduction,
nervous system, differentiated tissues)*
Phylum Chordata Animals with vertebral column
Nonchordata Animals without vertebral column
Class Aves Animals with feathers, wings formed by
forelimbs
Pisces Animals having gills throughout life,
usually have fins
Amphibia Animals with 4 pentadactyl limbs; pelvic
girdle unlike fish, have eggs without
protective shell, fertilised without coition
Reptilia Animals having no direct articulation of
dentary bone with the skull, homodont,
polyphyodont
Mammalia Warm blooded furry animals, heterodont
animals, diphyodont, single dentary arch
which articulates with squamosal bone
of skull, thorax separated by a diaphragm
from abdomen, and all other animals that
suckle their young
Subclass Prototheria Egg laying mammals
Metatheria Pouched mammals
Eutheria Placental mammals
Order Insectivora Ordinarily insect eaters, small and
nocturnal, simple brain
Chiroptera Ulna reduced to a vestige, have wings to
fly
Dermoptera Larger than chiroptera
Edentata Usually without teeth, slow in
locomotion
Pholidota Really toothless, scales on their body
Primates Prosimii (the lower primates: tarsiers,
lorises, lemurs, etc.)* and Anthropoidea
(monkeys, baboons, apes and man)*
Suborder Prosimii Lemuriformes, Lorisiformes,
Tarsiiformes (the most primitive of the
primates)*
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Primate Study
Anthropoidea Ceboidea (Platyrrhines/New World
Monkeys)*, Cercopithecoidea
(Catarrhines/Old World Monkeys)* and
Hominoidea
Superfamily Ceboidea Cebidae and Callitrichidae (monkeys:
owl, saki, howler, capuchin, spider and
goeldi’s, marmosets)*
Cercopithecoidea Cercopithecidae (monkeys: rhesus, drill,
baboon, colobus, nasalis, langur etc)*
Hominoidea Pongidae and Hominidae
Family Pongidae Hylobatinae (gibbon, siamang)* and
Ponginae (orangutan, chimpanzee,
gorilla)*
Hominidae Man (Homo)*, ape-man
(Australopithecus)*, and early ape-man
(Ramapithecus)*
Genus Homo Early man (Homo erectus)* and modern
man (Homo sapiens sapiens)*
Species sapiens Modern humans including early
subspecies and all living races

*Text within brackets as suggested by other taxonomists

Yet another classification of the primates has been is proposed by (Hill, 1957-
63):
Order Primates
Suborder Strepsirhini (Prosimians) (or curly-nosed primates, to include non-
tarsier prosimians)
Infraorder Lorisiformes
Superfamily Lorisoidea
Family: Lorisidae (lorises)
Galagidae (bush babies)
Infraorder Lemuriformes
Superfamily Lemuroidea
Family: Cheirogaleidae (dwarf lemurs)
Lepilemuridae (sportive lemur )
Lemuridae (true lemurs)
Indriidae (sifakas, indri, woolly lemur)
Daubentoniidae (aye-aye)
Suborder Haplorrhini (or dry-nosed primates)
Hyporder Tarsiiformes
Superfamily Tarsioidea
Family Tarsiidae (tarsiers)
Hyporder Anthropoidea
Infraorder Platyrrhini (“flat nosed”) or New World monkeys of South and Central
16 America
 Living Primates
Superfamily Ceboidea (New World Monkeys)
Family: Callitrichidae (marmosets, tamarins)
Cebidae (capuchins, squirrel monkeys, douroucoulis, titis)
Atelidae (sakis, uakaris, howler monkeys, spider monkeys, woolly monkeys)
Infraorder Catarrhini (narrow nosed)(of Africa and south eastern Asia)
Superfamily Cercopithecoidea
Family Cercopithecidae (Old World monkeys)
Superfamily Hominoidea
Family: Hylobatidae (gibbons, siamang)
Hominidae (orangutans , gorillas, chimpanzees, humans)

1.6 DISTRIBUTION
The prosimians are subdivided into three major groups: the lemuroids, which
are restricted to Madagascar (more than 30 species are represented, belonging to
five different families); the lorisoids, which are found throughout tropical Africa
and Asia; and the tarsioids (tiny primates) (weighing only about 120 g), which
inhabit the islands of Southeast Asia (all belong to a single genus, Tarsius).

The platyrrhines from South and Central America are a diverse group of primates
comprising more than 50 species and 16 genera. All members of the suborder
Ceboidea (NWM/platyrrhines) are arboreal. They are widely distributed
throughout tropical forests extending from Mexico to northern Argentina. The
catarrhines include all anthropoid primates from Africa, Asia, and Europe. The
Old World monkeys are widely distributed throughout sub-Saharan Africa and
tropical Asia. They also occur in the extreme southwestern tip of the Arabian
Peninsula, northwest Africa, Gibraltar (their only European record), and East
Asia.

Apes
The gibbons and siamang (Hylobates) are the smallest of the pongids (4–11 kg
or 9–24 lb), and for this reason they are sometimes referred to as the lesser apes.
The nine or so species are common throughout the tropical rain forests, and the
semi deciduous mountain forests of Southeast Asia. They are known for their
remarkably longer arms than in any other primates, which are 30–50% longer
than their legs. This is related to their highly specialised mode of locomotion
called brachiation by which they swing below the tree branches using only their
forelimbs. Gibbons are fruit eaters, while the diet of larger siamangs incorporates
a higher proportion of leaves.
The great apes include the orangutans (Pongo) from Asia and Gorillas (Gorilla)
and chimpanzees (Pan) from Africa. The orangutan is restricted to the tropical
rainforests of Borneo and northern Sumatra. They are large, arboreal primates
and climb cautiously through the trees using all four limbs for support. Orangutans
subsist mainly on fruits (www.accessscience.com).
The Gorillas are the largest of the hominoids found in tropical Africa. Because
of their huge size, gorillas are almost completely terrestrial, although females
and young individuals frequently climb trees. They often build nests on the ground.
Gorillas move quadrupedally. Like the chimpanzees, their hands are specialised
for knuckle-walking when the weight of the animal is borne on the upper surface 17
Primate Study of the middle joints of the fingers. They are of two types: mountain Gorillas and
lowland Gorillas. Mountain Gorillas eat a variety of leaves, stems, and roots,
while the lowland gorillas eats a larger proportion of fruits. They live in groups
which consists of a dominant male, several adult females, sub adults, and infants.

There are two species of Chimpanzees, the common Chimpanzee (Pan

troglodytes) and the bonobo or pygmy chimpanzee (Pan panicus). The common
chimpanzee is far and wide distributed in the forests and woodlands stretching
across equatorial Africa. The pygmy chimpanzee is limited to the tropical
rainforests of the Congo. Both species make nests and feed in trees, but they by
and large travel on the ground. Common chimpanzees have eclectic diets,
including meat, which they get hold of by hunting small to medium-sized
mammals. Tool-using behaviours are common among them and more than a
dozen simple tool types have been recognised. Chimpanzees are gregarious and
sociable animals. They live in communities where there are many males that
divide into smaller subgroups for foraging.

1.7 ADAPTATIONS
Primates have diversified in arboreal and terrestrial habitats (trees, bushes and
land) and retain many characteristics facilitating adaptations to these
environments:
v Retention of the collar bone in the pectoral girdle.
v Shoulder joints with a high degree of movement in all directions.
v Possession of five digits on the fore and hind limbs with opposable thumbs
and big toes facilitating them in grasping objects and climbing trees.
v Presence of nails on the fingers and toes in most species.
v Presence of sensitive tactile pads on the ends of the digits.
v Orbits encircled in a bony rim facilitating rotation of eyeballs in the socket.
v Trend towards a reduced snout and flattened face supposedly leading to the
development of vision at the expense of olfaction.
v Complex visual system with stereoscopic vision, high visual acuity and color
vision – all contributing to quicker movements on the trees.
v Large brain in comparison to body size especially in simians.
v Differentiation of the enlarged cerebral cortex.
v Reduction in the number of teeth compared to primitive mammals.
v Three kinds of teeth.
v Longer gestation and developmental period; and
v Trend towards holding the torso upright leading to bipedalism.
Primates exhibit a wide range of characteristics. Some primates, inclusive of
some great apes and baboons, do not live primarily in trees. But all species possess
adaptations for climbing trees. Their locomotion techniques include leaping from
tree to tree, walking on twos or fours limbs, knuckle-walking, and swinging
between branches of trees (known as brachiation). The three-color vision has
developed in some primates.
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 Living Primates
1.8 SUMMARY
We consider ourselves as the highest among all beings. But we hardly know
about ourselves. Modern MAN, Homo sapiens sapiens, belongs to the group of
mammals known as Primates and is a close cousin of monkeys and apes. Yet,
few people understand the relationship between them.

Here in this unit, we find that neither man nor the non-human primates can be
defined on the basis of one or two features. They can be best defined on the basis
of the general pattern displayed by them or by the complexes of their
characteristics. So, what do we mean by the term primate (as this term also
includes human beings)? The term ‘primate’ means first or the highest amongst
all. Primates belong to the Animal Kingdom, Class Mammalia and include humans
and the nonhuman primates, i.e., lemurs, tree-shrews, lorises, aye-ayes, pottos,
bush babies, tarsiers, the monkeys of the New World and Old World, and also
the apes.

As primates, we all share many characteristics; for instance,

v overlapping fields of vision due to the forwardly directed eyes (this allows
for greater 3D vision),
v fine ability to grasp and handle objects in our hands and
v enlarged brain relative to body size.
In this Unit, we also discuss the distribution, classification, evolutionary trends,
typical physical characteristics, and similarities and dissimilarities within primates
including man.

The distinctive features of all the primates (include prosimians, monkeys, apes,
and humans) are that they have:
v hair instead of fur;
v nails instead of claws;
v opposable thumb and big toe (thumb/big toe can touch all other digits) –
The exception is humans in which the big toe is modified for bipedal walking;
v prehensility – ability to grasp with fingers and/or toes;
v pentadactyly – five digits on each hand;
v padded digits with fingerprints;
v reduced olfactory sense and dependent on vision more than smell;
v stereoscopic vision – forward rotation of eye with protective bony structure;
v binocular vision– both eyes focus on one object (depth perception); and
v large brain compared to the body size – high level of intelligence.
We find that primates have a two-fold division: prosimians (lowliest of primates)
and Anthropoidea. The Anthropoidea further includes new world monkeys
(platyrrhines – flat nosed) and the old world monkeys (catarrhines - sharp nosed).
We find that chimpanzee is closest to MAN genetically. Humans and chimpanzees
have very similar DNA (about 98% of human and chimpanzee DNA is identical).
Genetic studies show that chimpanzees and humans share a common ancestor. 19
Primate Study Gorilla is the largest primate on earth and the most powerful of all the primates,
a group which includes everything from small arboreal creatures such as the tree
shrew, bush babies, several types of monkeys to humans.

1.9 GLOSSARY
Apes : Gibbons, Siamangs, Chimpanzees, Gorillas and
Orangutans.
Arboreal : tree dwelling.
Bipedalism : walking on two limbs.
Brachiation : swinging from branch to branch using forearms.
Caecum : end part of intestines.
Claviculate : have a clavicle (collar bone).
Dental formula (D.F.) : number/type of teeth in each half of the lower and
upper jaws; for instance, human D.F. is 2.1.2.3; each
half of jaw has 2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 premolars, 3
molars; total number of teeth = 32.
Extremities : limbs, i.e. arms and or legs.
Great apes : Orangutans, Chimpanzees and Gorillas.
Hallux : great toe.
Ischial callosities : hardening of skin in the region of buttocks which
comes in contact with the surface while sitting.
Knuckle walking : walking using bent fingers.
Lesser apes : Gibbons and Siamangs.
Opposable : oppositely directed.
Orbits : eye sockets.
Pectoral mammae : mammary glands on chest region.
Penis pendulous : male genital organ hanging outside body.
Pentadactyl : having five digits (fingers or toes).
Placental mammals : mammals with umbilical cord.
Pollex : thumb.
Quadrupedalism : walking on all four limbs.
Terrestrial : ground dwelling.
Testes scrotal : testes in the scrotum.
Three types of : (trichromacy or trichromaticism) is the condition of
colour vision possessing three independent channels for conveying
colour information; derived from three different cone
types. Organisms with trichromacy are called
trichromats. Their retina contains three types of
colour receptors (called cone cells) with different
absorption spectra. Trichromatic colour vision is the
ability of humans and some other animals to see
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 different colour, mediated by interactions among Living Primates
three types of colour -sensing cone cells.
Unguiculate : have nails on fingers and toes.

References
Boule, M. and H.V. Vallois 1957 Fossil Men: A Textbook of Human
Palaeontology. London, Thames and Hudson.
Osman Hill, W. C. 1953-1957 Primates. Edinburg, Edinburgh University Press.
Seth, P. K. and S. Seth 1986 The Primates. New Delhi, Northern Book Centre.
Simons E.L. and S.R.K. Chopra 1969a A preliminary announcement of a new
Gigantopithecus species from India. In Recent Advances in Primatology. Ed.
H.O. Hofer. Basel and New York: S. Karger. 2: 135¯142.
Simons, E.L. and S.R.K. Chopra 1969b Gigantopithecus (Pongidae,
Hominoidea): A New Species from North India. Postilla (Yale University Peabody
Museum of Natural History) 138:1¯18.
van Valen, L. and Sloan, R.E. 1965 The Earliest Primates. Science 150:743–
745.
www.accessscience.com/content/Primates.

Suggested Reading
Chopra, S.R.K. 1979a. Early Man in North West India. New Delhi: Allied
Publishers Private Limited.

Chopra, S.R.K. 1979b. Palaeontological evidence bearing on the problem of

human origins in North-West India. In “Early Man in North West India. (edited
by S.R.K. Chopra). New Delhi: Allied Publishers Private Limited. pp 1– 19.

Chopra, S.R.K. and S. Kaul 1979. A New Species of Pliopithecus from the Indian
Sivaliks. Journal of Human Evolution 8: 475– 477.

Clark, W.E. Le Gros 1934. Early Forerunners of Man. London, Bailliere Tindall
&Cox.

Clark, W.E. Le Gros 1965. History of the Primates. London, British Museum of
Natural History. .

Wood, J.F. 1948. Hallmarks of Mankind. London, Bailliere Tindall and Cox.

Hooton, E.A. 1954. Up From the Ape. New York, The Macmillan Company.

Lewis, G.E. 1933. Preliminary Notice of a New Genus of Lemuroid from the
Siwaliks. American Journal of Science 26: 134– 138.

Lewis, G.E. 1936. A New Species of Sugrivapithecus. American Journal of Science

31: 450– 452.

Lewis, G.E. 1937. Taxonomic Syllabus of Siwalik Fossil Anthropoids. American

Journal of Science 34:137– 147.

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Primate Study Lewis. G.E. 1934. Preliminary Notice of New Man-like Apes from India: Scientific
Research of the Yale India Expedition. American Journal of Science 27:161–
181.

Lydekker, R. 1878. Notices of Siwalik Mammals. Records of Geological Survey

of India, Calcutta 11:64– 104.

Lydekker, R. 1879. Notices of Siwalik Mammals. Records of Geological Survey

of India 12: 33– 52.

Lydekker, R. 1886. Siwalik Mammalia. Supplement one. Memoirs of the

Geological Survey of India 10: 1– 18.

Seth, P.K. and S. Seth 1986. A review of evolutionary and genetic differentiation
in primates. In Primate Evolution. Eds. Else and Lee Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. Procs. 10th Congress of the International Primatological Society.
Vol. 1, pp 291¯306.

Rami Reddy, V 1992. Physical Anthropology, Evolution and Genetics of Man.

Tirupati: V Indira.

Simons, E.L. 1960b. Apidium and Oreopithecus. Nature 186:824¯826.

Simons, E.L. 1961. The Phyletic Position of Ramapithecus. Postilla 57:1¯9.

Simons, E.L. 1964. The Early Relatives of Man. Scientific American 211:50-62.

Simons, E.L. 1969. The Origin and Radiation of the Primates. Annals of New
York Academy of Sciences 167:319¯331.

Simons, E.L. 1972. Primate Evolution. –An Introduction to Man’s Place in Nature.
New York: Macmillan.

Simons, E.L. 1974. On the Discovery of Gigantopithecus in north India. In

Perspectives in Palaeoanthropology. Ed.A.K. Ghosh. Calcutta: Firma K.L.
Mukhopadhyay. pp 1¯7.

Simons, E.L. 1977. Ramapithecus. Scientific American 236(5):28¯35.

Simons, E.L. and D. Pilbeam 1965. Preliminary Revision of the Dryopithecinae

(Pongidae, Anthropoidea). Folia Primatologia 3:81¯152.

Simons, E.L. and D.R. Pilbeam 1972. Hominid Palaeoprimatology. In: The
Functional and Evolutionary Biology of Primates. Ed .R.H. Tuttle. Chicago:
Aldine. pp: 36¯62.

Simons, E.L. and D.R. Pilbeam 1978. Ramapithecus. In: Evolution of African
Mammals. Ed: V.J. Maglio and H.B.S. Cooke. Massachusetts: Harvard University
Press. pp 147¯153.

Simpson, G.G. 1945. The Principles of Classification and a Classification of

Mammals. Bulletein of American Museum of Natural History, New York. Vol.
85

Simpson, G.G. 1949b. The Meaning of Evolution. New Haven: Yale University
22
Press.
Sample Questions Living Primates

1) Who is Man?
2) Who are his immediate relations and why?
3) What are Man’s distinguishing physical characteristics?
4) How does MAN differ from his nearest relatives?
5) What do you know about the evolution of MAN?

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