Chapter 03

War of Independence

Introduction

 In 1857, a major challenge to British rule in India occurred.

 Known as the Indian Mutiny by British historians and the War of Independence by Indian
historians.
 Different names highlight the different perspectives of the event.
 British saw it as a revolt; Indians viewed it as a fight for freedom.
 The reasons for the war are divided into four main areas, all linked by resentment towards British
rule.

1. Political Causes

 British expanded control, reducing the power of local leaders.

 The 'Doctrine of Lapse' by Lord Dalhousie angered many, especially after the annexation of Oudh
in 1856.
 The mistreatment of the Mughal Emperor was another cause of unrest.
 Limited opportunities for Indians in civil services and the replacement of Persian with English
fueled resentment.

2. Religious and Social Causes

 British spread their culture and looked down on Indian traditions.

 Indians were treated as an inferior race and excluded from social equality.
 Fear of losing religious freedom grew as British influence increased.
 Christian missionaries tried to convert Indians, causing further distrust.

3. Economic Causes

 British merchants profited greatly from Indian trade, imposing high taxes.
 Peasants and small landowners struggled under heavy taxation.
 Corruption among tax collectors increased resentment.
 Low pay for Indian soldiers (sepoys) added to the discontent.

4. Military Causes

 Revolt started over the use of 'greased cartridges', but deeper issues existed.
 Indian soldiers (sepoys and sowars) resented being led by British officers.
 Rumors of forced conversions to Christianity and being sent to fight abroad fueled anger.
 Previous military campaigns, like in Afghanistan, were unpopular among Hindu soldiers.

The Events

January 1857: British introduced a new rifle with greased cartridges. Rumors that the grease was made
from cow and pig fat angered sepoys, who refused to use them.
March 1857: Sepoy Mangal Pandey defied British orders and was executed.

May 1857: Sepoys in Meerut refused the cartridges, were jailed, but later freed by fellow soldiers. They
sacked Meerut, killed British officers, and marched to Delhi, capturing it. Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah
II became the symbol of the uprising.

War Spreads: The revolt spread, and British control was lost in Mathura, Kanpur, Jhansi, Allahabad, and
Lucknow.

Cawnpore Massacre: Indian troops led by Nana Sahib trapped British forces. After surrendering, the
British and 300 women and children were killed. The British later recaptured the city and took brutal
revenge.

British Retaliation: By September 1857, the British recaptured Delhi. Bahadur Shah II surrendered, and
his sons were executed.

Final Battles: Lucknow and Jhansi, led by Rani Lakshmibai and Tatya Topee, resisted but were
eventually defeated. Lakshmibai was killed in June 1858, and Tatya Topee was later captured and
executed.

End of the War: The British crushed remaining resistance, and the war officially ended in August 1858.

Failure of the 1857 War

Lack of Unity

 Indians were not united in their goals; different groups fought for different reasons.
 No general plan or coordination; many Indian princes didn't want imperial power restored.
 Regional differences:
 Punjab and Sindh didn't support the rebellion as they were conquered by Bengal troops.
 Some princes relied on British support to maintain their power (e.g., the ruler of Kashmir).

Religious divide:

 Muslims supported the Mughal Emperor, but Hindus and Sikhs were not interested in restoring a
Muslim empire.
 The British saw the revolt as mainly a 'Muslim Revolt.'

2. British Strengths

 Britain was a global power with highly trained, disciplined troops experienced in modern warfare.
 The British maintained control over most of their territories due to:
 Skilled diplomacy, playing different Indian groups against each other.
 The lack of a coordinated, widespread uprising among Indian troops.
 British military efficiency eventually crushed the scattered uprisings.

Effects of the 1857 War

1. British Rule Strengthened

  The war confirmed British dominance in India.
 A proclamation in 1858 ended the war but was followed by brutal reprisals against Indians.
 The East India Company was abolished, and the British government took full control.
 The Governor-General, now called the Viceroy, oversaw India with the Indian Civil Service
(ICS).
 Loyal Indian princes kept their thrones but had little real power.

2. Changes in Governance

 Bahadur Shah was exiled to Burma after being sentenced to life imprisonment.
 In 1877, Queen Victoria became the Empress of India, formally replacing the Indian royal family.

3. Impact on Muslims

 Muslims were blamed for the war, leading to distrust and exclusion from government jobs.
 The British recruited soldiers from groups they considered 'trustworthy,' like Sikhs and Gurkhas.
 British withdrew support from Muslim schools, leading to a decline in Muslim education.
 Muslims faced discrimination, with few opportunities for government positions.
 In contrast, Hindus adapted to British rule, learned English, and secured minor government jobs,
leading to their favor with the British.

4. Overall Consequence

 The Muslim community suffered greatly after the war, facing educational decline and limited
opportunities under British rule.

The Birth of Nationalist Ideas

1. British Control Post-1857

 The British government in London took direct control of India, abolishing the East India
Company.
 Queen Victoria was declared Empress of India in 1877.

2. Limited Indian Participation

 Indians were mostly excluded from governance, with British officials holding key positions.
 By 1870, only one Indian held a position in the Indian Civil Service, despite promises of equal
opportunities.

3. Economic Policies Favoring Britain

 British policies favored their own interests over India's:

 Indian soldiers faced reduced opportunities.
 Duties on British cotton were removed, harming local Indian manufacturers.

4. Growing Criticism and British Repression

 Nationalist ideas spread due to lack of opportunities and British oppression:

  Bhikhaiji Cama criticized British rule in 1907.
 The Vernacular Act of 1878 restricted Indian newspapers.
 The Arms Act made it hard for Indians to own weapons.

5. Rise of Nationalism

 Nationalist groups and activities emerged:

 Rajinarayan Bose founded a society to promote national feeling in 1866.
 The Hindu Mela began in Bengal in 1867.
 Political groups like Sarvajanik Sabha (1870) and the Indian National Congress (1885) were
established.