Wireless Sensor

Technology
(ICE 4476)
 Course Outcomes
• CO1 Interpret the architecture of wireless sensor network

• CO2 Analyse sensor networks

• CO3 Design sensor networks using WSN protocols

• CO4 Apply the concept of sensor communication technology

• CO5 Analyse sensor network platforms

Single-Node Architecture, Energy Consumption, Operating Systems and Execution, Optimization

Goals and figures of merit, Gateway Concepts, Networking sensors, WSN protocols, Wakeup
Radio Concepts, Address and Name Management, Routing Protocols, Time Synchronization,
Localization and Positioning, Sensor Tasking and Control, Sensor Node Hardware, Programming
Challenges, Node-level software platforms, Node-level Simulators, State-centric programming.
 Books
• Holger Karl & Andreas Willig, Protocols and Architectures for Wireless Sensor
Networks, John Wiley, 2005.
• Feng Zhao & Leonidas J. Guibas, Wireless Sensor Networks- An Information
Processing Approach, Elsevier, 2007
• Kazem Sohraby, Daniel Minoli, & Taieb Znati, Wireless Sensor Networks-
Technology, Protocols, And Applications, John Wiley, 2007.
• Anna Hac, Wireless Sensor Network Designs, John Wiley, 2003
 Introduction
• A Sensor is a device used to gather information about a physical process and
translate into electrical signals that can be processed, measured and analyzed.
• The physical process can be any real-world information like temperature, pressure,
light, sound, motion, position, flow, humidity, radiation etc.
• A Sensor Network is a structure consisting of sensors, computational units and
communication elements for the purpose of recording, observing and reacting to an
event or a phenomenon.
• The events can like physical world, an industrial environment, a biological system
while the controlling or observing body can be a consumer application,
government, civil, military, or an industrial entity.
• Such Sensor Networks can be used for remote sensing, medical telemetry,
surveillance, monitoring, data collection etc
 • A typical sensor network consists of
sensors, controller and a
communication system. If the
communication system in a Sensor
Network is implemented using a
Wireless protocol, then the networks
are known as Wireless Sensor
Networks.

Wireless Sensor Networks

 Features of WSN
• A Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is a distributed network.
• A network configuration where every participant can
communicate with one another without going through a
centralized point.
• WSN comprises a large number of distributed, self-directed, tiny,
low powered devices called sensor nodes.
• It is used to monitor physical or environmental conditions, such
as temperature, sound, vibration, pressure, motion or pollutants.
• It pass their data through the network to a main location or sink
where the data can be observed and analysed.
• A sink or base station acts like an interface between users and
the network.
• One can retrieve required information from the network by
injecting queries and gathering results from the sink.
• A wireless sensor network contains hundreds of thousands of
sensor nodes.
• The sensor nodes can communicate among themselves using
radio signals.
• A wireless sensor node is equipped with sensing and computing
devices, radio transceivers and power components.
 Applications of WSN

Area Monitoring
In area monitoring, the sensor nodes are deployed over a region where some phenomenon is to be monitored.
When the sensors detect the event being monitored (heat, pressure etc), the event is reported to one of the base
stations, which then takes appropriate action will be taken.

Transportation
Real-time traffic information is being collected to feed transportation models and alert drivers of congestion
and traffic problems

Health applications
Some of the health applications for sensor networks are
❖ supporting interfaces for the disabled patients
❖ integrated patient monitoring
❖ diagnostics,
❖ drug administration in hospitals
❖ tele-monitoring of human physiological data
❖ tracking & monitoring doctors or patients inside a hospital.
Environmental sensing
• This includes sensing volcanoes
❖ Oceans
❖ glaciers
❖ forests etc.
Air pollution monitoring
Forest fires detection
Greenhouse monitoring
Landslide detection

Structural monitoring:
Wireless sensors can be utilized to monitor the movement within buildings
to monitor infrastructure such as bridges, flyovers, embankments, tunnels etc
Enabling Engineering practices to monitor assets remotely

Agricultural sector
using a wireless network frees the farmer from the maintenance of wiring in a difficult environment.
Irrigation automation enables more efficient water use and reduces waste

Components of a wireless sensor network :

The components of WSN system are sensor node, rely node, actor node, cluster head, gateway and base
station.
 Motivation for WSN
• The recent developments in engineering, communication and networking led to new
sensor designs, information technologies and wireless systems.
• Such advanced sensors can be used as a bridge between the physical world and the
digital world.
• Sensors are used in numerous devices, industries, machines and help in avoiding
infrastructure failures, accidents, conserving natural resources, preserving wildlife,
increase productivity, provide security etc.
• The use of distributed sensor network contributed by the technological advances in
VLSI, MEMS and Wireless Communication.
• With the help of modern semiconductor technology, powerful microprocessors can be
developed, smaller in size when compared to the previous generation products. This
miniaturization of processing, computing and sensing technologies led to tiny,
lowpower and cheap sensors, controllers and actuators.
 Elements of WSN
• A typical wireless sensor network can be divided into two elements.
Sensor Node
Network Architecture
• A Sensor Node in a WSN consists of four basic components.

• Sensor
• Processing Unit
• Communication System
• Power Supply
Example of Agricultural Field Monitoring and Control
 Sensors for different WSN application
❖ Temperature Sensors: thermistor, Thermometers, thermocouple, RTD, IC LM 273,
pyrometer
❖ Pressure Sensors: Diphergem, Pressure gauge, digital pressure sensor
❖ Proximity Sensors: Magnetic, capacitive, IR Type
❖ Level Sensors: Ultrasonic, pitoted tube, infrared, electromagnetic
❖ Accelerometers: Pizoresistive, piezoelectric
❖ Humidity Sensors: Capacitive, resistive and thermal type
❖ Gas Sensors: combustible gas sensors, infrared point sensors, ultrasonic sensors,
electrochemical gas sensors, and metal-oxide-semiconductor sensors (MOS sensors).
❖ Gyroscope
Sensors for different WSN applications
Architecture of WSN
 Elements of WSN
• The sensor collects the analog data from the physical world, and an ADC converts
this data to digital data.
• The main processing unit a microprocessor or a microcontroller, performs an
intelligent data processing and manipulation. Communication system consists of
radio system, a short-range radio for data transmission and reception.
• As all the components are low-power devices, a small battery like CR-2032, is
used to power the entire system.
• A Sensor Node consists of not only the sensing component but also other
important features like processing, communication and storage units.
• With all these features, components and enhancements, a Sensor Node is
responsible for physical world data collection, network analysis, data correlation
and fusion of data from other sensor with its own data.
 Network Architecture
• When a large number of sensor nodes are deployed in a large area to
monitor a physical environment, the networking of these sensor nodes
is equally important. A sensor node in a WSN not only communicates
with other sensor nodes but also with a Base Station (BS) using
wireless communication.
• The base station sends commands to the sensor nodes and the sensor node
perform the task by collaborating with each other.
• The sensor nodes in turn send the data back to the base station. A base station
also acts as a gateway to other networks through the internet.
• After receiving the data from the sensor nodes, a base station performs simple
data processing and sends the updated information to the user using internet.
• If each sensor node is connected to the base station, it is known as Single-hop
network architecture.
• Although long distance transmission is possible, the energy consumption for
communication will be significantly higher than data collection and
computation.
Single Hop Architecture
 Multi-hop Architecture
• Hence, Multi-hop network architecture is usually used. Instead of one single
link between the sensor node and the base station, the data is transmitted
through one or more intermediate node.
• This can be implemented in two ways. Flat network architecture and
Hierarchical network architecture.
• In flat architecture, the base station sends commands to all the sensor nodes
but the sensor node with matching query will respond using its peer nodes via
a multi-hop path.
• In hierarchical architecture, a group of sensor nodes are formed as a cluster
and the sensor nodes transmit data to corresponding cluster heads.
• The cluster heads can then relay the data to the base station
Flat and Hierarchical Network Architectures
Comparison Between Flat and Hierarchical Network
Aspect Flat Network Architecture Hierarchical Network Architecture
Network is organized into layers or clusters, with specific node
Definition All sensor nodes are equal in role and capability.
roles.
Homogeneous nodes; no special functions Nodes have specific roles (e.g., Cluster Heads, Member Nodes,
Node Roles
assigned. Sink).
Communication Pattern Peer-to-peer or direct to base station. Sensor → Cluster Head → Sink/Base Station.

Data Aggregation Minimal or no aggregation; high redundancy. Data is aggregated at the Cluster Head level to reduce traffic.
Moderate; performance degrades with large node
Scalability Highly scalable; well-suited for large WSNs.
count.
Higher; energy savings through data aggregation and cluster
Energy Efficiency Lower; due to multiple redundant transmissions.
management.
Data-centric (e.g., flooding, gossiping, Directed
Routing Protocols Hierarchical (e.g., LEACH, TEEN, PEGASIS).
Diffusion).
Maintenance
Simple to deploy and manage. Complex due to cluster formation, CH rotation, etc.
Complexity
Dependent on cluster head; CH failure affects cluster
Fault Tolerance More robust in case of node failure.
communication.
Latency Lower in small networks; higher with scaling. Generally optimized due to structured paths.
Environmental monitoring with uniform sensor
Examples Industrial WSNs, Smart cities, Healthcare monitoring.
distribution.
Challenges of WSN
1. Energy Efficiency – Limited battery life requires optimization.
2. Communication Constraints – Wireless links are error-prone.
3. Fault Tolerance – Network must survive node failures.
4. Scalability – Must handle many nodes efficiently.
5. Quality of Service – Ensure reliability, low delay.
6. Localization/Coverage – Determine node positions and full area sensing.
7. Network Dynamics – Adapt to topology changes.
8. Data Aggregation – Reduce redundancy and save bandwidth.
9. Security – Prevent attacks and ensure data integrity.
10. Hardware Limits – Operate with limited CPU, memory.
11. Maintainability – Nodes should be self-sufficient post-deployment.
12. Programmability – Update nodes without manual access
1. Energy Efficiency / Limited Power Supply

• Sensor nodes are usually battery-powered and deployed in locations where recharging or replacing
batteries is impractical (e.g., forests, oceans, or bridges).
• Every operation (sensing, processing, transmitting) consumes power. Transmission uses the most.
• Use energy-aware routing, duty cycling (turning radios off when idle), and in-network processing
(aggregating data before sending).

2. Communication and Bandwidth Constraints

• WSNs rely on wireless links that are prone to interference, signal fading, and noise.
• Ensuring data is transmitted reliably despite limited bandwidth and high error rates.
• Too many nodes communicating simultaneously can cause packet collisions and congestion

3. Fault Tolerance
Nodes can fail unexpectedly due to:
• Battery depletion
• Hardware issues
• Harsh environmental conditions (rain, wind, fire, etc.)
The network must reconfigure itself to maintain operation. This may include rerouting data, replacing roles
like cluster heads, or activating backup nodes.
4. Scalability
• WSNs can involve hundreds or thousands of nodes depending on the application.
• Maintaining efficient communication and coordination as node count increases. Flat routing protocols may
cause broadcast storms and congestion.
• Use hierarchical architectures or clustering to reduce complexity.

5. Quality of Service (QoS)

•Some applications (e.g., fire alarms, medical monitoring) require real-time and reliable data delivery.
•Meeting performance criteria like:
• Low latency
• High reliability
• Sufficient throughput
•All of this must be done under tight energy and resource constraints

6. Localization and Coverage

•In many applications, knowing where data was collected is as important as the data itself.
•The Challenge:
• Using GPS on every node is expensive and power-hungry.
• Ensuring every area is adequately covered and reducing blind spots.
•Solution direction: Use low-power range-free localization techniques and adaptive deployment algorithms.
7. Network Dynamics and Mobility
•Network topology can change due to:
• Node failure
• Mobile nodes (e.g., wearable sensors, moving robots)
•The Challenge: Ensure the network adapts to these changes through self-organization, dynamic routing, and
robust MAC protocols.

8. Data Aggregation and Fusion

•Transmitting raw data from all nodes causes redundancy, wastes energy, and overloads the network.
•The Challenge: Process data locally to:
• Combine similar readings
• Extract meaningful events
•Goal: Send fewer but more useful messages to the base station.

9. Security and Privacy

•Why it matters: WSNs can be attacked by outsiders who:
• Eavesdrop on data
• Inject false data
• Physically tamper with nodes
•The Challenge: Implement encryption, authentication, and secure routing without using too much memory,
power, or processing.
10. Hardware Constraints
• Sensor nodes are designed to be cheap and compact, meaning:
• Low CPU power
• Small memory (often just a few KBs)
• Limited storage
•The Challenge: Design lightweight software and algorithms that work within these constraints.

11. Maintainability
• WSNs are often deployed in inaccessible or hostile environments (underground, underwater,
industrial zones).
•The Challenge:
• Manual maintenance is difficult.
• Nodes must be autonomous, capable of remote diagnostics, and able to recover from
errors.
•Best practices: Use self-configuring and self-healing protocols.

12. Programmability and Flexibility

Applications may evolve or require updates.
•The Challenge: Enable remote reprogramming without disrupting the network.
•Issues:
• Limited memory
• Risk of programming failures
• Need for secure and efficient update mechanisms
WSN Protocol Stack
WSN Layered architecture
Network Topologies for WSN
 Network Topologies for WSN
• WSN can be either a single-hop network or a multi hop network.
• The following are a few different network topologies that are used in WSNs.
• Star Topology
• In star topology, there is a single central node known as hub or switch and
every node in the network is connected to this hub. Star topology is very easy
to implement, design and expand. The data flows through the hub and plays an
important role in the network and a failure in the hub can result in failure of
entire network.
• Tree Topology - A tree topology is a hierarchical network where there is a
single root node at the top and this node is connected to many nodes in the
next level and continues. The processing power and energy consumption is
highest at the root node and keeps on decreasing as we go down the
hierarchical order.
• Mesh Topology - In mesh topology, apart from transmitting its own data, each
node also acts as a relay for transmitting data of other connected nodes. Mesh
topologies are further divided into Fully Connected Mesh and Partially
Connected Mesh. In fully connected mesh topology, each node is connected to
every other node while in partially connected mesh topology, a node is
connected one or more neighboring nodes.
• Ring topology in Wireless Sensor Networks is a network structure where each sensor
node is connected to exactly two other nodes, forming a closed loop. Data is transmitted
in a circular manner, either unidirectionally or bidirectionally, until it reaches the
intended destination. This topology ensures equal access for all nodes and minimizes
data collisions through token-based communication. However, it is vulnerable to single
node failures that can break the entire loop, and communication delays increase as the
number of nodes grows. Ring topology is best suited for fixed, small-scale networks
like industrial or pipeline monitoring systems.

• Bus topology in Wireless Sensor Networks is a network layout where all sensor
nodes are connected to a single shared communication line, known as the bus or
backbone. Each node transmits data over this common channel, and only the
intended recipient accepts and processes the data. It is simple to implement and
cost-effective, especially for small, linear deployments. However, bus topology
has limited scalability, and performance degrades as more nodes are added.
Additionally, if the central bus line fails, the entire network is disrupted. This
topology is typically used in applications like tunnel, bridge, or pipeline
monitoring.
Hybrid topology in Wireless Sensor Networks is a combination of two or more
basic topologies—such as star, mesh, tree, or ring—designed to leverage the
strengths and minimize the weaknesses of each. For example, a star-mesh hybrid
may use star connections within clusters and mesh connections between cluster
heads. This topology offers greater flexibility, scalability, and fault tolerance,
making it suitable for large, complex, or heterogeneous networks. While hybrid
topologies improve performance and adaptability, they also introduce design
complexity and may require sophisticated protocols for coordination. Common
applications include smart cities, industrial automation, and intelligent
transportation systems.
Single Node Architecture – Hardware
Components
 Introduction
• Building a wireless sensor network requires the constituting nodes to be
developed. These nodes have to meet the requirements from a given
application. They have to be small, cheap, energy efficient, equipped with the
right sensors, memory resources and sufficient communication facilities. The
hardware components of the functioning node are explained as follows.
 Overview of Sensor Node
• A basic sensor node comprises five main components are shown in the Figure.
• Controller: To process all relevant data
• Memory: To store programs and intermediate data.
• Sensors and actuators: Actual interface to the physical world to observe or
control physical parameters of the environment.
• Communication: Device for sending and receiving information over a wireless
channel
• Power supply: Some form of batteries necessary to provide energy and some
form of recharging by obtaining energy from the environment as well
Fig 8 / Basic Components of a Sensor Node
 Controllers
• The controller is the core of a wireless sensor node.
• It is the Central Processing Unit (CPU) of the node
• It collects data from sensors, processes this data, receives data from other
sensor nodes, and decides on the actuator’s behavior.
• It has to execute various programs, ranging from time critical signal processing
and communication protocols to application programs.
• Such a variety of processing tasks can be performed on various controller
architectures, representing trade-offs between flexibility, performance, energy
efficiency, and costs.
 Controllers
• Microcontrollers are suitable for WSNs since they can reduce their power
consumption by going into sleep states where only parts of the controller are
active.
• One of the main differences to general-purpose systems is that microcontroller-
based systems do not include a memory management unit – for example,
protected or virtual memory is difficult.
• In a wireless sensor node, DSP can be used to process incoming data. But the
advantages of a DSP are not required in a WSN node and they are usually not
used.
• Another option for the controller is to use Field Programmable Gate Arrays
(FPGAs) or Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs) instead of
microcontrollers.
 FPGA Board

Controllers
• An FPGA can be reprogrammed in
the field to adapt to a changing set of
requirements , but this can take time
and energy.
• An ASIC is a specialized processor,
designed for a given application such
as high-speed routers and switches.
• The typical trade-off here is loss of
flexibility in return for a considerably
better energy efficiency and
performance.
ASIC board
 Memory
• There is a need for Random Access Memory (RAM) to store intermediate
sensor readings, packets from other nodes etc.
• RAM is fast, but it loses its contents if power supply is interrupted.
• The program code can be stored in Read-Only Memory (ROM) or in
Electrically Erasable Programmable ReadOnly Memory (EEPROM) or flash
memory.
• Flash memory can also serve as intermediate storage of data when the power
supply goes off for some time.
• The long read and write access delays of flash memory should be taken into
account as well as the high required energy
 Sensors & Actuators
• Sensors can be categorized into the following three categories
• 1. Passive Omni-directional sensors:
• They can measure a physical quantity at the point of the sensor node
without manipulating the environment by active probing. They obtain the
energy directly from the environment – energy is only needed to amplify
their analog signal. There is no notion of “direction in these measurements.
Typical examples include thermometer, light sensors, vibration,
microphones, humidity, chemical sensors etc
• 2. Passive narrow-beam sensors: They are passive but have a well-defined
notion of direction of measurement. A typical example is a camera, which
can “take measurements” in a given direction, but has to be rotated if need
be.
• 3. Active sensors: They probe the environment, for example, a sonar or
radar sensor or some types of seismic sensors, which generate shock waves
by small explosions.
 Energy consumption in WSN
Factors that Influence Energy Consumption in Wireless Sensor Networks
(WSNs)
1. Hardware-Related Factors:
•Sensor Type and Frequency
•Microcontroller
•Radio Transceiver
•Memory

2. Network-Related Factors:
•Type of Channels and their Pathloss component
•Channel Access Method: FDMA, TDMA, CDMA
•Mobility
•Data Rate
•Network Topology
•Sleep Schedules
 Energy consumption in WSN Cont..
3. Environmental Factors
•Temperature
•Humidity
•Cross Talk
•External noise

4. Application-Specific Factors
• Data Collection rate
• Data processing rate
• Transmission Range
 Techniques to optimize Energy consumption in WSN
Techniques that can be used to reduce power Energy Consumption in
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs):

• Power Management
• Data Compression
• Clustering
• Improved Routing Protocols
• Duty Cycling
• Energy Harvesting by utilizing solar and wind energy
 Communication Module for WSN
• Transceivers
• For actual communication, both a transmitter and a receiver are required in a
sensor node to convert a bit stream coming from a microcontroller and convert
them to and from radio waves. Such combined devices are called transceivers.
• Usually, half-duplex operation is realized since transmitting and receiving at
the same time on a wireless medium is impractical in most cases. A range of
low-cost transceivers is available that incorporate all the circuitry required for
transmitting and receiving, modulation, demodulation, amplifiers, filters,
mixers etc..
 Communication Module
• Transceiver characteristics
• The following are some of the important parameters that should be considered during the
selection of transceiver.
• Transmission Power Control
• Pathloss and Channel condition
• Carrier Frequency & Multiple channels
• Transmission Power Control
• Data Rates
• Modulation
• Noise Figure
• Power Efficiency
• Frequency Stability etc
 Types of communication module for WSN
1. RF Communication Modules
• 802.15.4/Zigbee
• Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE)
• Wi-F
• Sub-GHz RF

2. LoRa (Long Range) Modules (LoRA

WAN)

3. Cellular Modules RasbarryPI-based WiFi and GSM Module

• 2G/3G/4G/5G
• NB-WSN (Narrowband WSN)
4. Infrared (IR) Modules

5. Optical Communication Modules

• Free-Space Optical (FSO) Communication
• Li-fi
6. Ultrasonic Communication Modules Lifi Module
 Communication Module
Transceiver States to control Transmission Power :
• Transmit State: The transmit part of the transceiver is active and the antenna
radiates energy.
• Receive State: The receive part is active.
• Idle State: A transceiver that is ready to receive but not currently receiving
anything is said to be in an idle state.
• Sleep State: The significant parts of the transceiver are switched off. There are
transceivers offering several different sleep states.
 Wireless channel model and Selection for WSN
The different channel models used in most wireless communication systems are
divided into two types:

1) Path loss Model: The path loss models are designed based on the loss
that occurs between the transmitter and receiver. The path loss model is
categorized into two types:
(i) Free Space Model (Friis Transmission Equation): For AWGN channel
(ii) Log-Distance Path Loss Model: This is a more practical model that accounts for
signal weakening with distance along with a random fluctuation term

2) Fading model:
(i) Small-Scale Fading Models: Examples include Rayleigh fading and Rician fading.
(ii) Large-Scale Fading Models: They are similar to path loss model
 Free Space Propagation Model

1) Free space propagation model is used to predict:

•Received Signal Strength when the transmitter and receiver have a clear,
unobstructed LoS between them.
•The free space propagation model assumes a transmit antenna and a receive
antenna to be located in an otherwise empty environment. Neither absorbing
obstacles nor reflecting surfaces are considered. In particular, the influence of
the earth surface is assumed to be entirely absent.
Satellite communication systems and microwave line-of-sight radio links typically
undergo free space propagation.

54
 Free Space Propagation Model
• Path Loss
• Signal attenuation as a positive quantity measured in dB and defined as the difference (in
dB) between the effective transmitter power and received power.
• Friis is an application of the standard “Free Space Propagation Model
“
• It gives the Median Path Loss in dB ( exclusive of Antenna Gains and other losses )
• Clear, unobstructed line-of-sight path → satellite and fixed microwave
• Friis Transmission Equation (Far field) Where:
Pt: Transmitted power,
Pr(d): Received power at a distance d
Gt: Transmitter antenna gain,
Gr: Receiver antenna gain,
d: Tx-Rx separation distance (m)
L: System loss factor
λ: is the wavelength of the radio frequency
55
 2) Log-Distance Path Loss Model
When the distance between WSN nodes increases beyond a certain threshold, signal propagation no longer
follows the ideal free-space (n=2) relationship because:
• More signal energy is absorbed or scattered.
• Multipath fading and diffraction losses become significant.
• Ground reflections, terrain, and atmospheric conditions cause extra attenuation.

So, in long-distance communication, the received power decreases faster than in the free-space case — typically
with n>2
PL(d) = PL(d0, ref) + 10 * γ * log(d/d0)
where:
•PL(dB) - Total path loss in decibels (dB)
•PL(d0, ref) - Path loss at the reference distance d0 in decibels (dB) (usually calculated using the Friis free-space path loss
model)
•γ - Path loss exponent (unitless) - This value depends on the specific environment and characterizes the rate of signal
weakening with distance. (e.g., free space = 2, urban environment = 4)

•d - Distance between transmitter and receiver (meters)

•d0 - Reference distance (meters) - This is a fixed distance chosen as a reference point, typically 1 km (or 1 mile) for large cells
and 1 m to 10 m for microcells.
Log distance path loss Analysis

Table: Path loss exponent for different environments

Fading model
 Fading over channels
• Fading of communication channels occurs when the quality and strength of a radio
signal fluctuates over distance and time. Fading occurs due to: Multipath propagation,
Atmospheric conditions, Movement of objects in the transmission path, Time span,
Geographical position, and type of radio frequency wave.
Rayleigh fading Model
The Rayleigh fading model is a statistical model used for simulating mobile
radio systems, particularly beneficial in representing multipath fading
environments.
Applications of Rayleigh fading Model
The Rayleigh fading model is a valuable tool in analyzing how radio signals behave in
environments with multipath propagation. some key applications of the Rayleigh
fading model:
▪ Cellular telecommunications: In dense urban areas where LoS is not
present
▪ Ionospheric communications: radio signals transmitted over long
distances can travel via the ionosphere layer. This layer scatters radio
waves and causes fading.
▪ Ground wave propagation: To model the ground wave travel within the
lowest layer of the environment.
Rician fading Model:
Rician fading is a statistical model used to describe the way radio signal
strength fluctuates due to multipath propagation.

Unlike Rayleigh fading, which assumes

all multipath components are roughly
equal in strength, Rician fading accounts
for a scenario where one path (often a
direct line-of-sight path) is much
stronger than the other.
Advantage of Rician Fading over Rayleigh Fading Model

•Provides a more realistic picture of signal strength variations compared to

Rayleigh fading, especially in scenarios with a dominant path.

•Helps engineers design communication systems that can mitigate the

effects of fading and ensure reliable communication.

•Useful for analyzing the performance of communication systems in terms

of bit error rate, outage probability, etc.
Types of Wireless Sensor Network
 Introduction
• The types of networks are decided based upon the environment so that they
can be deployed underwater, underground, on land and so on. Different
types of WSNs include:
• Terrestrial WSNs
• Underground WSNs
• Underwater WSNs
• Multimedia WSNs
• Mobile WSNs
 Terrestrial WSN’s
• Terrestrial WSNs are capable of communicating base stations efficiently
and consist of hundreds to thousands of wireless sensor nodes deployed
either in an unstructured or structured manner.
• In an unstructured mode, the sensor nodes are randomly distributed within
the target area dropped from a fixed plane.
• The preplanned or structured mode considers optimal placement, grid
placement, and 2D, 3D placement models. In this WSN, the battery power
is limited but equipped with solar cells as a secondary power source.
• The energy conservation of these WSNs is achieved by using low duty
cycle operations, minimizing delays, and optimal routing, and so on.
 Underground WSN
• The underground wireless sensor networks are more expensive than the
terrestrial WSNs in terms of deployment, maintenance, and equipment cost
considerations and careful planning.
• The WSNs networks consist of several sensor nodes hidden in the ground to
monitor underground conditions.
• To relay information from the sensor nodes to the base station, additional
sink nodes are located above the ground.
• The underground wireless sensor networks deployed into the ground are
difficult to recharge.
• The sensor battery nodes equipped with limited battery power are difficult
to recharge
• In addition to this, the underground environment makes wireless
communication a challenge due to the high level of attenuation and signal
loss

•Applications: Soil moisture detection, underground pipeline monitoring.

•Challenges: High signal attenuation, need for robust communication.
Fig 10 / Underground WSN
 Under Water WSN
• More than 70% of the earth is occupied with water. These networks consist
of several sensor nodes and vehicles deployed underwater.
• Autonomous underwater vehicles are used for gathering data from these
sensor nodes. A challenge of underwater communication is a long
propagation delay, and bandwidth and sensor failures.
• Underwater, WSNs are equipped with a limited battery that cannot be
recharged or replaced.
• The issue of energy conservation for underwater WSNs involves the
development of underwater communication and networking techniques.
 Fig 11 / Underwater WSN

•Applications: Ocean monitoring, pollution tracking, submarine detection.

•Challenges: Limited bandwidth, high latency, battery replacement difficulty.
 Multimedia WSN
• Multimedia wireless sensor networks have been proposed to enable tracking
and monitoring of events in the form of multimedia such as imaging, video,
and audio.
• These networks consist of low-cost sensor nodes equipped with
microphones and cameras.
• These nodes are interconnected with each other over a wireless connection
for data compression, data retrieval, and correlation.
• The challenges with the multimedia WSN include high energy
consumption, high bandwidth requirements, data processing, and
compressing techniques.
• In addition to this, multimedia contents require high bandwidth for the
content to be delivered properly and easily.
 Fig 12 / Multimedia WSN

•Applications: Traffic monitoring, industrial inspection, security surveillance.

•Challenges: High data rates, energy consumption, storage needs.
 Mobile WSN
• These networks consist of a collection of sensor nodes that can be moved on
their own and can be interacted with the physical environment.
• The mobile nodes can compute sense and communicate. Mobile wireless
sensor networks are much more versatile than static sensor networks.
• The advantages of MWSN over static wireless sensor networks include
better and improved coverage, better energy efficiency, superior channel
capacity, and so on.
 Mobile WSN
•.

•Applications: Search and rescue, wildlife tracking.

•Challenges: Dynamic topology, frequent re-routing
 Classification of WSN’s
• The classification of WSNs can be done based on the application but its
characteristics mainly change based on the type.
• Generally, WSNs are classified into different categories like the following.
• Static & Mobile
• Deterministic & Nondeterministic
• Single Base Station & Multi Base Station
• Static Base Station & Mobile Base Station
• Single-hop & Multi-hop WSN
• Self Reconfigurable & Non-Self Configurable
• Homogeneous & Heterogeneous
• 1. Static & Mobile WSN - All the sensor nodes in several applications can
be set without movement so these networks are static WSNs. Especially in
some applications like biological systems uses mobile sensor nodes which
are called mobile networks. The best example of a mobile network is the
monitoring of animals.
• 2. Deterministic & Nondeterministic WSN - In a deterministic type of
network, the sensor node arrangement can be fixed and calculated. This
sensor node’s pre-planned operation is possible in simply some
applications. In most applications, the location of sensor nodes cannot be
determined because of different factors like hostile operating conditions and
harsh environment, so these networks are called non-deterministic
• 3. Single Base Station & Multi Base Station - In a single base station
network, a single base station is used and it can be arranged very close to
the region of the sensor node. The interaction between sensor nodes can be
done through the base station. In a multi-base station type network, multiple
base stations are used and a sensor node is used to move data toward the
nearby base station.
• 4. Static Base Station & Mobile Base Station - Base stations are either
mobile or static similar to sensor nodes. The static type base station includes
a stable position close to the sensing area whereas the mobile base station
moves in the region of the sensor so that the sensor nodes load can be
balanced.
• 5. Single-hop & Multi-hop WSN - In a single-hop type network, the
arrangement of sensor nodes can be done directly toward the base station
whereas, in a multi-hop network, both the cluster heads and peer nodes are
utilized to transmit the data to reduce the energy consumption.
• 6. Self Reconfigurable & Non-Self Configurable - In a non-self-
configurable network, the arrangement of sensor networks cannot be done
by them within a network and depends on a control unit for gathering data.
In wireless sensor networks, the sensor nodes maintain and organize the
network and collaboratively work by using other sensor nodes to
accomplish the task.
• 7. Homogeneous and Heterogeneous –
• In a homogeneous wireless sensor network, all the sensor nodes mainly
include similar energy utilization, storage capabilities and computational
power.
• In heterogeneous network, some sensor nodes include high computational
power as well as energy necessities as compared to others.
• The processing and communication tasks are separated consequently.
 Applications of WSN
• Air Traffic Control (ATC)
• Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)
• Industrial Assembly Line
• Automotive Sensors
• Battlefield Management and Surveillance
• Biomedical Applications
• Bridge and Highway Monitoring
• Disaster Management
• Earthquake Detection
• Electricity Load Management
 Applications of WSN
• Environment Control and Monitoring
• Industrial Automation
• Inventory Management
• Personal Health Care
• Security Systems