IGCSE Biology Notes
Topic 16: Reproduction
Content to be learnt in Topic 16
1. Describe asexual reproduction as a process resulting in the production of genetically identical
offspring from one parent
2. Identify examples of asexual reproduction in diagrams, images and information provided
3. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction: (a) to a population of a
species in the wild, (b) to crop production
4. Describe sexual reproduction as a process involving the fusion of the nuclei of two gametes to
form a zygote and the production of offspring that are genetically different from each other
5. Describe fertilisation as the fusion of the nuclei of gametes
6. State that nuclei of gametes are haploid and that the nucleus of a zygote is diploid
7. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction: (a) to a population of a
species in the wild, (b) to crop production
8. Identify in diagrams and images and draw the following parts of an insect-pollinated flower:
sepals, petals, stamens, filaments, anthers, carpels, style, stigma, ovary and ovules
9. State the functions of the structures listed in 16.3.1
10. Identify in diagrams and images and describe the anthers and stigmas of a wind-pollinated
flower
11. Distinguish between the pollen grains of insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated flowers
12. Describe pollination as the transfer of pollen grains from an anther to a stigma
13. State that fertilisation occurs when a pollen nucleus fuses with a nucleus in an ovule
14. Describe the structural adaptations of insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated flowers
15. Investigate and describe the environmental conditions that affect germination of seeds,
limited to the requirement for: water, oxygen and a suitable temperature
16. Describe self-pollination as the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the
stigma of the same flower or a different flower on the same plant
17. Describe cross-pollination as the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the
stigma of a flower on a different plant of the same species
18. Discuss the potential effects of self-pollination and cross-pollination on a population, in terms
of variation, capacity to respond to changes in the environment and reliance on pollinators
19. Describe the growth of the pollen tube and its entry into the ovule followed by fertilisation
(details of production of endosperm and development are not required)
20. Identify on diagrams and state the functions of the following parts of the male reproductive
system: testes, scrotum, sperm ducts, prostate gland, urethra and penis
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IGCSE Biology Notes
Topic 16: Reproduction
21. Identify on diagrams and state the functions of the following parts of the female reproductive
system: ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix and vagina
22. Describe fertilisation as the fusion of the nuclei from a male gamete (sperm) and a female
gamete (egg cell)
23. Explain the adaptive features of sperm, limited to: flagellum, mitochondria and enzymes in the
acrosome
24. Explain the adaptive features of egg cells, limited to: energy stores and the jelly coat that
changes at fertilisation
25. Compare male and female gametes in terms of: size, structure, motility and numbers
26. State that in early development, the zygote forms an embryo which is a ball of cells that
implants into the lining of the uterus
27. Identify on diagrams and state the functions of the following in the development of the fetus:
umbilical cord, placenta, amniotic sac and amniotic fluid
28. Describe the roles of testosterone and oestrogen in the development and regulation of
secondary sexual characteristics during puberty
29. Describe the menstrual cycle in terms of changes in the ovaries and in the lining of the uterus
30. Describe the sites of production of oestrogen and progesterone in the menstrual cycle and in
pregnancy
31. Explain the role of hormones in controlling the menstrual cycle and pregnancy, limited to FSH,
LH, progesterone and oestrogen
32. Describe a sexually transmitted infection (STI) as an infection that is transmitted through
sexual contact
33. State that human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a pathogen that causes an STI
34. State that HIV infection may lead to AIDS
35. Describe the methods of transmission of HIV
36. Explain how the spread of STIs is controlled
Question style in Topic 16
1. Contrast structures of wind-pollinated and insect-pollinated flowers, and how they are
adapted to their pollination strategies
2. Label structures in insect-pollinated flower
3. Describe pollination process
4. State the hormones represented by concentration curves in menstrual cycle
5. State the roles of sex hormones at puberty
6. Contrast mitosis and meiosis
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IGCSE Biology Notes
Topic 16: Reproduction
Asexual reproduction
Definition: is the process resulting in the production of genetically identical offspring from one parent
Examples of asexual reproduction
1. Binary fission in bacteria 2. Budding in hydra 3. Runners in strawberry plants
1. https://i.pinimg.com/736x/19/5d/c1/195dc112ead27da14ddb35a3ef84f044.jpg
2. https://bio1151.nicerweb.com/Locked/media/ch13/hydra_budding.html
3. https://www.ruralsprout.com/strawberry-runners/
Advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction
1. to a population of a species in the wild
Advantages
i. Faster – no searching for mates needed, no need to produce gametes which
generally takes more time
ii. More frequent – reproduction can happen as long as the parent is mature enough,
and no need to search for mates ideal for sparse populations
iii. Less energy intensive – no courtship required which can range from providing
nuptial gifts, building nests to dancing
iv. Just simpler overall – fewer steps in asexual reproduction
Disadvantages
i. Lower genetic diversity – affects the species’ ability to adapt to changing
environment (see topic 17 variation and selection for details)
ii. Accumulation of mutations – the shuffling effect seen in sexual reproduction is
absent mutations essentially accumulate linearly with time
iii. Overproduction – often offspring that are asexually made are located near the
parent organism which is most certainly going to be able to compete for more
nutrients than the offspring
2. to crop production
Advantages
i. Quality control – if farmers use crop plants with ideal traits for asexual
reproduction, since the offspring are genetically identical, they will have the same
traits as well unlike in sexual reproduction
ii. Faster – great for mass production of food
Disadvantages
i. Lower genetic diversity – same idea as above
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IGCSE Biology Notes
Topic 16: Reproduction
Sexual reproduction
Definition: is the process of reproduction involving the fusion of the nuclei of two gametes to form a
zygote and the production of offspring that are genetically different from each other
Fusion of the nuclei of gametes happens by way of fertilisation
After fusion, the zygote should have the normal number of chromosomes characteristic of its
species e.g. humans have 46 chromosomes in the genome, so a human zygote should also have 46
chromosomes
o But since the formation of a zygote involves the fusion of 2 nuclei, not surprisingly, those 2
nuclei should have half the number of chromosomes e.g. human sperm/egg carry 23
chromosomes each
o Full number of chromosomes = diploid; half number of chromosomes = haploid
Advantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction
1. to a population of a species in the wild
Advantages
i. Genetic variation – necessary to producing genetically slightly different offspring
in the population, so that the population as a whole can adapt to environmental
changes
Variation is great for producing “dark horses” that can survive in specific
conditions while others can’t e.g. slightly more resistant to an infectious
disease, slightly more drought/cold resistant, having slightly different
shade that provides better natural camouflage…
Disadvantages
i. Variations might not be ideal - if a species is already highly adapted to their
environment, then sexual reproduction might end up producing offspring that are
the most ideal archetype in at environment
Why reinvent the wheel?
2. to crop production
Advantages
i. Adaptations – since the offspring are genetically different, spread of disease or
changes in the environment might not mean the whole population of crop plants is
wiped out
Disadvantages
i. Quality not guaranteed – think about how fruits don’t always look, taste the same
or have the same texture!
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IGCSE Biology Notes
Topic 16: Reproduction
Reproduction of flowering plants
Flower is the reproductive organ of flower plants, which usually carries both male and female part:
Structure of insect-pollinated flower
Stamen (male part), including:
Anther: produce male gametes
Filament: hold anthers in position to most likely to
brush pollen onto insect pollinators
Petal: large, colourful and scented attracts insects
Sepal: protect flower bud during development
Carpel (female part), including:
Stigma: sticky and capture pollen from pollinator
Style: holds up style
Ovary (female sex organ): produce female gametes
Ovule:
Nectary is present deep in the flower, and coupled with contains ovary
the enclosed arrangement of both anther and
stigma, when insects attempt to reach the nectary, there is a very high chance of rubbing off pollens
or spreading pollens stuck to the insect’s body onto the stigma, thus facilitating fertilisation
Structure of wind-pollinated flower
Anthers are exposed rather than enclosed like in insect-pollinated flowers, so pollens can be
spread by wind more easily
Stigma are also exposed in order to catch pollen more easily
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IGCSE Biology Notes
Topic 16: Reproduction
Fertilisation
After pollen sticks to stigma, chemicals on the stigma signal the growth of pollen tube which
grows into the filament with the help of enzymatic digestion, and eventually extends into the
ovary
Haploid nuclei are also transported along the pollen tube as the tube grows, so that they can
reach and fertilise the nucleus in the ovules in the ovary
Fertilised ovules develop into seeds, while ovary develops into fruit
Petals, sepal, stamen and carpel mostly fall off during fruit maturation
Seed germination
Structure of seeds
Contains embryo plant + food reserves and wrapped in protective seed coat
Cotyledons: embryo leaves, which contain food reserves of seed
May have other storage tissue area – endosperm
Testa: seed coat
Micropyle: hole through testa, and located next to scar where seed attached to parent plant
External Internal
Seed coat Embryo shoot
(testa) (plumule)
Scar where
seed Embryo root
attached to (radicle)
ovary Cotyledon- one of
two in seed
Seed coat
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IGCSE Biology Notes
Topic 16: Reproduction
After seed settles into soil, it absorbs water and expands, breaking the seed coat in the process
Water absorption triggers seed to produce amylase which breaks down starch storage in cotyledon
produce maltose and subsequently glucose
Respiration thus provides energy for root and shoot growth. First leaves are formed as well later on
Before formation of first leaves, seed is non-photosynthetic
As a result, seed cannot be situated too deep in soil, because otherwise it will run out of
starch storage before shoot breaks the soil, or before first leaves are formed
Factors affecting seed germination
Seed can be dormant state to give time for it to be dispersed
Water needed for all seeds to germinate as either (1) need to rehydrate cells; (2) wash out
inhibitory hormones; 93) growth of embryo root & shoot
Metabolic rate of dormant seed near 0, but after water absorption, metabolic processes
start again
Oxygen needed for germination due to aerobic cell respiration
Warmth needed to allow enzyme-catalysed metabolic reactions
Structures of male & female reproductive organs
Male reproductive system
Modified from: https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z7vsqp3/revision/1
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IGCSE Biology Notes
Topic 16: Reproduction
Female reproductive system
source: https://online.science.psu.edu/bisc004_activewd001/node/1895
Male Female
Structure Function Structure Function
Testis Produce sperm & testosterone Ovary Produce eggs, estrogen and
progesterone
Scrotum Hold testes @ lower than core Oviduct Collect eggs @ ovulation & provide
body temp fertilization site where embryo
then moves to uterus
Sperm duct Transfer sperm during Cervix Protect fetus during pregnancy,
ejaculation then dilate to provide birth canal
Seminal vesicle Secrete fluid containing alkali, Uterus Muscular space where the foetus
& prostate proteins, and fructose added to develops in
gland sperm to make semen
Penis Insert into vagina for ejaculation Vagina Stimulate penis to cause
of semen near cervix ejaculation and provide birth canal
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IGCSE Biology Notes
Topic 16: Reproduction
Sperm and egg structure
Adaptive features of sperm
Acrosome: contains enzymes that digest the jelly coat of the egg during fertilisation
Flagellum: for swimming
Mitochondria: provides energy for swimming through aerobic respiration
Adaptive features of egg
Energy stores: oil droplets which provide energy for the initial development of the zygote and
embryo
Jelly coat: a layer that sperm has to digest before fertilisation can continue; thickens after
fertilisation to prevent fertilisation by multiple sperms (why might this be important?)
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IGCSE Biology Notes
Topic 16: Reproduction
Menstrual cycle
Menstrual cycle refers to the periodical formation and breakdown of endometrium (uterine lining)
that starts in woman when puberty starts
Endometrium is required for implantation of embryo, so that embryo can obtain glucose
and oxygen for cell division and development
Hormones including luteinising hormone (LH), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), oestrogen, and
progesterone all help to control cycle via negative and positive feedback
FSH & LH are hormones made from pituitary gland bind to their receptors on follicle cell
membranes
Oestrogen made from follicle wall
Progesterone made from corpus luteum absorbed by cells to influence gene expression
and female body development
Steps of menstrual cycle
1. Menstruation starts as a result of drop in level of progesterone and oestrogen in previous cycle
2. Follicular phase begins: FSH is secreted stimulate follicle development
3. Ovary/follicle secretes oestrogen in response repair/initiate buildup of endometrium
Feedback mechanism exists between FSH and oestrogen
a. Low oestrogen level stimulates more release of FSH more oestrogen as a result
b. High oestrogen level inhibits FSH release prevent excess number of follicles
from developing
4. Luteal phase begins: oestrogen stimulates release of LH ovulation occurs
Egg cell is released into the oviduct, where cilia sweep it gradually towards the uterus
5. Remaining part of ovulated follicle degenerates and becomes corpus luteum release both
oestrogen and progesterone
Progesterone then maintains/thickens endometrium to prepare for implantation
6. When there is no fertilization, corpus luteum breaks down so oestrogen and progesterone levels
drop menstruation and next menstrual cycle is initiated
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Topic 16: Reproduction
source: http://antranik.org/the-menstrual-cycle/
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IGCSE Biology Notes
Topic 16: Reproduction
Placenta
After implantation, some embryonic cells develop into the placenta in order to enable efficient
nutrient (e.g. glucose, oxygen) and metabolic waste (e.g. CO2 and urea) transfer
Umbilical artery carries deoxygenated blood away from foetus and enters placental villi which
have large surface area for fast diffusion from content from foetal blood into blood space that’s
filled with maternal blood
On the other hand, nutrients in maternal blood diffuse from blood space into placental villi, and so
oxygenated blood is carried back to baby through umbilical vein
Maternal blood drains away from placenta and returns to circulation of the mother
Placental villi prevent foetal blood and maternal blood from mixing (so as to prevent coagulation due to
incompatible blood types) while enabling substance exchange between the two
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IGCSE Biology Notes
Topic 16: Reproduction
Amniotic sac
Foetus is encapsulated in the amnion (membrane of amniotic sac) and submerged in amniotic
fluid, which keeps the foetus nourished and provides cushioning
Functions of sex hormones
Gland Hormone Function
Testes Testosterone Development of secondary sexual characteristics in male
e.g. voice deepening, muscle gain, hair growth, sperm
production, development of reproductive organ
Ovaries Oestrogen Participates in menstrual cycle, development of secondary
sexual characteristics in female e.g. breast development,
hip widening, hair growth, development of reproductive
organ
★ Primary sexual characteristics refer to the reproductive organs of each gender, while secondary sexual
characteristics are any sexual characteristics that are mostly unique to one gender but does not refer to
the type of reproductive organ. They manifest starting from puberty.
Sexually transmitted infections
Sexually transmitted infection (STI) = infection that is transmitted through sexual contact
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a pathogen that causes AIDS which is an example of an STI
HIV is transferred by contact of blood, including
Unprotected sexual intercourse
Sharing of needles amongst infected drug users
Transfusion of contaminated blood
Spread of STIs can be controlled by better education, the use of condoms, regular check-ups,
taking HPV vaccines, reducing the number of sexual partners, etc.
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IGCSE Biology Notes
Topic 16: Reproduction
Multiple-choice questions
Q1.
Q2.
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Q3.
A days 1 – 4
B days 7 – 10
C days 13 – 16
D days 20 – 23
Q4.
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Q5.
Q6.
Q7.
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Q8.
Q9.
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Q10.
Q11.
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Q12.
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Q13.
Q14.
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Q15.
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Short questions
Q1.
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Q2
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Q3
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Q4
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Q5
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Topic 16: Reproduction
Marks schemes
Multiple-choice questions
1. A 11. C 21.
2. B 12. B 22.
3. C 13. D 23.
4. D 14. A 24.
5. A 15. A 25.
6. A 16. 26.
7. D 17. 27.
8. C 18. 28.
9. D 19. 29.
10. C 20. 30.
Short questions
Q1.
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Q2.
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Topic 16: Reproduction
Q3
Q4.
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Q5.
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