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Autonomy
Simla Course

The re has been a grovving in te re s t in Learner a u to n o m y İn th e [ast decades. ALthough

th e re a re d iffe re n t approaches re ga rdin g le a rn e r autonom y, th e re is a consensus
th a t le a rn e r a u to n o m y is "th e a b ility to ta k e charge o f one's own le a rn in g " (Holec as
c ite d in Benşon, 2 0 0 9 , p. 17). A dvocates o f le a rn e r a u to n o m y propose th a t language
le a rn e rs are n o t e m p ty vessels to be fUled in by th e te a che rs, b u t a ctive beings
w ho m ake sense o u t o f w h a t th e y learn in re la tio n to th e ir vvorlds (Reinders, 2010).
This p re m ise suggests th a t people, as a ctive age n ts o f th e ir lives, are capable of,
and indeed .in need of, m aking sense o f th e ir le a rn in g and being in charge o f it. !n
th is c h a p te r to o , th e stance th a t is ado p te d is th a t people are a lre ad y auton o m o u s
beings in th e ir in te ra c tio n w ith th e ir e n v iro n m e n t. T h ere fo re, le a rn e r a u to p o m y is
n o t a s k ill th a t te a ch e rs w ill need to te a ch fro m scratch, b u t is an a b ility th a t th e
le a rn e rs a lre a d y exercise in d iffe re n t areas o f th e ir lives and th a t te a ch e rs need to
fo s te r in e d u ca tio n a l se ttin g s.
To g e t a d ee p er u nd e rsta n d in g o f w h a t le a rn e r a u to n o m y is and how to fo s te r it,
w e should ta ke a look a t a uton o m o u s lea rne rs. A u to no m ou s le a rn e rs are those
w ho are capable o f and vvilling to re fle c t on th e ir own le a rn in g needs, s tre n g th s
and w eaknesses; o f s e ttin g lea rnin g goals; d eciding w hich path to fo llo w to achieve
th e se goals; and, as an e ssen tial c o m p o n e n t o f le a rn e r a utonom y, m o n ito rin g and
e v a lu a tin g th e ir ow n prog ress (Benson, 2 0 1 1 ; S inclair, 2009). T h a t is, th e y should
be in c o n tro l o f a li aspects o f and pay conscious a tte n tio n to th e process o f th e ir
le a rn in g (L ittle , 1999). As S in c la ir puts it, "le a rn e r a u to n o m y consists o f th e a b ility
to m ake in fo rm e d decisions a b o u t one's ow n le a rn in g " (2 00 9, p. 184).
Such a s h ift in th e ro le s o f le a rn e rs and te a c h e rs can be a d a u n tin g and in tim id a tin g
task. in tra d itio n a l e d u c a tio n a l s e ttin g s , it is th e te a c h e r's re sp o n sib ility, to g e th e r
w ith th e p o licy m akers, to decide on a li th e aspects m e n tio n e d above. The
te a c h e r decides w h a t she expects th e le a rn e rs to achieve, w hich specific goals
and o bje ctive s, in w hich lesson, th ro u g h th e use o f w h ich m a te ria ls and a c tivitie s .
The te a c h e r is also th e a u th o rity to decide w ho has achieved h ow m uch. İn a
classro om w h e re le a rn e r a u to n o m y is fo ste re d , how ever, th e se decisions a re m ade
by th e lea rne rs, in c a lla b o ra tio n w ith th e teacher. T h ere fo re, in le a rn e r autonom y,
c ö n tra ry tcTfhİsconception, le a rn e rs do n o t w o rk in is o la tio n and te a c h e rs are n o t
re d u n d a n t. U n su rprisin gly, te a ch e rs are as v ita l in a uton o m o u s language lea rnin g
as in tra d itio n a l language classroom s.
As it is re m a rked above, a li le a rn e rs are a u to n o m o u s beings. Hovvever, anyone w ith
som e experience a t school, e ith e r as a te a c h e r o r as a s tu d e n t, can p ro vid e firs th a n d
accounts th a t n o t e ve ry s tu d e n t is auton o m o u s. İn o th e r w ords, th e in h e re n t
a u to n o m y does n o t n ecessarily tra n s la te in to form aL e du ca tio n a l s e ttin g s . VVhile
one le a rn e r decides th a t she should lea rn nam es o f th e n e ig h ö o u rin g co u n trie s in

AUTONOMY
i th e ta rg e t language (L2), o r re fle c ts th a t she needs to read fa s te r in 12, a n o th e r
i le a rn e r can be q u ite c o n te n t w ith th e lack o f such v o ca b u la ry o r reading a t a s lo w e r
\ speed. N o t a li le a rn e rs a re going to be vvilling and ready to assum e a li re sp o n s ib ility
j o f th e îr le a m in g in a fo rm a î e d u ca tio n a l s e ttin g . So how do w e fo s te r le a rn e r
I a u ton o m y? How do w e m o b ilize th e need and c u rio s ity to learn, th a t is a lre a d y
| p re s e n t in hum an beings? One w a y to do th is is to look a t th e re la tio n s h ip betvyeen
I a u to n o m y and m o tiv a tio n . A u to n o m o u s le a rn in g is a s e lf-su sta in in g , co ntin uo u s a ct
i and u n d e rsta n d in g w h y and how som e le a rn e rs choose to be a c tive iy involved in
j th e îr lea rn in g yvill p ro vid e an in s ig h t on how w e can help o u r le a rn e rs be m o re
] a utonom ous. To do th is, w e need to look a t w h y som e le a rn e rs are m o tiv a te d tö tâ ke
| re sp o n s ib ility o f th e ir le a rn in g .
! Discussion
i İTTİh0 A I
j ; Please dtscuss th e fotlovving que stion s w îth a colleague.
| 1. W h at m o tiv a te s in fa n ts to lea rn to ta lk and to w alk?
| 2. W hy do peopte o f a li ages le a rn to use new te c h n o lo g y such as c o m p u te rs ,;
| s m a rt phones, DVD pla yers and so on e very day. ı
| S tudies on m o tiv a tio n suggest th a t people are m o tiv a te d to lea rn a s k ill o r a s e t o f
İ knovvledge due to its in h e re n t value in th e le a rn e rs ' lives. Please co nside r a baby
| Learning to w alk. He w ill n o t need his p are nts to convince h im th a t w a lkin g w ill be
1 "good fo r him ". N o r w ill he re qu ire re w a rd s to take his fir s t steps. He w ill do so
i
\ because he has places to g e t to and because he needs to be able to in te ra c t w ith th e
\ w o rld . We keep le a rn in g new skills and in fo rm a tîo n in e ve ry stage o f o u r lives. We
\ do so in o rd e r to be c o m p e te n t in o u r su rro u nd ing s.
| Yet it seem s th a t w hen w e are in a classro om w e are o fte n in need o f being re m in de d
| o f th e in h e re n t va lu e o f le a rn in g th a t specific s u b je c t o r o f e ng aging in a specific
| a c tivity. İn school e du cation, language te a ch e rs o fte n fin d th e m se lve s in a p o s itio n
I w h e re th e y have to convince lea rn e rs o f th e va lu e o f le a rn in g th a t Language.
\ A lth o u g h it is n o t u n co m m o n to fin d te a ch e rs dea lin g w ith th is th ro u g h prom ise
| o f a b e tte r Life, as Ushioda (1 9 9 6 ) suggests, such re m o te rew ards have th e risk
] o f fa d in g aw ay unless stages o f Learning g en e ra te s m e a n in g fu l re la tio n s h ip w ith
i th e le a rn e r's life and th e le a rn e r can d rive a sense o f e n jo ym e n t and a chie ve m e n t
j fro m it. İn a d d itio n , w hen le a rn e rs are m o tiv a te d to re ceive:e x te rn a l rew ards,:such
j as stickers, praise, gifts, o r even grades, th e y are m ore concerhed w İth th e T e w a rd
| th a n learning, w hich suggests th a t th e y w ill n o t ta ke risks in Learning a Language b u t
| w ill s tick to w h a t th e y know th e b est in o rd e r to receive th a t re w a rd (Lam b, 2009).
| HovveveT, we w ould like th e lea rne rs to take risks, tr y to g e t th e ir m eaning across,
| n otice th e gaps in th e ir L2 knovvledge and pay conscious e ffo rt to m ake up fo r th o se
\ gaps. İt is w e ll e stablished now th a t it is im p o rta n t fo r th e language le a rn e rs to
n otice gaps betvveen th e ir e xistin g L2 knovvledge and th e knovvledge re gu ire d to
co m p le te tasks in L2 (Hedge, 2000). İt is in th is process o f n o tic in g th a t th e le a rn e rs
w ill see w h a t is m issing in th e ir in te rla n g u a g e , and w h a t th e y need to focus on and
lea rn to cope w ith a s im ila r s itu a tio n .

I THEORETİCAL COHSîOERATIDNS
İn s h o rt, w e w o u ld Lİke o u r Learners to be consciously paying e ffo rt to Learning \
th a t Language, re fle c t on w h a t th e y need to Learn and keep w o rk in g to w a rd s th e ir |
goals. Research show s th a t le a rn e rs are m o tiv a te d to do these w hen Learning is j :-
in te re s tin g , enjoyable, and w hen th e skiLL o r knovvledge learned has an in h e re n t |
m eaning in th e Learners' Lives (Ushioda, 1996). Such m o tiv a tio n J s r e fe r r e d to as [ /,
in trin s ic m o tiv a tio n . PeopLe are intrinsicaLLy m o tiv a te d w hen th e y see th e value o f j ı,
w h a t is Learned in th e ir Lives, i.e. w hen th e y can re la te to Learning in a m e a n in g fu l j
w ay (Ushioda, 1996). ALthough m o tiv a tio n is n o t su ffic ie n t fo r a u to n o m o u s Learning, j .
it is necessary to in itia te ta k in g re sp o n s ib ility o f Learning. j
As argued above, w hen le a rn e rs see Learning as m aking th e m c o m p e te n t beings, | ;
th e y are m o re m o tiv a te d to Learn (Ushioda, 1996). İn a language classroom th is j
m eans co m m u n ic a tio n in L2. C o m m un icatln g w ith speakers o f th a t Language can j
help th e Learners see w h a t th e y can do using L2 and th is w ill help th e m fe e l m ore \ :
c o m p e te n t in th e ir re la tio n s h ip w ith th e vvorLd. Thus, p ro vid in g genuine o p p o rtu n itie s l ;
fo r th e Learners to co m m u n ic a te w ith each other, w ith the te a c h e r and w ith o th e r \
speakers o f th e ta rg e t Language using L2 is e ssen tial in increasing m o tiv a tio n as \
w e ll as fo s te rin g Learner a u to n o m y (LittLe, Ridley, & Ushioda 2002; Ushioda, 1996). jj1
Such o p p o rtu n itie s w ill help th e Learners to see th a t lea rn in g a Language is n o t j
ju s t Learning g ra m m a r o r m e m o ris in g extensive vo ca b u la ry Lists; b u t th a t using a |
language th e y can actuaüy co m m u n ic a te w ith real people. T h ere fo re, L2 should be 1,
used as a m eans to co m m u n ic a te ra th e r th a n as an end in itself, i.e. a su b je ct o f j
stu d y (Ushioda, 1996). j
A u th e n tic m a te ria ls are ben e ficia l in c re a tin g a sense o f com p e te nce th ro u g h ;
genuine co m m u n ic a tio n (U shioda, 1996). They can help le a rn e rs see th a t using 12, j;
th e y can a c tu a lly be included in th e c o m m u n ic a tio n İntended fo r th e a ctu a l speakers j
o f th a t Language. They w ill also help th e Learners have a sense o f achieve m e nt, |
w h ich is im p o rta n t to increase and sustain m o tiv a tio n . j
A n o th e r im p o rta n t p o in t in m o tiv a tio n is th a t w hen people fe e l th a t th e ir a ctions are \
n o t im posed by an e x te rn a l a g e n t b u t th a t th e y have c o n tro l ö v e r th e ir actions, th e y j
are m o re vvilling to be engaged in th a t ta s k (Benson, 2011). İn a language classro om j
th is e n ta ils invo lvin g the lea rne rs in decision m akin g process o f th e course. For j
exam ple in d u d in g th e Learners in se le cting , o rga nising th e m a te ria ls o r tasks to be j
used in th e course, w ill n o t o nly give th e le a rn e rs a sense o f c o n tro l, b u t also w ill j
help re la te th e classroom procedures to th e le a rn e rs ' lives. j
Issue o f c o n tro l ö v e r one's lea rn in g is an indispensable a spect o f a u to n o m y and j
l
perhaps one o f th e m o s t chaLLenging aspects fo r both th e le a rn e rs and teachers, \
vvhere th e tra d itio n a l roles need to be a lte re d . invo lvin g Learners in decision m aking j
process o f se lecting m a te ria ls and tasks w ill be e xplored in m ore d e ta il in th e n ext i
section. i

AUTONOMY
 Dîscussion
İ
\ \ Please discuss th e follovving que stion s w ith a coUeague.
I ; ı . İn y o u r co ntext, w ho is in charge o f m akin g decisions fo r te a c h in g /
| j iearnîng L2?
j 2. To w h a t e x te n t a re th e fo llo w in g involved in m akin g decisions fo r
| te a c h in g / le a rn in g 12?
j i a. Learners?
I b, Parents?
| c. The te a che r?
! .....d. The sch oo l a d m ih is tra tio n ?
| e. The m in is try o f e du catlon? i
| f, A ce n tra lise d exam system ?
i You m ig h t fin d th a t th e answ ers to th e que stion s, to th e Leftr a re m ore co m p lica te d
| th a n it seem s a t fir s t sight. İn a Language d a s s ro o m in form aL e ducation se tti ngs,
| th e a nsw er is p rob ab ly a li o f th e above, T ra d itio n a lly it is th e poLicy m aking
| in s titu tio n s Like th e m in is try o f e du ca tio n o r th e school a d m in is tra tio n th a t a re
İ in charge o f s e ttin g goals and objectîves in a m acro level w h ile th e te a c h e r is in
| charge o f im p le m e n tin g these in a m icro Level, i.e. classroom s e tti ng. To fo s te r
| le a rn e r autonom y, hovvever, th e re is a need to invo lve th e le a rn e rs in e very ste p
j o f th is process. İt is e sse n tia l th a t Learners have c o n tro l ö v e r th e ir ow n lea rnin g.
| As L ittle et. al., re m a rk , "b e in g in c o n tro l o f one's own a ction s and re sponsible fo r
i th e ir o utcom e s is a p re re q u is ite fo r s e lf-fu lfitm e n t" (2 00 2, p. 15). Being in c o n tro l o f
ı one's ow n le a m in g re q u ire s being in charge o f s e ttin g goals fo r th e ir le a rn in g (very
! o fte n w ith in th e c o n s tra in ts o f o v e ra ll goals s e t by poLicy m akers), being in charge
I o f se le cting , o rd e rin g a n d /o r d esigning one's ow n m a te ria ls and tasks to b est aid
; achieving th e p re vio u sly s e t goals; and c o n tin u o u s ly re fle c tin g on and assessing th e
i le a rn in g process and outcom es.
One co m m o n m isco n ce p tio n a b o u t le a rn e r a u to n o m y is th a t g iv in g c o n tro l to
[ le a rn e rs m eans leaving th e lea rn e rs alone to le a rn on th e ir own. İn an a uton o m o u s
\ classroom , th e te a c h e r does n o t w ash h e r hands o ff te a ch in g , she is th e one th a t
i teaches. However, th e le a rn e rs ta ke th e re s p o n s ib ility o f th e ir le a rn in g . To th is end,
| it is im p o rta n t th a t th e te a c h e r is e x p lic it a b o u t th e o v e ra ll goals o f th e course fro m
\ th e b eg inn in g and w o rks w ith th e lea rn e rs to h elp th e m set th e ir ow n in d ivid u a l
| goals depending on th e ir ow n needs, w eaknesses and s tre n g th s . She encourages
ş and helps th e le a rn e rs to w o rk both inside and o u ts id e th e d a s s ro o m to achieve
j th e ir goals. Besides, she is w illin g to hand in th e c o n tro l ö ve r le a rn in g process by
İ in vo lvin g th e le a rn e rs in se le ction o f such aspects as m a te ria ls and tasks w hen th e y
İ a re re a d y to assum e th is c o n tro l; and fro m th e s ta rt, she w o rk s to w a rd help in g th e
l le a rn e rs to assum e such co n tro l.
A lth o u g h it is th e stand ta ke n here th a t a li Learners have a c a p a city fo r a u to n o m o u s
| behaviour, it is also acknovvledged th a t le a rn e rs can fin d ta k in g th e re s p o n s ib ility o f
|
İ----THEORETİCÂL GONSîOKRATİONS
th e ir own lea rnin g in tim id a tin g and th e lik e iih o o d o f m aking m istakes d ish e a rte n in g
(L ittle et. al., 2 00 2 , p. 15). M oving aw ay fro m th e s e c u rity o f th e ir o ld roles as
lea rne rs, w here th e y a re fa m ilia r w ith w h a t is expected o f th e m , can be a fru s tra tin g
experience (P orto, 200 7 ). İt is im p o rta n t, th e re fo re , th a t th e te a c h e r fir s t o f a li
bears th is in m ind and does n o t expect a m ira c u lo u s tra n s fo rm a tio n fro m d ay one,
b u t provide s c o n s ta n t guidance, keeps th e channels o f co m m u n ic a tio n a b o u t th e
le a rn e rs' experiences öpen th ro u g h o u t th e process, and is able to a d a p t classroom
proce du re s according to th e le a rn e rs ’ needs.
İt is aLso acknoyvledged th a t th e range o f a u to n o m o u s b eh a vio ur w ill be dep e nd e nt on
th e le a rn e rs ’ ch a ra c te ris tic s . L ea rne rs' age, p ro ficie n cy level, and p ast experiences
w ill play an e ssential role in how ready th e y w ill be to assum e c o n tro l in s e tti ng th e ir
own goals and in p la n ning th e ir le a rn in g a rou nd th e m . İn such cases, th e te a c h e r
w ill have to p rovide m o re guidance İn th e process. One w ay to do th is is p ro vid in g a
v a rie ty o f o p tiö n s fo r th e le a rn e rs to choose fro m a t th e b eg inn in g . Giving o ptio n s
çan h e lp th e le a rn e rs assum e re s p o n s ib ility and ta k e c o n tro l g fa d u a ü y 'u h til th e y
reach a şjtage yvhere th e y w ill fe e l m o re c o n fid e n t and c o m p e te n t to ta k e c o n tro l
th e m s e lv e s and plan th e ir ow n le a rn in g (L ittle et. al., 2002).
As suggested above, ît is th e te a c h e r’s jo b to raise le a rn e rs ' aw areness on w h a t th e y
a re expected to achieve vvithin th e o v e ra ll le a rn in g goals and o bje ctive s se t by th e
c u rric u lu m and p olicy m akers. Being e x p lic it a b o u t th e o v e ra ll goals and obje ctive s
o f th e course, i.e. w h a t th e le a rn e rs a re expected to achieve in th a t course, w ill n o t
o nly give c o n tro l o f th e le a rn in g process to th e Learners, b u t w ill help th e m see
w h a t th e y are expected to achieve in a specifıc tim e fra m e and help m anage th e ir
ow n le a rn in g (L ittle et. al., 2002). İn th e absence o f such a policy, w h e re lea rnin g
is re g u la te d so lely by th e Learners' needs, th e te a c h e r is in charge o f ğuid in g and
fa c ilita tin g th e lea rne rs, a sa n e xpe rt, on how to achieve w h a t th e y s e t o u t to achieve.
İn a d d itio n , in b o th cases, th e te a c h e r w ill need to help th e le a rn e rs set a course o f
a ction and fa c ilita te e va lu a tio n o f th e ir progress. İn an a uton o m o u s classroom , th e
te a c h e r is s tili th e e x p e rt in L2 and le a m in g it. The Learners vviLL need to m ake use
o f h e r expertise.
A sking th e stu d e n ts to set th e ir own goals can stiLL sound as a d a u n tin g ta sk to som e
language te a che rs. To s ta r t w ith f th e le a rn e rs can be p ro m p te d to re fle c t on th e ir
s tre n g th s and vveaknesses, needs and p rio ritîe s . Hovvever, le a rn e rs do n o t alw ays
have th e m e ta c o g n itiv e know ledge to express th e ir s tre n g th s and vveaknesses in
d ep th (R einders, 2 01 0 ). Indeed som e le a rn e rs m ay be aw are th a t th e y have to w o rk
on, say, th e ir re ading skills b u t m ay n o t be able to voice vvhat e xactly th e y need
to im p ro ve in th e ir reading. S im ilarly, som e le a rn e rs can se t u n re a lis tic goals fo r
th e m se lve s n o t ta k in g th e ir c u rre n t ca pa b ilitie s, tim e and "co n text lim ita tio n s in to
c o n s id e ra tio n (C o tte ra ll, 2000). T h ere fo re, th e te a c h e rs vvill need to a c t as m e n to rs
and help th e s tu d e n ts in th is process th ro u g h d ire c t c o m m u n ic a tio n and n e g o tia tio n
to c la rify and ra ise th e ir avvareness on w h a t e xa ctly it is th a t th e y w o u ld like to
im p ro ve and to w o rk on. Doing needs analysis can be ben e ficia l a t th is stage. İt can
be a good in v e s tm e n t o f tim e to develop a needs analysis q u e stio n n a ire o r s im p ly

AUTONOMY
 a d o p t o r a d a p t one fro m a w ide se le ctio n th a t is a va ila b le to language te a che rs,
w hich can guide th e te a c h e r in p ro v id in g o p tio n s to h e r Learners and help raise
m e ta c o g n itiv e aw areness o f th e ir le a rn e rs (R einders, 2010).
Having set th e ir goals, th e students should ta ke a ction to achieve these goals th ro u g h
hom ew ork, p rojects o r in-class tasks. This m eans being in c o n tro l o f selecting and
crea tin g th e resources to achieve these goals and consciously vvorking to achieve
th e m . F o r exam ple, a group o f Learners vvho decide to w o rk on o ffe rin g and responding
to apologies in L2 can c o lle ct a uthe n tic sam ples o f spoken and w ritte n language; o r a
g roup o f lea rne rs vvorking on reading fo r th e g is t can b rin g in a n d /o r produce w ritte n
te x ts them selves. As th e stu d en ts s ta rt vvorking a ctiveiy to achieve th e ir goals, the
te a c h e r w ill need to keep vvorking as a fa c ilita to r and counsellor.
Hovvever, if th e le a rn e rs fin d se le ctin g o r c re a tin g th e ir ow n m a te ria ls and ta sks
c h a lle n g in g to s ta rt w iîh r th e te a c h e r m ay need to d ire c t th e m to resources in itia lly ,
u n til th e le a rn e rs fe e l m o re co nfid en t, o r can p rovide o ptio n s. For, e xam ple as M ille r
(2 0 0 9 ) re m a rks, a fte r s e ttin g a ta s k fo r th e w h o le class, asking th e le a rn e rs to se t
th e ir own goals fo r th a t specific ta s k is an o p tio n . C o tte ra ll (2 00 0) re p o rts a stu d y
vvhere in a d d itio n to s e tti ng th e ir in d ivid u a l goals fo r a co m m o n task, th e le a rn e rs
i
i w e re asked to re fle c t on th e ir p e rfo rm a n c e s upon c o m p le tio n o f th e ta sk to s u p p o rt
i
< goal s e tti ng and re fle c tio n p ra ctice . M ille r also suggests th a t, fo r exam ple, in a
\
i vvriting ta sk vvhere a te a c h e r asks th e stu d e n ts to w rite ‘Love Letters', e n co u ra g in g
th e le a rn e rs to decide w h o th e y w ill vvrite th e ir le tte rs to , e.g. a sibling, an aunt, ete.
w ill h elp give m o re c o n tro l to th e le a rn e rs; so w ill asking th e le a rn e rs to co n sid e r
th e ir own goals in a re ading ta sk and d eciding vvhether to read, fo r exam ple, fo r
"c o m p le te co m p re he nsio n versus g e n e ra l u n d e rs ta n d in g " (2 00 9, p. 114). The
te a c h e r should also m ake use o f "re g u la r w h o le -cla ss p la n ning and e v a lu a tio n " to
h elp le a rn e rs develop a sense o f d ire e tio n and progFess (L ittle e t al., 2 0 0 2 , p. 18).
Thus, it is im p o rta n t to devo te re g u la r sessions to class discussion o f [Link] been
achieved by th e lea rne rs, ind ivid ua ls and group, and decide on v v h a tto focus on next.
î
î O f course, th e degree o f.c o n tro l handed to th e le a rn e rs depends on th e context_and
;s
le a rn e rs. F o r exam ple, S m ith (2 0 0 3 ) asked his lea rne rs, u n iv e rs ity stu d e n ts le a rn in g
E nglish, to decide on classroom a ctîvities. Based on th e ir decisions, th e stu d en ts
fo rm e d g roups and s ta rte d vvorking on d iffe re n t tasks designed by th e m se lves
such as vvriting p oetry, tra n s e rib in g , vvatehing and discussing m ovies, reading, fre e
co nve rsatio n, and so on. W hile in itia lly e va lu a tio n o f th e le a rn in g progress w as
d ire e te d by th e te a c h e r to a gneat e xte n t, in tim e , e v a lu a tio n vvas u nd e rta ke n by th e
! g ro u p m e m b e rs th e m se lves. S im ila rly, S m ith (2 0 0 3 ) vvas m o re involved in p la n n in g
I
i th e a c tiv itie s in itia lly b u t in tim e , as he realised th a t th e le a rn e rs w ere capable
o f p la n ning , he handed th e c o n tro l o f th e se to th e lea rne rs. P o rto (2007), on th e
o th e r hand, had m o re c o n tro l ö v e r classroom proce du re s as a te a c h e r and asked
h e r le a rn e rs to choose a c tiv itie s fro m a v a rie ty o f o p tio n s as th e "le a rn e rs had
n eve r before engaged İn any fo rm o f a u to n o m o u s le a rn in g " (p. 6 73 ). The le a rn e rs
j could vvithdravv fro m any a ctivity, vvere given a c tiv itie s to p ra c tic e o u t o f class and,
w e re fre e to se le ct a to p ic to ta lk a b o u t b efore each Lesson (P orto, 2007). B oth

THEORETICAL CÖNStDERATtÖNS
 these stu d ie s re p o rt v e ry d iffe re n t levels o f le a rn e r c o n tro l. W hat th e y both have j
in co m m o n, th o ug h , is an increase in such co n tro l. İt is up to th e te a c h e r to see j
in itia lly to w h a t e x te n t th e le a rn e rs a re ready to assum e c o n tro l and c o n sid e r o th e r |
c o n te x tu a l fa c to rs . .. j
Dam uses? Îogbooksî to help th e lea rn e rs ta ke c o n tro l o f th e ir le a rn in g (2 00 9). They j
re co rd th e ir goals, in fo rm o f le a rn in g co n tra cts, th e w o rk th e y u n d e rta ke to achieve |
th e se goals, e v e ry th in g th a t goes on in th e cla ssro o m and e valua tio n o f th e ir w o rk \
in th e ir logbooks (Dam , 2009). İn h e r language classroom s ö ver th e years, lea rne rs |
w e re resp o nsib le fo r d ecidin g th e ir o w n h o m e vvo rk, classro om a c tiv itie s and s m a ll I
p ro je c ts . ALİ th is w o rk vvas shaped a round th e goals th a t th e Learners had set fo r |
th e m se lve s and re co rd ed in th e ir in d ivid u a l logbooks. She re p o rts th a t logbooks j
n o t o n ly help th e le a rn e rs evalua te th e ir ow n progress, a key fe a tu re o f le a rn e r i
a uton o m y, b u t also help th e te a c h e r see in d ivid u a l le a rn e rs ' prog ress in achieving j
th e se goals and provîde fu r th e r s u p p o rt fo r th e m (Dam , 2 00 9 ). Logbooks a re useful
in le a rn e rs ’ s e lf-e v a lu a tio n help in g th e m see vvhat th e y inten d ed to achieve, how \
th e y w e n t a b o u t it and vvhat th e y achieved. They a re n ot, hovvever, th e o n ly m eans j
fo r s e lf-e v a lu a tio n . A n o th e r c o m m o n ly used to o l is th e European Language P o rtfo lio \
(ELP). L ittle p rovide s d e ta ile d accounts o f using ELP to fo s te r Learner and te a c h e r j
a u to n o m y th ro u g h se lf-e v a lu a tio n and p la n ning . (L ittle , 2 0 0 9 ; L ittle et. al., 2002). j
S im ila rly , Gonzales re p o rts th a t ELP n o t o nly helped th e le a rn e rs to self-evaLuate \
b u t also increased th e ir m e ta c o g n itiv e knovvledge (2009). |
A n o th e r im p o rta n t p o in t in D am ’s stu d ie s is th e use o f L2 in th e classroom . L2 |
is used by and e ncouraged to be used by th e te a c h e r fo r both o ra l and vvritten j
c o m m u n ic a tio n (2009). T h ere fo re, b o th th e logbooks and th e feedback provided by J
th e te a c h e r a re vvritten in L2. İn Dam 's stu d ie s logbooks include: j
• personal aim s and objectives w ithin the overaü curricular guideiines and \
objectives; j
• plans and the carrying o u t o f these plons in the daily work in class; j
• ı/vhot hos been leam ed and achieved and how; \
• individual hom eworkr according to the aim s and goals set up; and j
• an evaluation o f the work undertaken ]
(Dam , 2 0 0 9 , p. 133) j
The use o f L2 as th e m e d iu m o f a li c o m m u n ic a tio n in th e classro om c le a rly can |
be ch alle n gin g fo r le a rn e rs o f d iffe re n t ages and p ro ficie n cy levels, p a rtic u la rly fo r j
young le a rn e rs and b e g in n e r level lea rne rs. H aving vvorked w ith young lea rn e rs fo r |
a long tim e , Dam re m a rks th a t in itia l stages o f logbooks vvhile vvorking w ith young j
le a rn e rs can be a m ix tu re o f L2 and L1 (2 00 9). Hovvever, as th e te a c h e r insists o f j
using, and encourages th e use o f L2 by th e lea rne rs, th e language used in logbooks j
in la te r stages s h ift to L2. The ro le o f using L2 in increasing a sense o f com p e te nce j
and m o tiv a tio n is a lre a d y discussed in th e previou s section. Also, as L ittle et. al., j
re m a rk, using L2, th e te a c h e r scaffolds th e language to be Learned (2002). Besİdes
sca ffolding, te a c h e r's use o f L2 also helps th e lea rn e rs to th in k and ta lk a b o u t th e ir

AUTONOMY
İ le a rn in g process using th a t Language, w hich as wiU be discussed in th e n ext section,
| c o n s titu te s an in te rn a l dialogue, an e ssen tial aspe ct fo r le a rn in g (L ittle et. al., 2002).
j To have c la s s ro o m fu llo f students w o rk in g fo rth e iro w n objectivescan sound cacophonic
j and u nrealistic a t firs t. However; co llab o ratio n w ith students and th e teacher is a key
i aspect in fo s te rin g le a rn e r autonom y. Besides, in a classroom vvhere the learners
j share s im ila r proficiency levels and o vera ll goals o f learning, th e y are likely to have
s h o rt-te rm goals th a t are relevant to each other. A group o f y o u r b eginner learners, fo r
i exam ple, m ig h t decide th a t th e y w ould like to learn 15 high frequency words. Learners
| sharing th is goal can w o rk to g e th e r and buîld on th e ir in itia l 15 w ords. Regular class
\ discussions, presentations, posters w ill provide th e w hole class w ith an extensive List
i o f vocabulary ite m s fro m these students. İt is also possible to have a class discussion
{ and select certain w ords to present to w hole class to keep each o th e r inform ed and
j p ro m o te co llab o ratio n (Dam as cited in Benson, 2011).
j C o lla b o ra tio n wiU also enable b e tte r le a rn e rs to p rovide s u p p o rt fo r vveaker
lea rne rs. Dam (2 0 0 9 ) re p o rts how b e tte r le a rn e rs w e re able to n o t o nly p rovide help
to th e ir vveaker p ro je c t p a rtn e rs , b u t also p rio ritis e th e needs o f th e ir vveaker peers.
M aking use o f posters, p e e r-te a c h in g and p re s e n ta tio n s as w e ll as class discussions
e va lu a tin g th e ta s k s / a c tiv itie s used by d iffe re n t lea rne rs, w ill also enable th e
le a rn e rs to know vvhere th e y are w ith re ga rd to o th e r le a rn e rs and w ill add to th e
re p e rto ire o f th e class as a vvhole (Dam , 2 0 0 9 ; L ittle , 200 9 ). Having c o n tro l ö v e r
one's le a rn in g calls fo r th e te a c h e r vvorking to g e th e r w ith th e Learners, and fo r
j th e le a rn e rs vvorking w ith each o ther. L e a rn e r a utonom y, th e re fo re , is a p ro d u c t o f
| c o lla b o ra tio n , as vvill be discussed in se ctio n 4.
j i Discussion
j ; Please discuss th e fo llo w in g que stion s vvith a colleague.
\ ı . Please re m e m b e r h ow you le a rn e d to
1 a. cook
j i b. address a s tra n g e r asking d ire c tio n s in y o u r n a tive language.
j ; 2. Please re m e m b e r how in fa n ts a cgu ire L l« W h at is th e ro le o f c a re g iv e r
1 speech? ............... _ ............... ......................
We a li lea rn th ro u g h in te ra e tio n . Those w ho Learned cooking fro m an o ld e r p a re n i, j
sibling, o rfrie n d w e re in te ra e tin g w ith o th ers. They observed, im ita te d , and p rob ab ly /I
asked questions. Those w ho Learned it fro m a c o o k b o o k d id n o t lea rn in iso la tio n fro m N j
o th e rs e ithe r. They in te ra c te d w ith and found answ ers to th e ir que stion s th ro u g h a ( j
w ritte n m ed ium , th e cookbook, w hich was w ritte n by a person w ith s im ila r intere sts. |
İn sh o rt, w e aLL c o ü a b o ra te w ith o th e rs w h ile Learning, ' j
A ccording to Vygotsky, w e Learn as a re s u lt o f re fle e tio n and re fle c tio n is th e p rod ue t s
o f "an in te rn a l dia log ue betw een th e s e lf and th e 'm e ', betw een th e ind ivid ua l and j
th e m e m b e r o f s o cie ty" (Riley 2 00 9 , p. 45). As fo s te rin g Learner a u to n o m y dem ands |
re fle c tio n , to achîeve th is, c o lla b o ra tio n betw een lea rne rs, w here th e y w iü re p lica te |
th is in te rn a l dia log ue w ith th e ir peers, is o f great. value (L ittle et, al., 2002). j
V ygotsky also argued th a t it is th ro u g h the guidance o f a parent, adult, o r a m ore j
capable p e e rth a tth e children m ove beyond th e ir c u rre n tc a p a b ilitie s and learn to solve j
problem s th a t th e y can n o t on th e ir own (L ittle et. al., 2002). He called th e distance j
betw een th e c u rre n t ca pa b ilitie s o f a child and his p o te n tia l capabilities under th e j
guidance o f a m ore capable peer, th e zone o f p röxİm a İd eve lop m en t;(Z P D ) (L ittle et. |
al., 2002, p. 12). To s u p p o rt learning, a m ore capable p eer provides s u p p o rt regarding I
the p rob le m o r ta sk a t hand u n til th e le a rn e r is capable o f p e rfo rm in g th a t task on
his own, a t w hich p o in t the capable p eer w ith d ra w s th e su pp o rt. This is v e ry ofte n
re fe rre d to as/"scafFolding"; (L ittle et, al., 2 002, p. 12). İn an a utonom ous language
classroom , it is th e te a che r th a t w ill provide scaffolding. She w ill do so th ro u g h h er L2
use as w e ll as h e r role as th e e xpe rt in L2 providing guidance to th e lea rne rs on every
aspect o f th e ir learning, fro m planning to evaluating th e ir Learning. j
Please re m e m b e r y o u r answ ers to th e q uestions a t th e beg inn in g o f th is section. |
W hen you lea rne d to cook, say pasta, you p ro b a b ly had g ue stion s re ga rdin g th e j
tim in g , o rd e r o f aetions, ete., and you p ro b a b ly im ita te d , foltovved, and s o u g h t |
fu r th e r s u p p o rt, e.g, asking a frie n d o r p a re n t o r checking th e recipe again, u n til j
you fe lt c o n fid e n t you could cook on y o u r ow n. S im ila rly, w hen c h ild re n learn to ta lk , j
th e y a re given c o n s ta n t s u p p o rt by a d u lts o r m o re capable peers th ro u g h re p e titio n , j
slo w speech, in to n a tio n , and so on. |
W hat these su gg e st fo r a language classro om is th a t c o lla b o ra tio n w ill p rovide j
re fle c tio n on le a rn in g th ro u g h n e g o tia tio n betvveen th e te a c h e r and th e le a rn e rs j
and w ill p rovide sca ffo ld ing . S tu d e n t-s tu d e n t in te ra e tio n w ill p ro vid e in p u t th a t is i
elose to th e le a rn e rs ' c u rre n t ca pa b ility, w hich is an im p o rta n t aspect o f ZPD. Please j
re m e m b e r th e careçjiver speech. The c a re g iv e r speech is m uch s im p le r th a n a d u lts ' j
speaking to each o ther, since th e ch ild's Lim ited c u rre n t c a p a b ilitie s p lay a ro le on \
how m uch he can lea rn in th a t instance fro m th e a d u lt. \
s
The m e rits o f s tu d e n t-s tu d e n t in te ra e tio n fo r p ro vid in g sca ffo ld in g have been j
debated fo r a long tim e . We should re m e m b e r th a t th e re are stu d ie s su gg e stin g j
s tu d e n t-s tu d e n t in te ra e tio n does n o t alw ays p rovide rich enough in p u t re gu ire d to j
im p ro ve L2, how ever, a t th e sam e tim e b ea r in m in d th a t s tu d e n t c o lla b o ra tio n î
is c ru c ia l in p ro vid in g o p p o rtu n itie s fo r th e le a rn e rs to re fle c t on th e ir le a rn in g [

AUTONOMY
j th ro u g h in te ra c tio n w ith o th e r lea rne rs. it is also c ritic a l in p ro v id in g o p p o rtu n itie s
j fo r th e Learners to use th e ta rg e t Language fo r gen u in e c o m m u n ic a tio n . İt is th ro u g h
I genuine c o m m u n ic a tio n th a t th e Learners can re fle c t on th e ir Learning, seeing w h a t
| th e y can and ca nn o t do w ith L2, and w h a t th e y need to w o rk on to be abLe to cLose
j th a t gap. S tudents asked to in fo rm a n o th e r s tu d e n t on w h a t th e y did th e d ay before,
] a re m ore lik e ly to notice th e g ra m m a tic a l and lexicai gaps re g a rd in g p ast s tru c tu re s
| in th e ir interLanguage, co m pared to , fo r exam ple, w hen th e y a re asked to p u t a
i g rou p o f w ords in c o rre c t o rd e r to m ake a gram m aticaLLy a ccura te sentence. İn th e
] fo rm e r case, th e re w ill be a genuine need fo r th e m to use p ast s tru c tu re s . İt is th is
j need th a t wiLL d ra w th e ir a tte n tio n to th e se LexicaL and gram m aticaL s tru c tu re s and
j wiLL fa c ilita te using th e m in c o m m u n ica tio n .
| S tu d e n t c o lla b o ra tio n aLso provide s o p p o rtu n itie s fo r th e le a rn e rs to a cquire th e
| m e ta c o g n itiv e aw areness th e y need fo r le a rn in g . Dam 's studies show th a t s tu d e n t
| colLaboration raises th e ir aw areness in th e ir ow n Learning process, w hich is w h a t
I V ygotsky suggests as in te rn a l dia log ue (Dam , 200 9 ). Please have a look a t th e
s exam ple below, betw een tw o b e g in n e r Learners o f Turkish, g iving d ire c tio n s to
j each o th e r to go hom e fro m school. İn th is exampLe, A's gap in his interLanguage to
j produce th e possessive suffix in Turkish leads b o th Learners to m ove aw ay fro m th e
| m essage and taLk a b o u t th e Language s tru c tu re .
| A: Sağa dön. Ben/m ev orada.
\ B: Uh, benim ev, evim?
t
î A: Evim ? Ev...
\
i B; Evim, erm, m y house (pointing to self).
\ Besides, genuine co m m u n ic a tio n wiLL help th e le a rn e rs develop a sense o f
\ co m petence, w hich is im p o rta n t in m o tiv a tio n , as argued above (Benson, 201 1 ).
{ it is im p o rta n t to re m e m b e r th a t language is lea rne d th ro u g h use. L ea rne rs wiLl
i need to be given an abundance o f o p p o rtu n itie s to p ra c tic e Language ta k in g on
\ d iffe re n t roles, "in itia tin g as weLL as re sp o n d in g " in c o m m u n ic a tio n (L ittle , 2 00 9 ,
| p. 153). A d o p tin g difFerent ro le s and having m a n y o p p o rtu n itie s to co m m u n ica te ,
j s tu d e n t c o lla b o ra tio n w ill also increase s tra te g y use (Benson, 2011), w h ich w ill be
I discussed below .
Discussion
Please discuss th e follovving q ue stion s w ith a cölleague.
i 1. VVhich s tra te g ie s do you use w h ile re ad in g in L2?
{
ı 2. W hich s tra te g ie s da you use to le a rn vo cab ula ry?
3. W hich s tra te g ie s do you use to m an a ge y o u r le a rn in g ?
4. VVhich s tra te g ie s do you use w hen you ca n n o t re m e m b e r a w o rd w h ile
engaged in a co nve rsatio n?
\ Recent research looked a t w h a t good language learners do to answ er th e question o f
I how to le a rn / teach a Language effectively. The stra te g ie s good language learners use
j provided in sig h t into w hich stra te g ie s should be m ade available to w eaker learners.
İ
|
L----— I THEORETICAL CONSİDERATIONS
 m - ...... —
Language learning s tra te g ie s are "specific plans o r steps - e ith e r observable, such as
ta kin g notes o r seeking o u t a conversation partner, o r unobservable, such as m e n ta lly
analysing a w o rd - th a t L2 lea rne rs in te n tio n a ily e m p loy to im p ro ve reception,
storage, re te n tio n , and re trie v a l o f in fo rm a tio n " (Oxford, 2 003, p. 81),
Learners use stra te g ie s to..im prove language learning, to cope w ith co m m u nica tion j
when th e ir interlan g ua g e is n o t quite enough to cope w ith the s itu a tio n a t hand, to j
cope w ith the affective and m o tiv a tio n a l aspecî o f language learning, o r to plan and [
organ ise th e ir learning (Gao, 2 0 1 0 ; G riffiths, 2 0 0 8 ; Hedge, 2000). These stra te gie s are \
often classified into groups th a t include cognitive, m etaco g nitive, com m unication, and j
so cio-effective stra te g ie s (Gao, 2010; Hedge, 2 0 0 0 ; M cDonough, 1999). Socio-effective j
S trategies deal w ith th e m o tiv a tio n a l and e m o tio n a l aspect o f language learning. j
C ognitive s tra te g ie s a re those th a t are used to deal w ith th e in fo rm a tio n , Language j
o r task presented. These include a w ide v a rie ty o f processes usually d e te rm in e d by |
th e s k ill o r ta sk th a t th e le a rn e r faces. These s tra te g ie s include guessing th e m eaning j
fro m th e context, m aking use o f th e pictures, illu s tra tio n s and c o n te xt surrourtding th e j
te x t (vvritten o r spoken), m aking vvritten o r m e n ta l notes, paraphrasing, sum m arising, f
fo rm in g expectations a b o u t th e te xt, fo rm in g visual re pre sen ta tion s o f th e words, 1
skim m ing , and scanning, am ong m any o th ers (Hedge, 2 0 0 0 ; M cDonough, 1995). j
C om m unication strategies: are those th a t a le a rn e r uses w hen his interlanguage is i
n o t enough to express his m eaning (Hedge, 2000). These include ic irc u m lo c u tio n ; j
appealing fo r help, şvvitching to L l, using body Language, re stru c tu rin g , and reduction j
am ong others. İt İs possible to help th e lea rne rs use these stra te gie s by teaching j
th e m th e s tru c tu re s th e y can use fo r appealing fo r help, e.g. "H ow do you say... W hat \
do you ca li a person w ho..." (Hedge, 2 00 0 , p. 53). \
Teachers can choose to g ive e x p lic it tra in in g on language le a rn in g s tra te g ie s o r \
raise avvareness o f th e le a rn e rs on th e ir own s tra te g y use and possible o th e r j
s tra te g ie s a vaila b le to th e m . Regardless o f w hich approach th e y take, such tra in in g i
w ill help im p ro ve language lea rnin g. Cohen's stu d y re p o rts th a t s tra te g y tra in in g J
İm p rove s ta s k p e rfo rm a n c e (1 99 9). Nunan, Lai, & Keobke (1999), on th e o th e r hand, j
su gg e st th a t w hen used to g e th e r w ith re fle c tio n , s tra te g y tra in in g fo s te rs le a rn e r ]
auton o m y. L ea rne rs involved in th e ir stu d y re p o rte d th a t th e y used a w id e r v a rie ty j
o f Listening m a te ria ls , se t m ore re le v a n t Learning goals fo r specific m a te ria ls and j
a b e tte r Id e n tific a tio n o f liste n in g p ro b le m s and s tra te g ie s to be used to d ea l w ith j
th e se p ro b le m s (N unan et. al., 1999). ]
These fin d in g s su gg e st th a t m aking Learners m ore aw are o f th e ir s tra te g y use and ]
th e s tra te g ie s a va ila b le to th e m are v ita l in fo s te rin g le a rn e r auton o m y. Besides j
th e s tra te g ie s used to deal w ith th e ta sk a t hand, it is also im p o rta n t to raise |
le a rn e rs ' avvareness o f th e s tra te g ie s to plan th e ir own learning, i.e. m e ta c o g n itiv e j
:
s tra te g ie s . M eta co g n itive s tra te g ie s "d e a l w ith p re-a ssessm en t and p re -p la m in g , j
o n-lîn e p la n n in g and e valua tio n, and p o s t-e v a lu a tio n o f language le a rn in g a ctivitie s, j
and language use e ven ts" (Cohen, 1999, p. 62). İn becom ing a utonom ous, it is
e sse n tia l to re fle c t on one's lea rnin g and set a course o f action , as has been argued
above on m any occasions. T herefore, it is ben e ficia l to p rovide an avvareness o f

AUTONOMY

■
 these s tra te g ie s in a language classro om if w e w a n t Learners to be abte to have th e
to o ls to re fle c t on th e ir le a rn in g and se le c t th e s tra te g ie s to use fro m a c o lle c tio n
a vaila b le to th e m . F o r exam ple, asking s tu d e n ts to b rin g in nevvspapers and s h o rt
s to rie s to co m p a re th e w a y th e y read classified ad s and s h o rt s to rie s ; o r g iving th e m
a te x t devoid o f any visu a l aids, title s and asking th e m to co m p a re re ad in g it vvith
a te x t w ith th e usual v isu a l aids p re s e n t w ill help ra ise le a rn e rs ' aw areness on h ow
d iffe re n t te x ts a re read e m p lo y in g d iffe re n t s tra te g ie s .
| As w e ll as ra isin g le a rn e rs ' aw areness on s tra te g y use and th e ir ow n lea rnin g, it is
j also im p o rta n t th a t th e te a c h e rs raise s tu d e n t aw areness on how th e m echanics
j o f th e language w o rks by p ro vid in g e x p lic it aw areness ra isin g a c tiv itie s o r e x p lic it
j language in s tru c tio n on language p a tte rn s (Sinclair; 2 01 0 ). This w ill develop
j th e m e ta c o g n itiv e knovvledge needed to ta lk a b o u t th e ir le a rn in g and a b o u t th e
j language, As review ed in th e previou s section, ta lk in g and th in k in g a b o u t th e process
j o f le a rn in g is va lu ab le fo r le a rn in g , as V yg o tsky argued. S in c la ir re m a rks th a t it is
j im p o rta n t th a t th e le a rn e rs a re aw are o f w h a t th e y are doîng o r expected to do,
| how and w h y it is im p o rta n t fo r th e ir le a rn in g . it is also im p o rta n t to p rovide th e
| le a rn e rs vvith e x p lic it in s tru c tio n on th e p a tte rn s in L2 to fo s te r le a m e r auton o m y.
| İt is possible to p ro vid e language p a tte rn s , i.e. g ra m m a tic a l o r le xica l p a tte rn s , and
I ask th e lea rn e rs to hypo th e sise w hen th e se p a tte rn s a re used, o r to p rovide in p u t in
| L2 and ask th e le a rn e rs to fin d th e p a tte rn s in th a t in p u t (Sinclair, 2010).
\ Since a uton o m o u s le a rn e rs are th o se engaged in th e ir le a rn in g beyond th e
| c o n fin e m e n t o f language classroom , and are capable o f d ire c tin g th e ir ow n
| le a rn in g l self-access c e n tre s are ben e ficia l in p ro v id in g th e le a rn e rs vvith th e
\ resources to be used in th e ir lea rnin g. As Benson re m a rks, "a self-access ce n tre can
\ be b ro a d ly defined as a p urpose-designed fa c ility in vvhich le a rn in g resources are
) m ade d ire c tly a vaila b le to le a rn e rs " (2 01 1, p. 128). The resources in a self-access
| ce ntre can include audio and video re cordings, books, o th e r p rin te d m a te ria ls , and
j co m p u te rs, softvvare designed fo r language le a rn in g . B earing in m in d th e value o f
j re a l c o m m u n ic a tio n and a u th e n tic m a te ria ls in fo s te rin g le a rn e r autonom y, in th e
| absence o f such fa c ilitie s like a ro o m to be a llo ca te d fo r th is use, co m p u te rs, TVs,
\ vide o-a u dio re co rd ers, it is also possible to develop a resources c e n tre o r a c o rn e r
j in th e classro om by s im p ly c o lle c tin g resources in tim e . İn th e experience o f th e
j a u th o r asking th e stu d e n ts to c o n trib u te to th is c o lle ctio n w ill also include th e m in
j m a te ria ls se lection and c re a tio n and vvill increase th e c o lle c tio n in vo lü m e as w e ll
| as re su ltin g in an increase in le a rn e r m o tiv a tio n and c o lla b o ra tio n
j In fo rm a tio n te c h n o lo g ie s such as c o m p u te r-a s s is te d language lea rn in g "(CALL),
|„ C om puter m ed iated c o m m u n ic a tio n fo r language le a rn in g (CMCL) are vvidely used
| in te a ch in g and le a rn in g a language. CALL o ffe rs softvvare designed to fa c ilita te
î Language le a rn in g . The stu d e n ts can be invo lve d in tasks vvhere th e y can p ra c tic e L2
| and evaluate th e m se lves. Such softvvare c le a rly o ffers resources fo r th e le a rn e rs to
|r. w o rk on in th e ir own tim e and pace. VVhere CALL îs n o t re a d ily availa b le to le a rn e rs o r
I teachers, th e In te rn e t is vvidely used to provide m eans fo r genuine c o m m u n ica tio n .
| Dias (2 00 0) accounts a stu d y vvhere th e le a rn e rs w e re asked to use In fo rm a tio n and

L— t h e o r e t i c â l c ö n s s d e r â t jg n s
c o m m u n ic a tio n s tra te g ie s including, th e in te rn e t and e-m a i! exchange, İn le a rn in g f
language fu n ctio n s. The p a rtic ip a n ts in th is stu d y spoke English m ore ofte n th a n [
th e ir peers as th e y used th e se te ch n o lo g ie s to co m p le te tasks, w hîch th e y th e n had j
to re p o rt to th e ir peers. )
VVhere, te ch n o lo g y is available to the learners, it is often used in language classes
to p rovide o p p o rtu n itie s fo r th e lea rne rs to engage in m ea n in g fu l co m m u nica tion i
and to encourage c o lla b o ra tio n (VVarschauer, Shetzer, & M eloni 2000). One com m on
m etho d is h a n d e m learning'X B enson, 2 01 1 , 131), vvhere tw o individual learners o r
tw o groups o f le a rn e rs use th e ta rg e t language to exchange in fo rm a tio n . Recently,
co m m u n ica tio n technologies such as e-m ails o r video-conferencing are being used
to fa c ilita te ta n d e m learning (VVarschauer et. a l, 2000). R egular exchange o f e-m ails
vvith speakers o f the ta rg e t language on specifîc th em es can be m o tiv a tin g as w e ll
as p rovidin g genuine co m m u nica tion . D eciding on th e th em es co lla b o ra tiv e ly w ill
also increase stu d e n t co ntro l. Using th e in te rn e t to com p lete tasks by collecting
in fo rm a tio n , i.e. VVebOuests, stu d en t publishing th ro u g h blogs, jo u m a ls ,' stu d e n t
c o lla b o ra tio n th ro u g h , fo r exam ple, discussion lists are also am ong the uses o f
co m m u n ica tio n and in fo rm a tio n technologies use to fo s te r autonom y. Softvvare such
as concordances are also available to access a uth e n tic language fo r m e a n in g fu l input.

Since fo s te rin g le a rn e r a u to n o m y re q u ire s te a che rs to n e g o tia te vvith th e \

le a rn e rs to help th e m se t goals fo r, plan and e valua te th e ir le a rn in g , th e ',,J
te a ch e rs th e m se lve s need to be a uton o m o u s in th e ir own p ra c tic e (Benson, "|
2 01 1 ). Hovvever, as Nakata (2 00 1) suggests, te a c h e r a u to n o m y is n o t a j
necessary p re c o n d itio n fo r fo s te rin g le a rn e r a u to n o m y (2011). Teachers also j
should have a “ readiness" to help le a rn e rs becom e a uton o m o u s (p. 901). j

We need to re m e m b e r th a t a u to n o m y is a p re -re q u is ite to s e lf-fu lfilm e n t, th e re fo re , \

people have a need to be a uton o m o u s in th e ir action s (L ittle , 2 00 9 ). For te a ching , \
th is vvould e n ta il having th e fre e d o m and c o n tro l on one's ovvn p ractice , to be able |
to p ro m o te le a rn e r c o n tro l. Teachers need to co nside r a t th is p o in t to w h a t e x te n t j
th e y vvill need to n e g o tia te vvith th e ir colleagues, th e in s titu tio n th e y w o rk in, and I
s o m e tim e s p a re n ts and le a rn e rs fo r such c o n tro l. A lth o u g h it is n o t unco m m o n to j

AUTONOMY
 fin d a sense o f re sig n a tio n fro m th e te a c h e rs saying th e y do n o t have c o n tro l ö v e r
th e ir own te a ch in g p ra ctice s and th a t th e c o n tro l is held by th e in s titu tio n th e y w o rk
in, in m o s t cases, as Benson (2 01 1) re m a rks, such c o n tro l can be useful to serve as
a b e n ch m a rk in te a ching .
Please re m e m b e r th a t som e stu d en ts w ill be m ore ready to assum e a uton o m y o f
th e ir lea m in g w h ile som e w ill be m o re in d in e d to a ttrib u te alt c o n tro l and outcom e
o f th e ir le a m in g to th e teacher. One s tu d e n t în Lam b's (2 00 9) study, fo r exam ple,
re m a rks th a t she w o u ld be m ore successful if th e te a c h e r was m o re encouraging.
Interestingly, s im ila r m in d se t can also be p re se n t am ong teachers, o r su rp risin g ly
even am ong te a c h e r tra in e e s th a t an encouraging c u rric u lu m , th e principal,
colleagues, a n d /o r course books; o r m ore responsible tearners a re pre-re qu isite to
develop m ore professionally, o r to fo s te r le a rn e r autonom y. We need to re m e m b e r
th a t the teachers, m uch like th e lea rne rs them selves, wiU need to operate w ith in th e
fra m e w o rk o f the edu ca tio n al se ttin g s th e y w o rk in to develop p rofessionally and
to fo s te r le a rn e r autonom y. This suggests th a t th e y w ill need to fin d w ays o f doing
th is w ith in th e c o n te xt th e y teach. When faced w ith c o n stra in ts fro m th e educational
settings, as Benson argues, teachers can respond in d iffe re n t ways.
i There a re no p re-se t rules to fo s te r le a rn e r autonom y, as rem arked above, b u t i
d iffe re n t lea rne rs w ith d iffe re n t chara cte ristics, such as age, e du cational b a c k g ro u n d ,.
needs, goals, w ill cali fo r d iffe re n t approaches. To be w ell-e qu ipp e d fo r such diversity,
/ the teachers w ill need to develop continuously. J u s t as learners need to re fle c t on :
th e ir lea m in g , te a che rs w ill need to re fle c t on th e ir teaching, To do so, te achers o fte n i
use action research, w hich w ill be discussed below.
As m ain ta in e d above, it is n o t u n co m m o n fo r th e te a c h e rs to fe e l d ise m po w e re d
in th e ir p ra c tic e o f te a ching , A ctio n re s e a rc h js used c o m m o n ly as a m eans fo r
p ro m o tin g te a c h e r a u to n o m yi itiş based on th e p rin c ip le o fe m p o vvering p ra c titio n e rs
to produce th e o ry and p ra c tic a l kn ow le d ge and o f d ra w in g on th is new know ledge
to im p ro ve p ra c tic e (Reason & B radbury, 2 00 1 ). T h ere fo re, in e d u ca tio n a l s e ttin g s,
a ction research is an o ng oing process to im p ro ve te a ch in g and le a m in g (M acintyre,
2000). y.
A ction research ty p ic a lly s ta rts
Please discuss the foUowing guestions with a
w ith id e n tify in g a p ro b le m in
colleague.
th e te a c h in g /le a rn in g process,
w h e re b y th e te a c h e r-re s e a rc h e r
1. Shoutd te a c h e rs do research? W h y / W hy
plans a change to solve th e
n ot?
p ro b le m o r to im p ro ve te a ch in g
2. S uggest possible stages o f research
p ractice . Follovving th e p la n ning
desîgned to im p ro ve te a ching ,
phase, th e te a c h e r-re s e a rc h e r
3. Please re m e m b e r th a t te a c h in g and le a m in g
im p le m e n ts th e plan and re fle cts
a re n o t done in is o la tio n . W ho w o u ld a
on th e o utcom e s o f th a t course
te a c h e r doin g a c tio n research need to
o f action . İt is co m m o n th a t such
c o lla b o ra te w ith ? A t w h a t sta g e o f research?
re fle c tio n wilL give rise to fu r th e r

fÜTl THEORETICAL CONSİDERATIONS

 Id e n tific a tio n o f an area o f im p ro ve m e n t, p la n ning and a new course o f a ction based j
on th e re su lts. T h ere fo re, it is cyclica l in n a tu re : \

reflectin^ acting

SfeseiYİng

(McNifF, 1988, p. 22)

D epending on th e co n te xt, th e lea rne rs, and th e te a c h e r- researcher, these cycles

a re like ly to expand o r m u ltip ly (McNifF, 1988).

Main problem

(McNİfF, 1988, p. 44)

J u s t as le a rn e r a u to n o m y re q u ire s c o lla b o ra tio n , te a c h e r a u to n o m y and a ction

research to o re gu ire s c o lla b o ra tio n w ith th e colleagues. Besides, th e te a c h e r-
re se a rc h e r sh ou ld re fle c t on th e c u rre n t p ra ctice , id e n tify w h a t she needs to
im p ro ve in th e te a ch in g / le a m in g process, m uch like th e re fle c t i on stage in le a rn e r
auton o m y. The n ext ste p o f s e ttin g a course o f a ctio n and e valua tin g, re fle c t!n g on
th e o utcom e s o f th is course a re also co m m o n stages w ith le a rn e r autonom y. To
c a rry o u t such e v a lu a tio n th e te a c h e r w ill need to ta ke a clo se r look a t th e specific
a spe ct th a t she s e t o u t to im p ro ve and to be able to do th is, she w ill need to evalua te
th e change im p le m e n te d . V ieira (2 00 7) suggests keeping te a c h e r jo u rn a ls in the
process to help e valua tio n. O th e r in s tru m e n ts such as q u e stion n aire s, interview s,
s tu d e n t logs, p o rtfo lio s , a ch ie ve m e n t te sts, am ong m any o th ers, are also available

AUTOMOMV b~
fo r e valuation, depending on th e n a tu ra o f th e p ro b le m and th e change im p le m e n te d .
We need to re m e m b e r tb a t lea rnin g, fo rm a ! o r in fo rm a l, exists in every stage
o f o u r lives. We a re predisposed to Learning to be able to fu n c tio n e ffe c tiv e ly in
o u r in te ra c tio n s w ith o th e rs and w ith th e w o rld . İn te a ch in g a fo re ig n language,
it is th is need to be c o m p e te n t th a t vve need to m ob ilise. By p rovidin g genuine
co m m u n ic a tio n o p p o rtu n itîe s , p ro v id in g tasks th a t re la te to th e Learners' lives,
g iving th e m a sense o f e n jo y m e n t and a ch ie v e m e n t in le a rn in g , w e can m o tiv a te
lea rn e rs to be m o re a c tive ly engaged in th e ir le a rn in g . M o tiva te d Learners w ill be
m o re inclined to c a rry on le a rn in g b o th inside and o u tsid e th e classro om . Hovvever,
to ensure a se lf-su sta in in g le a rn in g , w e also need to fo s te r a u to n o m o u s behaviour,
w h ich is also p re s e n t in e ve ry in d ivid u a l a t v a ry in g degrees.
A u to no m ou s lea rn e rs re fle c t on th e ir s tre n g th s , weaknesses, and th e progress o f
th e ir Learning. They a re capable o f s e ttin g goals and vvorking tovvards th e se goals.
They w ill be vvilling to w o rk c o lla b o ra tiv e ly w ith o th e rs to fa c ilita te th e ir Learning
and w iü n o t be a fra i d to ta ke risks. An e sse n tia l c o m p o n e n t o f fo s te rin g le a rn e r
autonom y, th e n , is g iv in g m o re c o n tro l to Learners. To be able to do th is, language
te a c h e rs w ill fin d th e m se lve s in a p o sitio n w h e re th e y have to n e g o tia te w ith th e
p o licy m akers, colleagues and sta keh o ld e rs, such as p a re n ts and lea rne rs, as th e y
m ove away fro m th e tra d itio n a l classro om . They w ill also have to be v e ry c le a r
and e x p lic ît a b o u t th e o v e ra ll aim s and goals o f th e c u rric u lu m , vvithin w hich th e
Learners can plan th e ir ow n Learning.
W hile som e le a rn e rs can be m o re ready to assum e such c o n tro l, som e o th e rs can be
m ore inclined to stay vvithin th e sa fe ty o f tra d itio n a l roles w here th e y are to ld w h a t
th e y need to produce w hen and how. Also, a change in roles can cause fru s tra tio n if
th e Learners are n o t clea r a b o u t th e aim o f th e change and w h a t th e new roles e n ta il
fo r th e m . T h ere fo re, fo s te rin g le a rn e r a u to n o m y is a g ra d u a l process w here th e
c o n tro l is handed to th e Learners as th e y g ro w to be m ore ready fo r it. İn a dd itio n ,
it is c ru c ia l th a t th e te a ch e rs act as m e n to rs, fa c ilita to rs , and guides and n e g o tia te
w ith th e le a rn e rs a b o u t th e ir le a rn in g in th is process. The te a che rs should help th e
le a rn e rs se t goals, p rovide th e s e ttin g w here le a rn e rs can c o lla b o ra te w ith ea'ch
o th er, help th e m se t a plan to achieve th e ir goals and evalua te th e ir progress. ît is
also th e te a c h e r w ho should o rganise co m m u n ic a tio n betvveen in d ivid u a l lea rne rs,
g rou ps and class as a w hole; and d ire c t th e le a rn e rs to resources u n til th e y are
ready to do th is th e m se lves.
S tu d e n t c o lla b o ra tio n is an im p o rta n t aspect o f Learner a u to n o m y and should be
encouraged to ensure a m e ta c o g n îtive avvareness a b o u t th e le a rn in g process, w h ich
is essen tial in le a rn in g . Language le a rn in g s tra te g ie s also p la y an im p o rta n t ro le in
deve lo p in g a m e ta c o g n itiv e avvareness. İn fo s te rin g le a rn e r auton o m y, it is possible
to give d ire c t in s tru c tio n on le a rn in g s tra te g ie s as w e ll as ra isin g avvareness o f th e
s tra te g ie s used and th o se th a t are a vaila b le to lea rne rs. VVhichever approach is
a dopted, language le a rn in g s tra te g ie s vvill o ffe r a re p e rto ire fo r th e lea rne rs.
Use o f te c h n o lo g y and self-access ce n tre s are also in s tru m e n ta l in fo s te rin g le a rn e r

TBEORETsCAL CONSIDERATİOMS
a uton o m y. Language le a rn in g so ftw a re and th e In te rn e t, as w e ll as audio and i
video re co rd in g s w ill give va lu a b le p rosp ects fo r c o m m u n ic a tio n , c o lla b o ra tio n , \
p la n ning and re fle c tio n /e v a lu a tio n . in th e absence o f such te c h n o lo g ie s and physical j
c o n s tra in ts to use these, th e te a ch e rs can develop self-access fa c ilitie s in tim e by \
c o lle c tin g resources and o ffe rin g an öpen access to these. \
To be able to m e e t th e dem ands o f fo s te rin g le a rn e r auton o m y, th e te a che rs \
th e m se lve s, w iİİ need to be auton o m o u s. A lth o u g h te a c h e r a u to n o m y re qu ire s i
fre e d o m ö v e r th e process o f te a ching , in co n te xts w h e re th e te a c h e r is bound by j
th e c u rric u lu m ö r an exam System , she can use th e se as o v e ra ll goals and o pe rate i
vvithin th e m . S im ila r to le a rn e r autonom y, te a c h e r a u to n o m y re qu ire s re fle c tio n on j
th e process o f te a ch in g , s e ttin g goals, c o lla b o ra tio n and e v a lu a tio n o f th e process. i
A ctio n research is a b e n e fk ia l to o l in p ro m o tin g te a c h e r a u to n o m y as it fa c ilita te s j
re fle c tio n , ta k in g a ctio n and e valua tio n. i
H elping le a rn e rs becom e m ore a uton o m o u s in language lea rnin g is by no m eans i
an easy process. The te a c h e r w ill need to a d o p t a d d itio n a l roles besides teaching. i
Hovvever, a u to n o m o u s lea rnin g is th e goal o f a li tea ching as vve w o u ld like th e |
le a rn e rs to keep le a rn in g beyond th e aüocated hours in classro om s and re la te İ
w h a t is learned to th e ir lives if we w a n t Learners to be ind ependent, empovvered j
ind ivid ua ls. i

AUTONOMY | _____ I
; F o llö w -u p g u e s tlo n s
\ ı. VVhat does th e te rm le a rn e r a u to n o m y m ean to you?
I 2. VVould you c ö h s id e f y o u rs e lf to be an a u to n o m o u s le a rn e r?
. 3. W ould you c ö n sid e r le a rn e r a u to n o m y to be an im p o rta n t e d u c a tio n a lg o a l?
W h y/ W hy not?
4. VVhat vvöüld you say c h a ra c te ris tic s o f a u to n o m o u s le a rn e rs are?
■5. VVhat is th e ro le o f te a c h e r in a u to n o m o u s le a rn in g ?
; 6. W hat shoüld tanguage te a c h e rs do to fo s te r le a rn e r a u to n o m y?
i 7. VVhiçh o f th e follövving w o u ld you say a u to n o m o u s le a rn e rs have a say İn?
a l VVhat th e y learn;
b) H ow th e y lea rn,
c) E valuation o f th e le a rn in g process and le a rn in g o u tco m e s
; 8. Can you th in k o f any p ro b le m s th a t le a rn e rs and / o r te a c h e rs e n c o u n te r
w h ile fö s te rin g le a rn e r a u to n o m y? !f yes, please lis t th e m a li.
I 9 . W hat does th e te rm te a c h e r a u to n o m y m ean to you?
: 10. İri y ö u r o p in iö n , how a re le a rn e r and te a c h e r a u to n o m y re la te d ?
; 11. Please lis t m eans o f re fle c tio n to be used to fo s te r a u to n o m o u s lea rnin g?
: 12. Besides logbooks and p o rtfo lîo s , w h a t o th e r m eans o f se If-eva lu a ti o n a re
.. a vaila b le ?
; 13. How cah discussion lis ts be used to help le a rn e rs re fle c t?
; 14. Please su gg e st w ays o f in d u d in g th e le a rn e rs in decision m a k in g process o f
. a lis te n ih g cöurse fo r b e g in n e r leve l lea rne rs.
: 15. Please su gg e st ways fo r th e le a rn e rs to c re a te and s e le c t th e ir own
m a te r.îa is fo r a re ading course.
I 16. Please sü gg e st a v a rie ty o f ta sks f o r th e le a rn e rs to choose f ro m İn a w ritin g
course fo r advanced leve l lea rne rs.
! 17. Please su gg e st speaking tasks fo r genuine c o m m u n ic a tio n designed ld r : -^
b e g irih e r Level lea rne rs.
i 18. Please fin d a b e g in n e r level and an advanced le v e tc o u rs e book in English::
and analyse s tra te g y tra in in g p ro vid e d in th e book.
; 19. S uggest ways o f:ra is in g le a rn e rs ' aw areness on lis te n in g , speakîng, readîng
and w ritin ğ s tra te g ie s .
i 20. Desİgn a m o ck-a ctio n research p ro je c t. id e n tify a specifıc p o in t you b elieve
you need to İm p ro ve as a lan guage teacher* fo r e xam ple g iv in g in s tru c tio n s * :
in L2, te a c h in g co lloca tio ns, ete. VVhat is th e fir s t step you w o u ld do to
İm p rove it? VVhat are th e fo llo w in g steps? H ow vvould you e valua te y o u r
im p ro ve m e n t?