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Chapter I: GENERAL CHEMISTRY
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Outline
Atoms Chemical bonds Chemical equilibria in aqueous solutions Dissolution of electrolytes Redox
reactions Metal complexes
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Atoms
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Atomic Theory of Matter
John Dalton (1766–1844)
“All matter is composed of small particles called atoms”
Ancient Greek “átomos” = “indivisible”
A compound is a type of matter composed of atoms of two or more elements chemically combined in
fixed proportions A chemical reaction consists of the rearrangement of the atoms present in the
reacting substances to give new chemical combinations
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The identity of an element
Atomic number (Z) the number of protons
Mass number (A) the total number of protons and neutrons
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Isotopes
Atoms whose nuclei have the same atomic number but different mass
numbers Carbon-11: artificial radioactive isotope
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Atomic mass
The SI unit of mass is the kilogram
Atomic mass ■ Mass number (mass of the protons and neutrons)
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Atomic mass
1 amu = 1/12 of the mass of a free carbon-12 atom
Relative atomic mass (atomic weight): ratio of the mass of the atom to the atomic mass unit
Atomic mass is often expressed in the non-SI unit dalton (Da) or atomic mass unit (amu)
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Standard atomic weight
Example: Calculate the standard atomic weight of Cl?
[Link]
The weighted arithmetic mean of the relative atomic masses of all isotopes of that element weighted by
each isotope's abundance on Earth.
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Structure of Atoms
Rutherford‘s model
Most of the mass of the atom (> 99.95%) is concentrated in a positively charged nucleus, around which
the negatively charged electrons move. The nucleus occupies only a very small portion of the space of
the atom.
(planetary model)
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The energy of an electron:
When n inscreases, the electron’s energy increases.
: Rydberg constant h : Planck constant c : speed of light in vacuum n : energy levels (1,2,3…)
Structure of Atoms
Bohr’s model
An electron can have only specific energy values (energy levels) in an atom.
(for hydrogen)
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Bohr’s model
Structure of Atoms
(for hydrogen)
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■ ames of Li & Na
The emission of light: an electron undergoes a transition from an upper to lower energy level.
Bohr’s model
Structure of Atoms
(for hydrogen)
Atomic Emission Spectra
Emission spectrum of hydrogen
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Bohr’s model
Structure of Atoms
(for hydrogen)
Bohr’s theory established the concept of atomic energy levels and explained the atomic spectrum of
hydrogen. It was unsuccessful in accounting for the details of atomic structure and in predicting energy
levels for atoms other than hydrogen.
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Hydrogen atom
(quantum mechanics)
Erwin Schrödinger (1887 – 1961)
Wave-particle duality of submicroscopic particles
Structure of Atoms
Schrödinger’s equation
The probability of finding the particle (electron) within a region of space
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Argon atom
(quantum mechanics)
Atomic radius
The maximum in the radial distribution function of the outer shell of the atom
Argon has a radius of … pm
Structure of Atoms
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Structure of Atoms
Atomic orbitals
The regions of space where there is high probability (>95%) of finding the electrons.
s orbitals: Spherical shape
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Structure of Atoms
Atomic orbitals
p orbitals: Two lobes arranged along a straight line
Three p orbitals in each p subshell are set at right angles to each other
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Structure of Atoms
Atomic orbitals
From the 3rd shell Five d orbitals in each d subshell
d orbitals: Complicated shapes
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Structure of Atoms
Atomic orbitals
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v=8ROHpZ0A70I&ab;_channel=TED-Ed
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Electron configuration
A particular distribution of electrons into shells and subshells
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Electron configuration
Example: Boron atom (Z = 5): 1s22s22p1
Orbital diagram
A diagram to show how the orbitals of a subshell are occupied by electrons
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Electron configuration
Increasing order of electron energy in subshells:
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Electron configuration
Pauli exclusion principle: An orbital can hold at most two electrons, and only if the electrons have
opposite spins.
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Electron configuration
Hund’s rule: the lowest-energy arrangement of electrons in a subshell is obtained by putting electrons
into separate orbitals of the subshell with the same spin before pairing electrons.
Carbon atom (Z = 6) with the ground-state configuration 1s22s22p2. Three possible orbital diagrams
are given. Which one is correct?
Example:
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Electron configuration
Which of the following orbital diagrams or electron configurations are possible?
Exercise 1:
Exercise 2:
Write the electron configuration and orbital diagram of P (Z = 15)
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Valence electrons
Valence shell = outermost shell
Valence electrons
Valence electrons are involved in chemical reactions Similarities among the valence shells ■
similarities of the chemical properties (groups in the periodic table).
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A tabular arrangement of elements in rows and columns, highlighting the regular repetition of properties
of the elements
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Vertical column contains elements with the same number of outermost shell electrons
Elements in the same column tend to have similar chemical properties
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Chemical Bonding
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IONIC BONDS
A chemical bond formed by the electrostatic attraction between positive and negative
ions noble-gas configurations
Na+ is surrounded by six Cl, and every Cl by six Na+
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IONIC BONDS
Coulomb’s law
The potential energy obtained in bringing two charges Q1 and Q2, initially far apart, up to a distance r
apart is directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the distance
between them
(J)
E: potential energy k: 8.99 × 109 J.m/C2 +e: 1.602 × 10-19 C -e: - 1.602 × 10-19 C r: distance between
the nuclei of the ions (m)
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IONIC BONDS
Coulomb’s law
The energy is released
Calculate the energy obtained when the a Na+ ion and a Cl- ion come together to a distance of 282 pm.
kJ/mol ?
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COVALENT BONDS
As the atoms approach, the electrons are attracted simultaneously by the positive charges of the two
nuclei, holding the atoms together. As the atoms get close enough, the repulsion of the nuclei becomes
larger than the attraction of electrons for nuclei.
Covalent bond: a chemical bond formed by the sharing of a pair of electrons between two atoms
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COVALENT BONDS
The distance between nuclei at the minimum energy is called the bond length
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THE OCTET RULE
Atoms in molecules tend to have eight electrons in their valence shells.
Lewis Formula
(A formula using dots to represent valence electrons)
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THE OCTET RULE: EXCEPTIONS
Molecules with an atom having < 8 valence electrons
Molecules with an atom having > 8 valence electrons
From the third period on, the elements also have d orbitals, which may be used in bonding
sp3d hybridation
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MULTIPLE BONDS
A double bond is a covalent bond in which two pairs of electrons are shared by two atoms.
A triple bond is a covalent bond in which three pairs of electrons are shared by two atoms.
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POLAR COVALENT BONDS
Electronegativity of O, Cl, C, H: 3.5; 3.0; 2.5; 2.1
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COORDINATE COVALENT BONDS
A bond formed when both electrons of the bond are donated by one atom
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BOND STRENGTH and BOND LENGTH
The bond (dissociation) energy for a diatomic molecule: the standard enthalpy change for the reaction:
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BOND STRENGTH and BOND LENGTH
When one atom bonds to various atoms in a group, the bond strength typically decreases as we move
down the group (the bond length is proportional to the atomic radius)
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BOND STRENGTH and BOND LENGTH
the bond strength increases, the bond length decreases
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BOND STRENGTH and BOND LENGTH
Triple bonds are stronger and shorter than double bonds and single bonds between the same two
atoms
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Chemical equilibria in aqueous solutions
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REVERSIBLE REACTIONS
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Many reactions never result in complete conversion of reactants to products.
Reversible reactions proceed to a state of chemical equilibrium in which the ratio of concentrations of
reactants and products is constant.
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REVERSIBLE REACTIONS
48
The amounts of reactants and products are constant because the rates of the forward and reverse
reactions are exactly the same.
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EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT
49
Equilibrium constant expressions describe the concentration relationships among reactants and
products at equilibrium.
[A], [B], [C], [D]: molar concentrations if A, B, C, D represent dissolved solutes a, b, c, d: whole numbers
required to balance the equation
equilibrium constants are unitless
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50
Keq provides no information about the reaction rate.
EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT
Products
Time
Concentration
Concentration
Products
Reactants
Reactants
(HOW MUCH, NOT HOW FAST)
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EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT
51
Heterogeneous Equilibria
Homogeneous equilibria: all the components are in solution Heterogeneous equilibria: involves two
phases
The “concentration” of a pure solid/liquid (undissolved) is unity.
(s)
(aq)
(aq)
When any amount of the solid is already present, adding more solid does not bring about a shift in the
equilibrium
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MANIPULATING EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS
52
Stepwise and overall Keq
The Keq for a reaction that is the sum of two or more reactions is equal to the product of the Keq for the
individual reactions.
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MANIPULATING EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS
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Keq of the reverse reaction
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LE CHÂTELIER’S PRINCIPLE
54
The position of chemical equilibrium always shifts in a direction that tends to relieve the effect of an
applied stress.
French chemist Henry-Louise Le Châtelier (1850–1936)
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LE CHÂTELIER’S PRINCIPLE
55
Concentrations
Introducing an additional amount of a reactant/product to the reaction mixture ■ A shift in equilibrium in
the direction that tends to use up the added substance.
Changes in concentrations do not affect the equilibrium constant.
Addition of Fe2+ to the solution at equilibrium
■ the reaction shifts to the left
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LE CHÂTELIER’S PRINCIPLE
56
Temperature
An increase in the temperature of a system ■ A shift in equilibrium in the direction that tends to absorb
heat
A decrease in the temperature of a system ■ A shift in equilibrium in the direction that tends to release
heat
All equilibrium constants are temperature-dependent
Increase in the temperature
■ the reaction shifts to the left
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LE CHÂTELIER’S PRINCIPLE
57
Pressure
An increase in the pressure on a system ■ A shift in equilibrium in the direction producing less gas
molecules
A decrease in the pressure on a system ■ A shift in equilibrium in the direction producing more gas
molecules
All equilibrium constants are temperature dependent
Decrease in the pressure on the system favors decomposition of NO2 into NO and O2 ■ restore the
pressure.
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TYPES OF EQUILIBRIA IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
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Acid-base dissociation Solubility/Precipitation reactions Complex formation Reduction-oxidation
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DISSOLUTION AND DISSOCIATION
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SOLUTIONS
60
Solutions = homogeneous mixtures
Solvent: the component that is present in the greatest quantity Solutes: other solution components,
“dissolved” in the solvent
liquid / gaseous / solid solutions
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DISSOLUTION
61
A substance (solute) dissolves into a solvent and forms a solution.
Interactions (intermolecular forces) between solute particles - solvent ■ Each molecule/ion of the solute
separates from each other, surrounded by solvent molecules and enters the solution. This process is
called solvation or hydration (when solvent = water)
Glucose(s)
Glucose(aq)
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DISSOCIATION
62
When an ionic compound dissolves, forming cations and anions, this process is referred to as
dissociation.
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63
Clustering of water dipoles around the surface of the ionic crystal
If these ion–dipole forces of attraction > the interionic forces of attraction in the
crystal, dissolution-dissociation will occur.
■ Formation of hydrated ions in solution
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DISSOCIATION CONSTANT
64
Compounds that dissociate completely: strong electrolytes Compounds that dissolve but dissociate
partially: weak electrolytes
(the acid dissociation constant)
(the base dissociation constant)
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DISSOCIATION CONSTANT
65
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SOLUBILITY EQUILIBRIA
66
The solution is saturated when the rates of dissolution and crystallization become equal.
The concentration of a saturated solution is called the solubility of the solute in the given solvent, at a
given temperature.
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SOLUBILITY-PRODUCT CONSTANT
67
Example: The Ksp of AgCl at 25 oC is 1.0 × 10-10. Calculate the concentrations of Ag+ and Cl in a
saturated solution of AgCl, and the solubility of AgCl.
When AgCl dissociates, equal amounts of Ag+ and Cl- are formed. Let s represent the molar solubility
of AgCl.
Calculation of solubility
s
(M)
A slightly soluble substance has a definite solubility at a given temperature.
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SOLUBILITY-PRODUCT CONSTANT
68
Example: What must be the concentration of added Ag+ to just start precipitation of AgCl in a 1.0 ×
103 M solution of NaCl?
Calculation of solubility
Precipitation: [Ag+].[Cl-]> Ksp AgCl
The solubility product must be exceeded for precipitation to occur.
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Redox reactions
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REDOX REACTIONS
70
A reduction–oxidation reaction (redox reaction) occurs between a reducing and an oxidizing agent
(Ox1 is reduced to Red1, and Red2 is oxidized to Ox2)
A reducing agent will tend to give up (an) electron(s) and be oxidized to a higher oxidation state. An
oxidizing agent will tend to take on (an) electron(s) and be reduced to a lower oxidation state
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A redox reaction can be written as two half-reactions. Oxidation: electron donating half-reaction
Reduction: electron accepting half-reaction
REDOX REACTIONS
half reactions
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GALVANIC CELLS
The half reactions take place in separate locations (half cells).
Galvanic (voltaic) cells: electrochemical cells in which spontaneous redox reactions produce electricity.
72
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GALVANIC CELLS
Anode: the electrode at which oxidation occurs Cathode: the electrode at which reduction occurs
Salt bridge: allows ion transfer between the half cells
73
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Reactivity series of metals
74
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E0 (V)
75
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ELECTRODE POTENTIAL - CELL POTENTIAL
Cell potential: the difference between the potentials of the two electrodes.
Cell potential is always positive.
Standard cell potential: the cell potential measured under standard conditions (a = 1 for solutions, 1 atm
for gases, at 25°C).
76
Electrode potential: the tendency of the ions to take on electrons (reduction potentials.)
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ELECTRODE POTENTIAL - CELL POTENTIAL
77
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E0 (V)
78
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THE STANDARD HYDROGEN ELECTRODE
No method can determine the absolute electrode potentials, because all voltage-measuring devices
determine only difference in potentials between two electrodes.
Relative electrode potentials, measured versus a common reference electrode: the standard hydrogen
electrode
79
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THE NERNST EQUATION
Walther Nernst winner of the 1920 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
determination of potential under non-standard conditions. relationships between potential and
concentrations of the species.
(half reaction)
E: reduction potential at the specific concentrations R: gas constant (8.3143 V C K-1 mol-1) T:
absolute temperature (Kelvin) n: number of electrons involved in the half-reaction F: Faraday constant
(96,487 C mol1) a: activity
80
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THE NERNST EQUATION
For convenience, concentrations are usually used in place of activities:
Example: A solution is 10-3 M in Cr2O72- and 10-2 M in Cr3+. If the pH is 2.0, what is the potential of
the half-reaction at 298K? (E0 = 1.33 V)
At 25 oC:
81
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THE NERNST EQUATION
82
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THE NERNST EQUATION
83
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METAL COMPLEXES
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STRUCTURE
A central metal atom/ion is surrounded by several ligands
Lewis acid
Lewis bases
inner-sphere complex: the ligands are attached directly to a central metal ion outersphere complexes:
occur where cation/anion associate in solution.
Coordination compounds (complexes)
electron-pair donors
electron-pair receptor
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CLASSIFICATION
Ligands having only one point of attachment: monodentate Ligands having more than one point of
attachment: polydentate two points of attachment: bidentate three points of attachment: tridentate four
points of attachment: tetradentate …
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87
CLASSIFICATION
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88
Polydentate ligand Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA)
CLASSIFICATION
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CHELATES
Chelating agents (chelators): compounds capable of binding metal ions to form complex ring-like
structure called ‘chelates’. Chelating agents possess “ligand” binding atoms: O, N, S
Mn+
EDTA
EDTA forms a very stable, cage-like structure around the metal ion
1:1
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3D STRUCTURE
The heme group The central Fe(II) atom is liganded to the four N atoms of the porphyrin ring, to a His
side chain and to O2. The six ligands are arranged at the corners of an octahedron centered on the Fe
ion.
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91
COMPLEX FORMATION EQUILIBRIA
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COMPLEX FORMATION EQUILIBRIA
92
K3 : stability constant (Ks) or formation constant (Kf) of Ag(NH3)2+
K4 : instability constant (Ki) or dissociation constant (Kd) of Ag(NH3)2+
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COMPLEXOMETRIC TITRATIONS
93
Determination of water total hardness
■ Measurement of the amount of calcium and magnesium ions dissolved in water.
Ca2+ + EDTA4- CaEDTA2- Mg2+ + EDTA4- MgEDTA2-
At pH = 10
Water samples Titrant: 0.01 M EDTA solution Ammonia pH 10.0 buffer Indicator: Eriochrome Black T
[Link]
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EDTA solution
Water sample
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Further reading
Fundamental concepts and chemical laws
[Link]
ste)/02%3A_Atoms_Molecules_and_Ions/2.02_Fundamental_Chemical_Laws
The Law of Conservation of Mass
The Law of Constant Composition
The Law of Multiple Proportions
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CHAPTER 2
WATER AND LIFE
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2.1 WATER AND ITS CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Hydrogen bonding gives water its unusual properties Water has a higher melting point and boiling point
than most other common solvents.
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2.1 WATER AND ITS CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
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2.2 WATER AND THE BONDS
Hydrogen bonding gives water its unusual properties
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2.2 WATER AND THE BONDS
Hydrogen bonding gives water its unusual properties Hydrogen bonds are relatively weak. The bond
dissociation energy (the energy required to break a bond) of about 23 kJ/mol, compared with 470
kJ/mol for the covalent O–H bond in water or 348 kJ/mol for a covalent C–C bond.
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2.2 WATER AND THE BONDS
Hydrogen bonding gives water its unusual properties Lifetime of each hydrogen bond is just 1-20 ps.
And when one hydrogen bond breaks, another hydrogen bond forms, with the same partner or a
new one, within 0.1 ps.
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2.2 WATER AND THE BONDS
Hydrogen bonding gives water its unusual properties Extended networks of hydrogen-bonded water
molecules also form bridges between solutes (proteins and nucleic acids, for example). That allow the
larger molecules to interact with each other over distances of several nanometers without physically
touching.
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2.2 WATER AND THE BONDS
Hydrogen bonding gives water its unusual properties Notice that hydrogen bonds are not unique to
water.
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2.2 WATER AND THE BONDS
Water interacts electrostatically with charged solutes Compounds that dissolve easily in water are
hydrophilic (Greek, “water-loving”) In contrast, compounds that easily dissolve in nonpolar solvents but
sparingly/insoluble in water are called hydrophobic such as lipids and waxes.
H2O: 78.5 Benzene: 4.6
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2.2 WATER AND THE BONDS
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2.2 WATER AND THE BONDS
Amphipathic compounds in aqueous solution Amphipathic compounds contain regions that are polar
(or charged) and regions that are nonpolar.
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2.2 WATER AND THE BONDS
Amphipathic compounds in aqueous solution Amphipathic compounds contain regions that are polar
(or charged) and regions that are nonpolar.
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2.2 WATER AND THE BONDS
Amphipathic compounds in aqueous solution Amphipathic compounds contain regions that are polar
(or charged) and regions that are nonpolar.
These stable structures of amphipathic compounds in water called micelles.
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2.2 WATER AND THE BONDS
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Amphipathic compounds in aqueous solution Many biomolecules are amphipathic such as proteins,
lipids, certain vitamins, the sterols and phospholipids of membranes.
2.2 WATER AND THE BONDS
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Weak interactions are crucial to macromolecular structure and function
2.2 WATER AND THE BONDS
--- Slide 17 ---
1.3 OSMOSIS
Osmosis is the phenomenon that water movement across a semipermeable membrane driven by
differences in osmotic pressure. This is an important factor in the life of most cells.
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1.3 OSMOSIS
Isotonic Hypertonic Hypotonic
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Problem How the living system evolve to overcome the osmotic lysis?
1.3 OSMOSIS
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Osmotic pressure is approximated by the Van’t Hoff equation:
In which: R is the gas contrast (8.315 kJ/mol) T is the absolute temperature c is the solute’s molar
concentration i is the Van’t Hoff factor
1.3 OSMOSIS
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Osmotic pressure is approximated by the Van’t Hoff equation:
1.3 OSMOSIS
--- Slide 22 ---
Osmotic pressure is approximated by the Van’t Hoff equation:
Example 1. Suppose the major solutes in intact lysosomes are KCl (~ 0.1 M) and NaCl (~ 0.03 M).
When isolating lysosomes, what concentration of sucrose is required in the extracting solution at
room temperature (25 °C) to prevent swelling and lysis?
1.3 OSMOSIS
--- Slide 23 ---
Osmotic pressure is approximated by the Van’t Hoff equation:
Example 2. Suppose we decided to use a solution of a polysaccharide, say glycogen, to balance the
osmotic strength of the lysosomes. Assuming a linear polymer of 100 glucose units, calculate the
amount of this polymer needed to achieve the same osmotic strength as the sucrose solution in
Example 1. The Mr of the glucose polymer is ~18,000, and, like sucrose, it does not ionize in solution.
1.3 OSMOSIS
--- Slide 24 ---
Challenges
--- Slide 25 ---
PART II: ACIDS AND BASES
--- Slide 26 ---
1.4 ARRHENIUS THEORY: A BRIEF REVIEW
--- Slide 27 ---
1.4 ARRHENIUS THEORY: A BRIEF REVIEW
--- Slide 28 ---
1.5 BRØNSTED LOWRY THEORY OF ACIDS AND BASES
--- Slide 29 ---
According to their theory, an acid is a proton donor and a base is a proton acceptor.
1.5 BRØNSTED LOWRY THEORY OF ACIDS AND BASES
--- Slide 30 ---
1.5 BRØNSTED LOWRY THEORY OF ACIDS AND BASES
--- Slide 31 ---
1.5 BRØNSTED LOWRY THEORY OF ACIDS AND BASES
--- Slide 32 ---
When considering an NH3 molecule as a base, an NH4+ ion is the conjugate acid of NH3. Similarly, in
reaction H2O is an acid and OH- is its conjugate base. NH4+/ NH3 , H2O/ OH- are pairs of acid and
its conjugate base
1.5 BRØNSTED LOWRY THEORY OF ACIDS AND BASES
--- Slide 33 ---
1.5 BRØNSTED LOWRY THEORY OF ACIDS AND BASES
--- Slide 34 ---
1.5 BRØNSTED LOWRY THEORY OF ACIDS AND BASES
--- Slide 35 ---
1.5 BRØNSTED LOWRY THEORY OF ACIDS AND BASES
--- Slide 36 ---
For each of the following, identify the acids and bases in both the forward and reverse reactions in
the manner shown in equation
1.5 BRØNSTED LOWRY THEORY OF ACIDS AND BASES
--- Slide 37 ---
In an acid base reaction, the favored direction of the reaction is from the stronger to the weaker
member of a conjugate acid base pair.
1.5 BRØNSTED LOWRY THEORY OF ACIDS AND BASES
--- Slide 38 ---
1.5 BRØNSTED LOWRY THEORY OF ACIDS AND BASES
--- Slide 39 ---
1.6 SELF-IONIZATION OF WATER AND THE pH SCALE
--- Slide 40 ---
1.6 SELF-IONIZATION OF WATER AND THE pH SCALE
--- Slide 41 ---
1.6 SELF-IONIZATION OF WATER AND THE pH SCALE
--- Slide 42 ---
1.6 SELF-IONIZATION OF WATER AND THE pH SCALE
--- Slide 43 ---
1.6 SELF-IONIZATION OF WATER AND THE pH SCALE
--- Slide 44 ---
Problems: What is the pH of a solution that is 0.0025 M CH3NH2(aq)? For methylamine, Kb = 4.2
x 10-4.
1.6 SELF-IONIZATION OF WATER AND THE pH SCALE
--- Slide 45 ---
Problems: What is the pH of a solution that is 0.0025 M CH3NH2(aq)? For methylamine, Kb = 4.2
x 10-4.
1.7 SELF-IONIZATION OF WATER AND THE pH SCALE
--- Slide 46 ---
1.8 BUFFERING AGAINST pH CHANGES IN BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
Almost every biological process is pH-dependent; a small change in pH produces a large change in
the rate of the process. Constancy of pH is achieved primarily by biological buffers: mixtures of weak
acids and their conjugate bases.
--- Slide 47 ---
buffers: mixtures of weak acids and their conjugate bases.
1.8 BUFFERING AGAINST pH CHANGES IN BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
--- Slide 48 ---
Henderson-Hasselbalch equation between pH, pKa, and concentration
1.8 BUFFERING AGAINST pH CHANGES IN BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
--- Slide 49 ---
Henderson-Hasselbalch equation between pH, pKa, and concentration
1.8 BUFFERING AGAINST pH CHANGES IN BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
Henderson-Hasselbalch equation:
--- Slide 50 ---
1.8 BUFFERING AGAINST pH CHANGES IN BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
Examples: What is the pH of a mixture of 0.042 M NaH2PO4 and 0.058 M Na2HPO4? If 1.0 mL of 10.0
M NaOH is added to a liter of the buffer prepared in (a), how much will the pH change? If 1.0 mL of 10.0
M NaOH is added to a liter of pure water at pH 7.0, what is the final pH? Compare this with the answer
in (b).
--- Slide 51 ---
Weak Acids or Bases Buffer Cells and Tissues against pH Changes Blood plasma is buffered in part by
the bicarbonate system, consisting of carbonic acid and bicarbonate.
1.8 BUFFERING AGAINST pH CHANGES IN BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
--- Slide 52 ---
Weak Acids or Bases Buffer Cells and Tissues against pH Changes Blood plasma is buffered in part by
the bicarbonate system, consisting of carbonic acid and bicarbonate.
1.8 BUFFERING AGAINST pH CHANGES IN BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
