BGYCL – 134

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY,
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Sciences
MINERALOGY AND
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY:
LABORATORY
 BGYCL - 134
Indira Gandhi National Open University CRYSTALLOGRAPHY,
School of Sciences
MINERALOGY AND
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY:
LABORATORY

EXPERIMENT 1
Study of Symmetry Elements of Normal Class of Isometric and Tetragonal Systems 9
EXPERIMENT 2
Study of Symmetry Elements of Normal Class of Orthorhombic and
Monoclinic Systems 29
EXPERIMENT 3
Study of Symmetry Elements of Normal Class of Hexagonal, Trigonal and
Triclinic Systems 41
EXPERIMENT 4
Study of Physical Properties of Minerals - I 57
EXPERIMENT 5
Study of Physical Properties of Minerals - II 79
EXPERIMENT 6
Use of Polarising Microscope 93
EXPERIMENT 7
Study of Optical Properties of Minerals - I 111
EXPERIMENT 8
Study of Optical Properties of Minerals - I 125
EXPERIMENT 9
Megascopic Study of Economic Minerals 137
EXPERIMENT 10
Preparation of Maps Showing Important Metallic and Non-Metallic Deposits 155
EXPERIMENT 11
Preparation of Maps Showing Important Coal and Oilfields in India 167

1
Course Design Committee
Prof. Vijayshri Prof. K. R. Hari
Former Director Prof. M. A. Malik School of Studies in Geology &
School of Sciences Department of Geology Water Resources Management
IGNOU, New Delhi University of Jammu Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University
Prof. V. K. Verma (Retd.) Jammu, J & K Raipur, Chhattisgarh
Department of Geology Prof. D. C. Srivastava Prof. S.J. Sangode
University of Delhi, Department of Earth Science Department of Geology
Delhi Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Savitribai Phule Pune University
Prof. Pramendra Dev (Retd.) Roorkee, Uttarkhand Pune, Maharashtra
School of Studies in Earth Sciences Prof. L. S. Chamyal Dr. K. Anbarasu
Vikram University Department of Geology Department of Geology
Ujjain, MP M.S.University of Baroda National College
Prof. P. Madhusudhana Reddy (Retd.) Vadodara, Gujarat Tiruchirapalli, Tamilnadu
Department of Geology Prof. H. B. Srivastava Faculty of Geology Discipline
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University School
Centre of Advanced Study in Geology Banaras of Sciences,
Hindu University IGNOU
Hyderabad Varanasi, UP
Dr. Meenal Mishra
Late Prof. G. Vallinayagam Prof. Arun Kumar
Dr. Benidhar Deshmukh
Department of Geology Department of Earth Sciences
Kurukshetra University Manipur University Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
Kurukshetra, Haryana Imphal, Manipur Dr. M. Prashanth
Prof. J. P. Shrivastava Prof. (Mrs.) Madhumita Das Dr. Omkar Verma
Centre of Advanced Study in Geology Department of Geology
University of Delhi, Delhi Utkal University
Bhubaneshwar, Odisha
Course Preparation Team
Course Contributors
Dr. Nishi Rani (Experiment 9) Dr. Meenal Mishra (Experiments 1 to 5, 7 and 8)
Centre of Advanced Study in Geology Dr. Kakoli Gogoi (Experiment 11)
Delhi University, Delhi Dr. Omkar Verma (Experiments 6, 9 and 10)

Content and Language Editor

Prof. J. P. Shrivastava
Centre of Advanced Study in Geology
University of Delhi, Delhi
Transformation: Dr. Benidhar Deshmukh (Units 1 to 5)
Dr. Meenal Mishra (Units 6 to 11)
Course Coordinators: Dr. Meenal Mishra and Dr. Benidhar Deshmukh
Audio Visual Materials
Dr. Amitosh Dubey Dr. Meenal Mishra and Dr. Benidhar Deshmukh
Producer, EMPC, IGNOU Content Coordinators
Production
Mr. Rajiv Girdhar Mr. Sunil Kumar Mr. Hemant Kumar
A.R. (P), MPDD, IGNOU A.R. (P), SOS, IGNOU S.O. (P), MPDD, IGNOU
Acknowledgement: Ms. Savita Sharma for assistance in preparation of CRC and some of the figures.
December, 2019
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2019
ISBN:
Disclaimer: Any material adapted from web-based resources or any other sources in this block are being used only for
educational purposes only and not for commercial purposes and their copyrights rest with the original authors.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without
permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the University’s office
at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or the official website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in.
Printed and published on behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by the Registrar, MPDD, IGNOU.
Printed by : Hi-Tech Graphics, D-4/3, Okhla Industrial Area, Phase-II, New Delhi-110068.

2
 List of audio / video materials related to this course

1. Geology at IGNOU -1

Link: http://egyankosh.ac.in/youtubevideo.jsp?src=YRFrgUyDWXw&title
=Geology%20at%20IGNOU%20-1

2. Minerals and Their Uses

Link: http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/53487

3. Microscopic Study of Basaltic Rocks

Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2RGL3XB2x3E&t=2s

4. Introduction to Ore Deposits

Link: http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/53454

5. Classifications of Ore Deposits

Link: http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/53455

6. Early Magmatic Deposits

Link: http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/53456

7. Late Magmatic Deposits

Link: http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/53457

8. Contact Metasomatic and Contact Metamorphic Deposits

Link: http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/53458

9. Hydrothermal Mineralisation
Link: http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/53461

Development of audio/video programmes is a continuous process. For recent materials

pertaining to the course you may visit Youtube page of the School of Sciences,
IGNOU.

Alternatively, you can visit eGyankosh website at

http://egyankosh.ac.in/handle/123456789/36575

3
 IMPORTANT INSTRUCTIONS
• Attendance is compulsory in the Laboratory Course
work held generally at the Study Centre.
• The Laboratory Course worth 2 credits is to be
completed over 7 days duration:
 6 days of Guided Laboratory work
 1 day for the Unguided Laboratory work
• To successfully complete the laboratory course you will
have to pass (at least 35% marks) in the Guided and
Unguided components separately.
 CRYSTALLOGRAPHY, MINERALOGY AND
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY: LABORATORY
The course titled ‘Crystallography, Mineralogy and Economic Geology: Laboratory’ (BGYCL-134)
is a laboratory oriented course integrated to the theoretical aspects dealt in the ‘Crystallography,
Mineralogy and Economic Geology’ (BGYCT-133) of the B.Sc. (General) Programme with Geology
as one subject. The experiments in this course include activities that can be done in Geology
laboratories. All the experiments have one or more activities that need to be written in your practical
notebook and reported to the academic counsellor after completion. The experiments in this course
would require your hands on involvement in Geology laboratory. The course worth 2 credits comprises
11 Experiments. After performing these experiments, you will gain practical skills for observing,
recording and solving various aspects related to crystallography, mineralogy and economic geology.
The first three experiments are based on Block 1 of BGYCT-133 course and are related to the study of
symmetry elements of normal class of the seven crystal systems. Experiment 1 deals with the study of
symmetry elements of Normal Class of Isometric and Tetragonal Systems, Experiment 2 with the
Hexagonal, Trigonal and Triclinic Systems and Experiment 3 with the study of Orthorhombic and
Monoclinic Systems.
Next two experiments are based on Block 2 of BGYCT-133 course and deals with the activities such
as identification of physical properties of common rock-forming minerals. In Experiment 4, you will
learn to recognise physical properties of common rock-forming minerals such as olivine, garnet, augite,
hypersthene, hornblende, muscovite, biotite and kyanite minerals and in Experiment 5, that of the
quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase, microcline, nepheline, chlorite, epidote and calcite minerals.
Next three experiments are based on Block 3 of BGYCT-133 course and deals with the activities such
as identification of optical properties of common rock-forming minerals. In Experiment 6, you will get
familiar with parts and function of polarising microscope. In Experiment 7, you will learn to recognise
optical properties of common rock-forming minerals such as quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase, and
microcline minerals, and in Experiment 8, that of the muscovite, biotite, garnet, calcite minerals.
Experiments 9 to 11 are based on Block 4 of BGYCT-133 course and are related to economic
geology. Experiment 9 deals with the identification of economic minerals in hand specimen. In
Experiment 10, you will learn to prepare maps showing distribution of important metallic and non-
metallic deposits, and in Experiment 11, you will learn to prepare maps showing important coal and
oilfields in India.

Expected Learning Skills

After performing the Experiments of this course, you should be able to:
 study symmetry elements of normal classes of Isometric, Tetragonal, Hexagonal, Trigonal,
Triclinic, Orthorhombic and Monoclinic crystal systems;
 identify various physical properties of minerals of common rock-forming mineral groups;
 use polarising microscope and identify various optical properties of minerals of common rock-
forming mineral groups;
 identify different ore and economic minerals in hand specimen;
 prepare maps showing distribution of important metallic and non-metallic deposits; and
 prepare maps showing important coal and oil fields of India.

5
Guidelines for Performing the Experiments

While performing the experiments you must have the relevant blocks of the theory course with
you for reference along with this laboratory manual. In many of the experiments, you will find
references to the material given at the end.

The eleven experiments are to be completed in six days or twelve laboratory sessions. Two sessions
will be held each day. You will perform the experiments under the guidance of your counsellor. These
experiments are called Guided experiments. The seventh day is for the Term End Examination in
which the assigned experiment will not be guided by the counsellor. The experiment assigned for this
purpose is called Unguided experiment. Details of the day, session and type of experiment for
conduct of all the experiments are given in the table on next page.

Laboratory File / Practical Notebook

Maintaining a complete and up-to-date record of laboratory work is an important part of scientific
training. You need to prepare and bring a laboratory file/practical notebook for writing and reporting the
experiments you have performed in each practical session. You may use a 100 page practical
notebook for this purpose.

Instruction: Redraw the schematics/ diagrams/ block models/ tables given

under the section Laboratory Exercises and their answers in your
laboratory file/ practical notebook and submit the same to the academic
counsellor for evaluation.

You are advised to prepare in advance for recording the laboratory exercise prior to coming to
laboratory/ classroom/field. For each experiment, you should write down title of the experiment, date
and time of the experiment, etc. along with the results obtained and your observations.
You need to submit your practical notebook and other required items, if any, to counsellor for
evaluation. Marks will be allocated based on the successful completion of the experiments and
recording the results and observations in your notebook in an appropriate manner.
Feedback form is given at the end of the course. Fill it up and send it back to us so that we
know what you think about it to help us improve the course.
We hope that after studying and performing the experiments of this course you will acquire basic
practical skills to observe, record and solve various problems related to crystallography, mineralogy
and economic geology.

The skills you would attain through this course would help you to learn basics of petrology and identify
different types of rocks.
Wishing you success in this endeavour!!
 Table: Day, Session and Type for Experiments of BGYCL-134

Session Type of
Title(s) Day
no.(s) Experiment
INOTRODUCTION
GUIDED EXPERIMENT
1 I & II
Study of Symmetry Elements of Normal Laboratory or
Experiment 1
Class of Isometric and Tetragonal Systems Classroom
Study of Symmetry Elements of Normal
Class of Orthorhombic and Monoclinic Laboratory or
Experiment 2 III
Classroom
Systems
2
Study of Symmetry Elements of Normal
Class of Hexagonal, Trigonal and Triclinic Laboratory or
Experiment 3 IV
Classroom
Systems
Laboratory or
Experiment 4 Study of Physical Properties of Minerals - I V
Classroom
3
Laboratory or
Experiment 5 Study of Physical Properties of Minerals - II VI
Classroom

Laboratory or
Experiment 6 Use of Polarising Microscope VII
Classroom
4
Laboratory or
Experiment 7 Study of Optical Properties of Minerals - I VIII
Classroom
Laboratory or
Experiment 8 Study of Optical Properties of Minerals - II IX
Classroom
5
Laboratory or
Experiment 9 Megascopic Study of Economic Minerals X
Classroom

Preparation of Maps Showing Important Laboratory or

Experiment 10 XI
Metallic and Non-Metallic Deposits Classroom
6
Preparation of Maps Showing Important Coal Laboratory or
Experiment 11 XII
and Oilfields in India Classroom

Term End
ASSIGNED UNGUIDED EXPERIMENT 7 XIII
Examination

7
 EXPERIMENT 1

STUDY OF SYMMETRY ELEMENTS OF

NORMAL CLASS OF ISOMETRIC AND
TETRAGONAL SYSTEMS
Structure___________________________________________________

1.1. Introduction 1.5. Symmetry Elements of Tetragonal System

Expected Learning Skills Planes of Symmetry
1.2. Requirements Axis of Symmetry
1.3. Basic Concepts Centre of Symmetry

Crystal Systems 1.6. Laboratory Exercises

Symmetry Elements 1.7. References
1.4. Symmetry Elements of Isometric 1.8. Learning Resources
System
Planes of Symmetry
Axis of Symmetry
Centre of Symmetry

1.1 INTRODUCTION

We have discussed the basic concepts of crystallography which includes: symmetry elements and
crystal systems in Block 1 Crystallography of the BGYCT-133 course. We have also learnt that the
crystals have been classified into seven crystal systems on the basis of crystallographic axis, axial
ratios, axial angles, and symmetry elements. Further, these seven systems have been subdivided
into 32 classes. The normal class of a crystal system exhibits the highest degree of symmetry or
symmetry elements. The normal class is also known as holosymmetric or holohedral in all the
crystal systems. Now, in this and the next 2 experiments, you will be able to recognise the crystals
of the normal class belonging to seven crystallographic systems. Amongst the 7 crystal systems,
BGYCL-134 Crystallography, Mineralogy and Economic Geology:Laboratory
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the cubic or isometric system shows the highest degree of symmetry, whereas, the triclinic
represents lowest degree of symmetry is exhibited.

Expected Learning Skills___________________________

After performing this experiment, you should be able to:
 identify planes, axes and centre of symmetry of a normal class of
cubic/isometric system; and
 recognise planes, axes and centre of symmetry of a normal class of
tetragonal system.

1.2 REQUIREMENTS
To perform this experiment successfully you would require the following:
 wooden /plastic models of normal classes of cubic/isometric and
tetragonal systems,
 piece of white chalk, and
 a laboratory file
Wooden/ plastic models of normal classesof crystals of cubic/ isometric and
tetragonal systems will be available at the study centre.
Note: Do not use pen/pencil/marker pen to mark the planes of symmetry
on wooden models. You may use only white chalk so that the models are
not spoiled.
Instructions: Before you perform this experiment, you are required to
study Units 1, 2 and 3 of course BGYCT-133 (Crystallography, Mineralogy
and Economic Geology). Bring this practical manual along with the Block
1 of course BGYCT-133, while attending the Practical Counselling
session.

1.3 BASIC CONCEPTS

You have read in Block 1 of this course that the crystals have been divided into
seven crystal systems on the basis of:
 number of crystallographic axes;
 relative length or axial ratios of crystallographic axes,
 linear and angular relationships of crystallographic axes; and
 elements of symmetry, i.e. plane, axis and centre.

1.3.1 Crystal Systems

Let us recall seven crystal systems. In this experiment, you will learn to
recognise crystal symmetry of a normal class of cubic/isometric and tetragonal
systems. The seven crystal systems are:
 Cubic or Isometric system: The crystals belonging to this system have
three equal and mutually perpendicular axes which have been designated
as a1, a2 and a3 of equal length (Fig. 1.1a). Crystals possess four triad axes
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 Study of Symmetry Elements of Normal Class
Experiment 1 of Isometric and Tetragonal Systems
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
of symmetry (4iii). The examples of minerals belonging to this system are
galena, octahedron, fluorite, rock salt and garnet.
 Tetragonal system: Crystals of tetragonal system have three mutually
perpendicular axes, two horizontal axes of equal length and one vertical
axis, which can be either longer or shorter (Fig. 1.1b). The axes are
designated as a1, a2 and c. Tetragonal system possess one tetrad axis of
four fold (1iv) symmetry. Zircon, rutile, scapolite, anatase and vesuvianite
are a few common minerals that crystallise in the tetragonal system.
 The crystals of orthorhombic system have all the three unequal and
mutually perpendicular axes which are designated as a, b and c (Fig. 1.1c).
Baryte, sulphur and olivine are a few common minerals that crystallise in
the tetragonal system.
 Monoclinic system has crystals with three unequal axes; one is at right
angles to the other two. Whereas, the other two axes are not at right angles
to each other (Fig. 1.1d). The axis is designated as a, b and c with a- and c-
axes inclined to each other and b axis at right angles to the plane containing
a- and c- axes. For example, gypsum, orthoclase, augite, hornblende and
muscovite are a few common minerals that crystallise in the monoclinic
system.
 Crystals belonging to hexagonal system have four axes; out of these three
lie in a horizontal plane and intersect at 60o and 120o angles and are of
equal length. Fourth axis is perpendicular to the plane containing the other
three axes and is either longer or shorter than the other three axes. These
four axes are designated as a1, a2, a3 and c (Fig. 1.1e). Beryl and kalsilite
are typical minerals crystallise in this system.
 Trigonal system also has crystals with four axes. They are designated as
a1, a2, a3 and c, quite similar to hexagonal system. Three of these axes lie in
a horizontal plane. They intersect at 60o and 120o angles and are equal in
length; fourth axis is perpendicular to the plane containing other three axes.
It (fourth axis) is either longer or shorter than the other three axes (Fig.
1.1f). Examples of the common minerals belonging to this system are
calcite and hematite.
 The crystals belonging triclinic system have three unequal axes. However,
none of these the axes are at right angles to each other. The axes are
designated as a, b, and c (Fig. 1.1g). The angle between the positive ends
of b and c axis is called α (alpha); angle between positive ends of c and a-
axis is designated as β (beta) and angle between positive ends of c- and b-
axis is called γ (gamma). The examples of minerals belonging to this
system are axinite, plagioclase, kyanite and albite.

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BGYCL-134 Crystallography, Mineralogy and Economic Geology:Laboratory
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Fig. 1.1: Crystallographic axes showing different linear and angular relationships
in the seven crystal systems: a) Isometric/cubic; b) Tetragonal; c)
Orthorhombic; d) Monoclinic; e) Hexagonal; f) Trigonal; and g) Triclinic.

Characteristics of the seven crystal systems are summarised in Table 1.1.

In this and the next two experiments, you will identify planes, axes and centre of
symmetry of a normal class of the above discussed seven crystal systems.

1.3.2 Symmetry Elements

We have read about the three elements of the symmetry, i.e. plane of
symmetry, axis of symmetry and centre of symmetry in Unit 2 Crystal
Symmetry of BGYCT-133 course. Before performing this practical exercise, let
us recall basic concepts of the three elements of symmetry.
You have read in Unit 2 of BGYCT-133 course that the geometric locus about
which a group of repeating operations occurs are known as symmetry
12
 Study of Symmetry Elements of Normal Class
Experiment 1 of Isometric and Tetragonal Systems
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
elements. Crystals belonging to different crystal systems exhibit different
symmetry elements. We can differentiate one crystal from the other with the
help of symmetry elements. The symmetry of the crystals can be explained with
the help of following three elements:
 Plane of Symmetry
 Axis of Symmetry
 Centre of Symmetry
Let us now recognise three elements of symmetry.

Table 1.1 Seven crystal systems and their characteristics.

Crystal systems Crystallographic

Plane of Axes of Centre of
and Normal Examples Axes and their
symmetry Symmetry symmetry
classes designations

CUBIC
Three equal and
SYSTEM Galena, Planes -9 Axes-13
mutually perpendicular iv iii ii
Normal class Garnet, fluorite (3 axial (3 , 4 ,6 ) Present
axes
or and halite 6 diagonal)
[a1, a2 and a3]
Galena Type

Two equal
TETRAGONAL Zircon, sulphur,
horizontal, third vertical
SYSTEM cassiterite, Planes- 5
shorter or larger. All at Axes -5
Normal Class vesuvianite, (3 axial, ii iv Present
right angles. (4 , 1 )
or anastase and 2 diagonal)
3 axes at right angles
Zircon Type rutile
[ a1, a2 and c]

ORTHO-
Baryte, Three unequal
RHOMBIC
sulphur, axes mutually ii
SYSTEM Axes 3
olivine, perpendicular. Planes-3 axial Present
Normal Class
sillimanite and All unequal.
or
aragonite [a, b and c]
Baryte Type

Gypsum,
MONOCLINIC orthoclase,
Three unequal axes.
SYSTEM hornblende, Plane1 II
b is at right angles to c. Axes 1 (the
Normal Class augite, (containing a Present
a is inclined. b axis)
or hornblende, and c axes)
[a, b and c]
Gypsum Type malachite and
mica

HEXAGONAL 4 Axes. Planes-7

Beryl,
SYSTEM 3 horizontal, (4 axial Axes 7
kalsilite, 0 ii vi
Normal Class a1:a2:a3 at 120 1 horizontal (6 ,1 ) Present
pyrrhotite, 0
or fourth vertical at 90 . 3 diagonal 3
apatite
Beryl Type [a1, a2, a3 and c] vertical)

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BGYCL-134 Crystallography, Mineralogy and Economic Geology:Laboratory
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TRIGONAL Calcite,
4 Axes, 3 equal
SYSTEM quartz, 0 Planes-3 Axes-4
horizontal at 120 iii ii
Normal Class rhodochrosite, 0 (vertical (1 ,3 ) Present
fourth vertical at 90 .
or corundum, diagonal)
[a1, a2, a3 and c]
Calcite Type dolomite

TRICLINIC Axinite,
3 unequal axes,
SYSTEM plagioclase
a, b, c not at right
Normal Class feldspar, Plane – None Axes - None Present
angles.
or kyanite,
[a1, a2, a3 and c]
Axinite Type microcline

Plane of Symmetry is the plane which divides the crystal into two similar
halves or similarly placed halves such that one half is the mirror image of the
other half (Fig. 1.2). If the repetition is with respect to plane, it is said to have a
plane of symmetry.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.2: Mirror plane and mirror images, indicating plane of symmetry in: a)
hexagon; b) square; and c) triangle.

We have discussed basic concepts about how to recognise the plane of

symmetry in a crystal. Now let us get familiar with the identification of axis of
symmetry.
If a crystal on being rotated occupies the same position more than once in one
complete rotation through 360°(n#1) and the axis along which rotation is being
given is known as axis of symmetry. The axis of symmetry is the act of
rotation about an axis. There are four kinds of axis of symmetry:
 Diad axis of two-fold (times) symmetry where n=2; i.e. same view
occupies the same position once in every 180° on rotation axis. Thus, in
one complete rotation through 360° the same position occurs twice.
 Triad axis of three-fold (times) symmetry where n=3; i.e. same view
occupies the same position once in every 120° on rotation axis. Thus, in
one complete rotation through 360° the same position occurs thrice.
 Tetrad axis of four-fold (times) symmetry where n=4; i.e. same view
occupies the same position once in every 90° on rotation axis. Thus, in
one complete rotation through 360° the same position occurs four times.

14
 Study of Symmetry Elements of Normal Class
Experiment 1 of Isometric and Tetragonal Systems
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 Hexad axis of six-fold (times) symmetry where n=6; i.e. same view
occupies the same position once in every 60° on rotation axis. Thus, in
one complete rotation through 360° the same position occurs six times.
Five-fold axis of symmetry does not exist in nature.
Centre of symmetry is the symmetry with respect to a point. The centre of
symmetry is the act of inversion about a central point. A crystal is said to have a
centre of symmetry when like faces and edges are arranged in corresponding
positions on opposite sides of a central point. If through this central point a line
is drawn, the points of similar character are equidistantly present on the both
sides of this point as shown in Fig. 1.3. When similar faces occur in parallel
pairs, on opposite sides of a crystal then the crystal is said to possess a centre
of symmetry. All faces of crystal must occur in parallel pairs for a crystal to
possess a centre.

Fig. 1.3: Centre of symmetry of a zircon, where a line a-b passes through the
centre of the crystal, ‘O’. Points a and b are equidistant from O.

However, in Fig. 1.4a, you can see that a corner of a cube has been cut. You
will find that there is no corresponding face opposite and parallel to a triangular
face a. This shows that centre of symmetry is absent. Similarly, centre of
symmetry is absent in tetrahedron (Fig. 1.4b).

(a) (b)
Fig. 1.4: Schematic diagram showing absence of centre of symmetry in: a) cube;
and b) tetrahedron.

1.4 SYMMETRY ELEMENTS OF ISOMETRIC

SYSTEM
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BGYCL-134 Crystallography, Mineralogy and Economic Geology:Laboratory
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You have read in the above section that the crystals belonging to isometric
system exhibit the maximum number of symmetry elements. The normal class
of isometric system is known as galena type. As the name suggests, galena
mineral is a common mineral which also belong to of this type. In this
experiment, you will learn to identify the symmetry elements of galena. Fig. 1.5
shows the holding position of galena crystal. Hold the crystal along the c, i.e. a3
- axis with index finger on the top and thumb at the bottom. We have taken a
photograph of the transparent plastic model in which the three axes have been
shown by threads (Fig. 1.5). However, you will get wooden crystal model to
perform this experiment available at your study centre.

Fig. 1.5: Photograph of a plastic model showing holding position of galena

crystal.

We can see that there are three crystallographic axes designated by letter ‘a’
which are mutually perpendicular to each other and also interchangeable.
Therefore, they are renamed as a1, a2, and a3 because they are of same length
(a axis becomes a1, b axis becomes a2, and c axis becomes a3). All are equal
and are at right angles to each other. a1 -axis runs front to back; a2 -axis runs
right to left; a3 -axis runs top to bottom.
Now we will learn to identify the planes, axis and centre of symmetry by
examining the crystal model given in Fig. 1.5.

1.4.1 Planes of Symmetry

Let us hold the crystal along a3/c axis, i.e. in its holding position as shown in
Fig. 1.5. Try to identify those mirror planes along which the crystal can be
divided into two equal halves. You will observe that the following planes are
those mirror planes along which galena crystal can be divided into two equal
halves. You can use white chalk to mark the planes of symmetry on wooden
model. There are three axial planes of symmetry which are as follows:
 Along a1/a axis
 Along a2/b axis
 Along a3/c axis
Figures 1.6 and Fig. 1.7 will help you in recognising the above-mentioned axial
planes with the help of wooden models.

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 Study of Symmetry Elements of Normal Class
Experiment 1 of Isometric and Tetragonal Systems
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

(a) (b)
Fig. 1.6: Three axial planes of symmetry: a) Along a1 or a axis; and b) Along a3 or
c axis. The axial plane along a2 or b axis is not visible, which you can see
in Fig. 1.7.

Fig. 1.7: Wooden block model showing 3 axial planes of symmetry.

Now, let us try to identify six diagonal planes of symmetry. Study these six
diagonal planes with the help of a crystal model provided to you. Figs. 1.8 and
1.9 will help you in identifying these six diagonal planes. Observe carefully that
the planes marked by the dashed lines in Fig. 1.8 are the mirror planes along
which crystal can be divided into two equal halves. You can see in these figures
that 2 set of diagonal planes of symmetry are present on 3 faces. Thus, there
are 6 set of diagonal planes of symmetry present in normal class of isometric
system.

(b)
Fig. 1.8: Diagonal planes of symmetry in galena are marked with dashed lines.
Note carefully (2+2+2) six diagonal planes of symmetry.

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Fig. 1.9: Dissected planes of symmetry in the galena showing 9 planes of

symmetry (3 planes are axial which follow crystallographic axis and 6
planes (2+2+2) are diagonal).

Thus normal class of isometric system, e.g. galena has nine planes of
symmetry, of which 3 are axial and 6 are diagonal planes. We can identify
them as indicated on the faces of the cube and shown in Figs. 1.6, 1.7, 1.8 and
1.9.
These planes can be denoted as:
 9 planes of symmetry 3 -axial planes
6 -diagonal planes.

1.4.2 Axis of Symmetry

You have read in Unit 2 Crystal Systems of BGYCT-133 course that normal
class of isometric system has 13 axis of symmetry, out of which 3 axis are of
four-fold (tetrad) symmetry, 4 axis of three-fold (triad) and 6 axis of two-fold
(diad) axis of symmetry.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig: 1.10: Thirteen axis of symmetry in a cube: a) Four-fold, (b) Three-fold, and (c)
Two- fold.

You have read that axis of symmetry is a line about which the crystal may be
rotated to show the same view of the crystal more than once per revolution.
Follow these steps to get 13 axes of symmetry:

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 Study of Symmetry Elements of Normal Class
Experiment 1 of Isometric and Tetragonal Systems
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
 To get an axis of four-fold tetrad symmetry, you can hold the crystal
along the three axes (as in Fig.1.10a).
 To get four axis of three-fold triad symmetry, you can hold the crystal
along any eight such solid angles (as in Fig. 1.10b) so that you get four
axis of symmetry.
 A galena crystal has 12 edges, so there are 6 holding positions along the
edges (as shown in Fig.1.10c). These are six axes of two-fold or diad
symmetry.
Please study Fig. 1.11 carefully and demarcate triad, tetrad and diad axis. Diad
axis is marked by the oval sign, Triad axis is denoted by triangle and tetrad axis
is marked by square symbol.

Fig: 1.11: Thirteen axis of symmetry. Triad axes denoted by triangle and tetrad
axes are marked by square symbol.

First of all, let us find out 3 axes of four-fold symmetry or tetrad axis with the
help of a wooden crystal of galena (Fig. 1.12).
Step 1: Hold the crystal along a1 or c axis and rotate the crystal by 360o, you
will observe that the pinacoid face is repeated 4 times.
Step 2: Repeat the same exercise, hold the crystal along a2 or b axis and rotate
at an angle of 360o; you will observe that the pinacoid face is repeated 4 times.
Step 3: Hold the crystal along a3 or a axis and rotate it at 360o angle. Again,
you will observe that the pinacoid face is repeated 4 times.

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(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.12: Tetrad axis: a) Holding position from top to bottom; b) Left to right; and
c) Front to back.

Now, let us study about 4 axes of three-fold symmetry or triad axis. Study
carefully Fig. 1.13a; note the 8 solid angles a, b, c, d, e, f, g and h shown in it.
Let us follow the steps listed here to find out 4 axes of three-fold symmetry:
Step 1: Hold the crystal along opposite and diagonal solid angles b and g as
shown in Fig. 1.13a. Rotate the crystal by 360o angle and observe that the
pinacoid face is repeated three times. This is one axis out of the 4 axes of
three-fold symmetry.
Step 2: Now, hold the crystal along opposite and diagonal solid angles e and d
as shown in Fig. 1.13b. On rotating the crystal by 360o angle, you will observe
that the pinacoid face is repeated three times in the same position. This is
second axis out of 4 axes of three-fold symmetry.
Step 3: Repeat the same exercise but now hold the crystal along opposite and
diagonal solid angles c and h as shown in Fig. 1.13c and rotate the crystal at
360o angle. You will observe that the pinacoid face is repeated three times in
the same position. This is third axis out of the 4 axes of three-fold symmetry.
Step 4: Now hold the crystal along opposite and diagonal solid angles f and a
as shown in Fig. 1.13d. Rotate the crystal by 360o angle and observe that the
pinacoid face is repeated in the space thrice. This is fourth axis of three-fold
symmetry.
What do you observe?
We observe that in each step mentioned above, on holding the galena crystal
along opposite and diagonal solid angles and further on rotating it by 360o
angle, the same face is repeated three times. This is known as 4 axes of three-
fold symmetry.

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 Study of Symmetry Elements of Normal Class
Experiment 1 of Isometric and Tetragonal Systems
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Fig. 1.13: Four axes of triad symmetry: a) Holding position along solid angle b
and g; b) Holding position along solid angle e and d; c) Holding position along
solid angle c and h; and d) Holding position along solid angle f and a.

We have already identified 6 –axes of diad symmetry with the help of Figs.
1.10c and 1.11. Now, let us decipher 6 axes of two-fold symmetry of a galena
crystal through the Fig. 1.14. Galena has 12 edges (a-b; b-c; c-d; d-a; e-f; f-g; g-
h; h-e; a-e; b-f; c-g; d-h), thus there are 6 axes with the opposite edges (b-f and
d-h; a-e and c-g; e-h and b-c; a-d and f-g; e-f and d-c; a-b and g-h). If you hold
along opposite corners you will find that the face is repeated twice on rotation of
360o. This exercise will be repeated 6 times, since there are six pairs of
opposite corners. Hope that you have understood how to identify 6 axes of 2-
fold symmetry. If not, then perform the following steps:
Step 1: Hold the crystal along b-f and d-h corners and rotate it by 360o angle.
You will find that the pinacoid face is repeated twice. This is the first axis of two-
fold symmetry.
Step 2: Hold the crystal along a-e and c-g edges. On rotating it by 360o angle,
the same face is repeated twice. This is the second axis of two-fold symmetry.
Step 3: Repeat the same exercise. Hold the crystal along e-h and b-c edges
and rotate it by 360o angle; the pinacoid face is repeated twice. This is the third
axis of two-fold symmetry.

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Step 4: Now, hold the crystal along a-d and f-g edges and rotate it by 360o
angle. You will find that the pinacoid face is repeated twice. This is the fourth
axis of two-fold symmetry.
Step 5: In this step hold the crystal along e-f and d-c corners and rotate it by
360o angle. You will find that pinacoid face is repeated twice. This is the fifth
axis of two-fold symmetry.
Step 6: Now, hold the crystal along a-b and g-h edges and rotate it by 360o
angle. You will find that the pinacoid face is repeated twice. This is the sixth
axis of two-fold symmetry.
Hope you have learnt to perfectly recognise the six axes of two-fold symmetry.

Fig. 1.14: Six diad axis.

Axes of symmetry in a cubic system can be written as:

 13 Axes of symmetry 3Aiv ( three axes of six-fold symmetry)

4Aiii four axes of three-fold symmetry)
6Aii (six axes of two-fold symmetry)
1.4.3 Centre of Symmetry
You know that the centre of symmetry is a point inside the crystal such that
when a line passes through it, you will have similar parts of the crystal on either
side at the same distances. Study carefully the Fig. 1.15, the galena crystal has
six faces and similar face is present on either side at the same distances. Thus,
it posses centre of symmetry.

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 Study of Symmetry Elements of Normal Class
Experiment 1 of Isometric and Tetragonal Systems
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Fig. 1.15: Centre of symmetry in galena.

1.5 SYMMETRY ELEMENTS OF TETRAGONAL

SYSTEM
We have worked out the symmetry elements present in the normal class of
isometric/cubic system. Now, let us familiarise ourselves with the elements of
symmetry in the normal class of a tetragonal system. You have read about
tetragonal system in Unit 3 of BGYCT-133 course. Refer to Table 1.1 and Fig.
1.1b to recall the crystallographic axes and axial angles of tetragonal system.
The normal class of tetragonal system is known as zircon type. As the name
suggests zircon mineral is common mineral of this type.

1.5.1 Planes of Symmetry

Let us hold the wooden zircon crystal along c axis, i.e. in its holding position as
shown in Fig. 1.16. Now we will find out the fives planes of symmetry. Zircon
possesses five mirror planes or planes of symmetry. Try to identify those mirror
planes along which the crystal can be divided into two equal halves. You will
observe that the following planes are those mirror planes along which zircon
crystal can be divided (cut) into two equal halves. You can use white chalk to
mark the planes of symmetry on wooden model. There are three axial planes
of symmetry, as follows:
 Along c-axis
 Along a2 or b-axis
 Along a1 or a-axis

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Fig. 1.16: Holding position of zircon crystal.

Figs. 1.17 and 1.18 will help you in recognising the above-mentioned axial
planes with the help of wooden models.

Fig. 1.17: Wooden model showing three axial planes of symmetry in zircon
crystal; first plane along a1 or a-axis; second plane along a2 or b-axis,
and third plane along c-axis. Coloured lines indicate planes of
symmetry.

(a) (b)
Fig. 1.18: Dissected planes of symmetry in zircon showing 6 planes of symmetry:
a) 3 planes are axial which follow crystallographic axes; and b) 2
diagonal planes.
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 Study of Symmetry Elements of Normal Class
Experiment 1 of Isometric and Tetragonal Systems
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Now, let us work to identify two diagonal planes of symmetry. Study these
two diagonal planes with the help of the wooden crystal model provided to you.
Try to identify two diagonal planes across axis a1 and a2. Fig. 1.18b will help
you in identifying these two diagonal planes along which crystal can be divided
into two equal halves. Thus, there are 2 sets of diagonal planes of symmetry
present in normal class of tetragonal system.
You will mention the planes of symmetry of a normal class of tetragonal system
in your laboratory file in the following way:
 5 Planes 3 axial planes
2 diagonal or vertical planes

1.5.2 Axis of Symmetry

Let us find the axis of symmetry in zircon crystal.
Hold the zircon crystal along c –axis as shown in Fig. 1.19 and rotate it by 360.
You will find that the rectangular face (e.g. adeg) is repeated four times. This is
known as 1 axis of four-fold or tetrad symmetry. Now, on holding the crystal
along the faces and edges as shown in Fig. 1.19, we will find 4 axes of two-fold
symmetry. This is the important feature of a normal class of the tetragonal
system. You have read in Unit 3 Crystal Systems of BGYCT-133 course that
the normal class of the tetragonal system has 5 axes of symmetry as shown in
Figs. 1.18 and 1.19, out of which 1 axis is of four-fold (tetrad) symmetry, and 4
axes of two-fold (diad) symmetry are present.

Fig. 1.19: One axis of four-fold/tetrad symmetry.

Let us recall definition of an axis of symmetry. Axis of symmetry is a line about

which the crystal may be rotated to show the same view of the crystal more
than once per revolution.
Study Fig. 1.18 carefully and demarcate one tetrad axis (in other words one
axis of four-fold symmetry) in the wooden zircon crystal given to you. If you
hold the crystal with one point at solid angle j and another at i and rotate the
crystal at 360o, what will you observe? You will find that pinacoid faces are
repeated four times in space, i.e. prism form (4 similar rectangular faces adge,
dcgh, bcfh and abef). You will also observe pyramid forms (4 similar triangular
faces ajb, bjc, djc, ajd) at the top and 4 triangular faces (eig, gih, fig, fie) at the
bottom are also repeated four times. This is known as one axis of tetrad
symmetry. This is characteristic feature of a normal class of the tetragonal
system.
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BGYCL-134 Crystallography, Mineralogy and Economic Geology:Laboratory
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A Normal class also exhibits four axes of two-fold (diad) symmetry. Now let us
find out four axes of two-fold symmetry or diad axis with the help a wooden
crystal of zircon (Fig. 1.20) which you will explore by holding the crystal along
diagonal edges and corresponding opposite faces.
Step 1: Hold the crystal along the two edges ch and ae and rotate the crystal by
360o, you will observe that the pyramid form is repeated 2 times (Fig. 1.20a).
Step 2: Repeat the same exercise, hold the crystal along the diagonal edges fb
and gd and rotate at an angle of 360o; you will observe that the pyramid form is
repeated 2 times (Fig. 1.20b).
Step 3: Hold the crystal along opposite prism faces chdg and bfae rotate then it
by 360o angle. You will again observe that the pyramid form is repeated 2
times.
Step 4: Repeat the same exercise, hold the crystal along opposite prism faces
bhcf and dgae then rotate it at 360o angle. Again, you will observe that the
pyramid form is repeated 2 times.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Fig: 1.20: Four axis of two-fold symmetry in zircon.

Write about the axis of symmetry in your laboratory file in the following manner.

 5 Axis 3Aiv (three axes of four fold symmetry) crystallographic axis

4Aii (four axes of two fold symmetry) vertical face and edge

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 Study of Symmetry Elements of Normal Class
Experiment 1 of Isometric and Tetragonal Systems
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
1.5.3 Centre of Symmetry
All the faces of a crystal must occur in parallel pairs for a crystal to possess a
centre of symmetry. You will observe that zircon has parallel faces and centre
of symmetry as shown in Fig. 1.21. Each face has equal and opposite face.
Thus, zircon has a centre of symmetry.

/
Fig. 1.21: Centre of symmetry present in the zircon. A line a-b that pass through
the centre of the crystal, ‘O’. Points a and b at equidistant from o and
are in equivalent positions.

1.6 LABORATORY EXCERCISES

After you have learnt about the crystallographic axes and identified the
elements of symmetry of Normal class of Isometric/cubic and tetragonal
systems. You have to record your observations in the following manner:
 Draw the sketch of given crystal model showing crystallographic axes of
the system you are discussing.
 All the axes should be well labelled showing positive and negative ends
and axial angles.
 Mention planes of symmetry whether they are axial or diagonal.
 List axes of symmetry whether they are diad, triad, tetrad, hexad.
 Mention about centre of symmetry if it is present or absent.
Instruction: Redraw the diagrams given in the following exercises and
give their answers in your laboratory file and submit it to your Academic
Counsellor.
Exercise 1: Draw the crystallographic axis of isometric system.
Exercise 2: Draw the crystallographic axis of tetragonal system.
Exercise 3: What do the sketches indicate given below in Fig. 1.22 relating to
the planes of symmetry in a normal class of the isometric/cubic system? How
many planes are axial and diagonal? Mention in your laboratory file.

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(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 1.22: Planes of symmetry in a cubic system.

Exercise 4: Give reason why crystal given in Fig. 1.23 does not have a centre
of symmetry.

Fig. 1.23: Cube with one solid angle cut.

Exercise 5: Given below in Fig. 1.24 are three axes of symmetry present in
isometric system. How many folds of symmetry do they indicate?

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.24: Axis of symmetry in isometric system.

Exercise 6: How will you decipher triad symmetry of a normal class of isometric
system? Also mention the other symmetry elements present.
Exercise 7: Discuss the planes and axes of symmetry of a normal class of the
tetragonal system.

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 Study of Symmetry Elements of Normal Class
Experiment 1 of Isometric and Tetragonal Systems
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1.7 REFERENCES
 Gribble, C.D. (1991) Rutley’s Elements of Mineralogy. 27th Edition. CBS
Publishers and Distributors, Delhi.
 Sharma R. S. and Sharma, A. (2013) Crystallography and Mineralogy -
Concepts and Methods, Editors: A.K. Jain and Sandeep Singh,
Geological Society of India, Bangalore.

1.8 LEARNING RESOURCES

 http://www.preservearticles.com/notes/brief-notes-on-the-normal-class-of-
isometric-system/11034
 http://www.preservearticles.com/notes/brief-notes-on-the-normal-class-of-
tetragonal-system/11032
(Websites accessed on 5th June 2019)

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 EXPERIMENT 2

STUDY OF SYMMETRY ELEMENTS OF

NORMAL CLASS OF ORTHORHOMBIC
AND MONOCLINIC SYSTEMS

Structure____________________________________________________
2.1 Introduction 2.5 Symmetry Elements of Monoclinic System
Expected Skills Planes of Symmetry
2.2 Requirements Axis of Symmetry
2.3 Basic Concepts Centre of Symmetry

2.4 Symmetry Elements of Orthorhombic 2.6 Laboratory Exercises

System 2.7 References
Planes of Symmetry 2.8 Learning Resources
Axis of Symmetry
Centre of Symmetry

2.1 INTRODUCTION
You have studied basic concepts of crystallography, symmetry elements and crystal systems in
Block 1 Crystallography of the BGYCT-133 course. In the first experiment you have learnt to
recognise symmetry elements of normal class of isometric and tetragonal systems. In this
experiment, you will be able to decipher symmetry elements of a normal class of orthorhombic and
monoclinic systems.

Expected Skills___________________________________
After performing this experiment, you should be able to
 identify the planes, axis and centre of symmetry of the normal class of
orthorhombic system; and
BGYCL-134 Crystallography, Mineralogy and Economic Geology:Laboratory
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 recognise the planes, axis and centre of symmetry of the normal class of
monoclinic system.

2.2 REQUIREMENTS
To perform this experiment successfully you would require the following:
 wooden / plastic models of normal classes of crystals of orthorhombic and
monoclinic systems
 piece of white chalk, and
 laboratory file
Wooden/ plastic models of normal classes of crystals of orthorhombic and
monoclinic systems will be available at the study centre.
Note: Do not use pen/pencil/marker pen to mark the planes of symmetry
on wooden models. You may use only white chalk so that the models are
not spoiled.
Instructions: You are required to study Units 1, 2 and 3 of BGYCT-133
course (Crystallography, Mineralogy and Economic Geology) before
performing this experiment. Bring this practical manual along with Block
1 of BGYCT-133 course while attending the Practical Counselling session.

2.3 BASIC CONCEPTS

You have read in Block 1 of this course that the crystals have been divided into
seven systems on the basis of:
 number of crystallographic axis
 relative length or axial ratios of the crystallographic axes
 linear and angular relationships of crystallographic axes; and
 elements of symmetry, such as plane, axis and centre of symmetry.
In this experiment, we will learn to identify symmetry elements of normal class
of orthorhombic and monoclinic systems. Let us recall seven crystal systems
about which we have read in Unit 3 of BGYCT-133 course. They are:
i) Isometric or cubic system
ii) Tetragonal system
iii) Orthorhombic system
iv) Monoclinic system
v) Hexagonal system
vi) Trigonal system
vii) Triclinic system

We have read about crystallographic axis of all these seven systems in the
previous experiment. Now in this experiment let us recall the crystallographic
axis of orthorhombic and monoclinic systems.

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 Study of Symmetry Elements of Normal Class
Experiment 2 of Orthorhombic and Monoclinic Systems
....………………………………………………………........…………………………………………………..............................................................................

 Orthorhombic system: Crystals belonging to this system have three

unequal and mutually perpendicular axes. They have been designated as
a, b and c (Fig. 2.1a). Crystals of orthorhombic system have three diad
axes of symmetry (3Aii). For example, baryte, sulphur, olivine, topaz and
staurolite.

 Monoclinic system: This system has crystals of three unequal axes; one is
at right angles to the other two. Whereas the other two axes are not right
angles to each other (Fig. 2.1b). These axes are designated as a, b and c
with a and c -axes inclined to each other and b -axis at right angles to the
plane containing a and c -axes. The obtuse angle between positive ends of
a and c -axes is identified as β (beta). The crystals of monoclinic system
have 1 diad axis (1Aii) and possess no higher degree of axis of symmetry.
For example, gypsum, orthoclase, augite, hornblende and muscovite.

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.1: Crystallographic axis showing different linear and angular
relationship in: a) Orthorhombic; and b) Monoclinic systems.

As stated earlier, you are advised to study basic concepts of three elements of
symmetry, i.e. plane of symmetry, axis of symmetry and centre of symmetry in
Unit 2 Crystal Symmetry of BGYCT-133 course and Experiment 1 of this
course prior to performing this experiment. They will be helpful to you in the
identification of symmetry elements of a normal class of orthorhombic and
monoclinic systems in this experiment.

2.4 SYMMETRY ELEMENTS OF ORTHORHOMBIC

SYSTEM
We have read in the above section that the crystals belonging to orthorhombic
system posses three axes of unequal length that are mutually perpendicular to
each other. We will perform this experiment with olivine crystal which belongs to
the normal class of orthorhombic system. Fig. 1.2 shows you the holding
position of an olivine crystal. Hold the crystal along c- axis with index finger on
the top and thumb at the bottom. This is demonstrated in the photograph of the
transparent plastic model in which the three axes have been shown by threads
(highlighted as yellow lines). However, you will perform this experiment with
wooden crystal models available at your study centre. You can use white chalk
to mark the symmetry elements on the wooden model.

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Fig. 2.2: Holding position of an olivine crystal.

We can see that there are three crystallographic axes designated by the letters
a, b and c which are mutually perpendicular and to each other. The a-axis runs
front to back; b-axis runs from right to left, and c-axis runs from top to bottom. It
is customary to orient a crystal of this system in such a way that b-axis is
greater than a-axis. All the three axes are of different lengths.
It consists of three axis of unequal length and is mutually perpendicular.
a≠b≠c α =β =γ =90°
Now we will learn to decipher the planes, axis and centre of symmetry in a
given olivine crystal model.

2.4.1 Planes of Symmetry

Hold the olivine crystal along c-axis, i.e. in its holding position as shown in Fig.
2.2. Try to identify those mirror planes along which the crystal can be divided
into two equal halves. You will observe that the following planes are those
mirror planes along which olivine can be divided into two equal halves. You can
use chalk to mark the planes of symmetry. There are three planes of symmetry
along 3 axes known as axial planes as follows:
 Along c-axis
 Along b-axis
 Along a-axis

Fig. 2.3 will help you to recognise above-mentioned axial planes in the wooden
models.

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 Study of Symmetry Elements of Normal Class
Experiment 2 of Orthorhombic and Monoclinic Systems
....………………………………………………………........…………………………………………………..............................................................................

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.3: Three axial planes of symmetry: a) along c axis; b) along b axis; and c)
along a axis. Dark lines marked with the axial planes.

Thus, there are 3 axial planes of symmetry present in the normal class of
orthorhombic system (i.e. in olivine as discussed above).

2.4.2 Axis of Symmetry

You have read in Unit 2 Crystal Systems of course BGYCT-133 that the normal
class of orthorhombic system has 3 axes of 2 fold symmetry as shown in Fig.
2.4. Let us try to identify in this experiment.

(a)

(b)

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BGYCL-134 Crystallography, Mineralogy and Economic Geology:Laboratory
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(c)
Fig. 2.4: Sketches and photographs of plastic crystal model showing three axes
of two-fold symmetry in an olivine crystal. The alphabets with
/
superscript (e.g. a ) represent back side of that solid angle (e.g. of a): a)
Hold the crystal along c-axis; b) Hold the crystal along b-axis; and c)
Hold the crystal along a-axis.

Firstly, hold the crystal along c-axis (running from top to bottom). As depicted in
Fig. 2.4a, when you hold the crystal along c-axis, the eight aa/bb/; bb/cc/; cc/dd/;
dd/ee/; ee/ff/; ff/gg/; gg/hh/; and hh/aa/ faces are bounding the olivine crystal.
There is one rectangular face wxyz in the middle. Now when you rotate the
crystal by 360o, the wxyz face is repeated twice. You will notice that abxw; bcx;
cdzx; dez; efyz; fgy; ghwy; awh (eight in total) faces are also repeated. So,
these nine faces (1+8) are repeated on 360o rotation.

Now, hold the crystal along b-axis (running from left to right). As depicted in Fig.
2.4b, when you hold the crystal along b-axis, the eight aa/bb/; bb/cc/; cc/dd/;
dd/ee/; ee/ff/; ff/gg/; gg/hh/; and hh/aa/ faces are bounding olivine crystal. Now
rotate the crystal by 360o wxyz face is repeated twice. You will notice that the
similar eight other faces (abxw; bcx; cdzx; dez; efyz; fgy; ghwy; awh) are also
repeated. So, these nine faces (1+8) are repeated on 360o rotation.

Lastly, hold the crystal along a-axis (running front to back). As depicted in Fig.
2.4c, when you hold the crystal along a-axis, the eight aa/bb/; bb/cc/; cc/dd/;
dd/ee/; ee/ff/; ff/gg/; gg/hh/; and hh/aa/ faces are bounding the olivine crystal. Now
rotate the crystal by 360o, the hgg/h/ face (labeled as 5) is repeated twice. You
will notice that the other eight faces labelled as 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8 and 9 are also
repeated. So, these nine faces (1+8) are repeated on 360o rotation.
Crystals of this system uniformly possess three axes of two-fold symmetry and
three mirror planes.

 3 planes of symmetry-axial

 3 axes of two-fold symmetry

This is unique characteristic of the normal class of orthorhombic system.

2.4.3 Centre of Symmetry

Let us recall the definition.
Centre of symmetry is a point inside the crystal and is such that when a line
passes through it, you will find similar parts of the crystal on either side at same
the distance. Study carefully the Fig. 2.5. You will find that the olivine crystal
that possesses 26 faces and similar face is present on either side and at the
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 Study of Symmetry Elements of Normal Class
Experiment 2 of Orthorhombic and Monoclinic Systems
....………………………………………………………........…………………………………………………..............................................................................
same distance. Thus, it posses centre of symmetry. Let us observe it with the
help of a wooden crystal model provided to you and is also summarised in
Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Summary of the centre of symmetry in an olivine crystal. The
front faces are numbered from 1 to 9, 19-20, 22 and 23 with the
corresponding opposite faces.
Sr. No. Front faces Corresponding back
faces
1 1 10
2 2 11
3 3 12
4 4 13
5 5 14
6 6 15
7 7 16
8 8 17
9 9 18
10 19 21
11 20 24
12 22 26
13 23 25

Fig. 2.5: Centre of symmetry is present in olivine and numbers of faces shown
over the crystal. Front faces labeled with red numbers, whereas back
faces labelled with yellow numbers for the corresponding faces present
on the backside. Numbers in white denote side faces. Side faces are
represented by white numbers. Notice that each face has a similar
corresponding face.

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2.6 SYMMETRY ELEMENTS OF MONOCLINIC

SYSTEM
We have worked out the symmetry elements present in a normal class of
orthorhombic system. Now let us familiarise ourselves with the elements of
symmetry in a normal class of the monoclinic system. You have read about
monoclinic system in Unit 3 of BGYCT-133 course. Refer to Fig. 2.1b and to
recall about the crystallographic axis and axial angles of a monoclinic system.
The crystals of a monoclinic system possess three unequal crystallographic
axes (Fig. 2.6). Out of these, b- and c-axes are at right angles to each another,
but, a-axis is not at right angle. It runs from front to back and is inclined to the
plane containing other two (a and b) axes. The a-axis is also called as clino-
axis, whereas, b-axis running from right to left is known as ortho axis. Vertical
crystallographic axis is the c-axis. The a-axis runs upward and away from the
observer is known as the ‘clino-axis’. The obtuse angle ‘β’ lies between ‘+c’ and
‘+a’ axes is important and is fixed for every mineral. Two interchangeable
horizontal axis (a1 or a and a2 or b) are of equal lengths, while the vertical (c)
axis is of different length. It is either shorter or longer than the other two axes.
The normal class of monoclinic system is known as gypsum type. As the name
suggests, gypsum is the common mineral which belongs to crystal of this class.

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.6: Holding position of gypsum crystal: a) Plastic model; b) Wooden model.

2.5.1 Planes of Symmetry

Hold the wooden gypsum crystal along the c axis, i.e. in its holding position as
shown in Fig. 2.6a & b. Now we will try to identify that the mirror plane along
which the gypsum crystal can be divided into two equal halves. You will
observe that the mirror plane shown in Fig. 2.7 is the plane along which the
gypsum crystal is divided into two equal halves. This plane contains clino (a-)
and vertical (c-) axes.
Thus, the normal class of the monoclinic system has one plane of symmetry.
 1 Plane contains clino and vertical axes.
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Experiment 2 of Orthorhombic and Monoclinic Systems
....………………………………………………………........…………………………………………………..............................................................................

Fig. 2.7: Mirror plane shown with grey shade along which the gypsum crystal can
be divided into two equal halves, which is referred to the plane of
symmetry. Notice that this plane contains c- and a-axes.

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.8: a) Dissected planes of symmetry in a gypsum type showing a plane of
symmetry. Notice that this plane contains c- and a-axes; and (b)
photograph of a wooden gypsum type showing a plane of symmetry.

2.5.2 Axis of Symmetry

You have read in Unit 3 Crystal Systems of BGYCT-133 course that the normal
class of monoclinic crystal system has 1 axis of two-fold symmetry. Let us find
out this axis of symmetry as shown in Fig. 2.9.
When you hold the crystal along the b-axis or ortho axis and rotate the crystal
by 360o, you will find 1 axis of two-fold symmetry (in other words one axis of

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diad symmetry). This is the characteristic feature of a normal class of this
system.
 Axis of symmetry- 1Aii (diad) along ortho/ b-axis

Fig. 2.9: One axis of two- fold/diad symmetry observed in the gypsum type on
holding it along b-axis. Red arrows on the opposite ends of the wooden
model mark the positions repeated twice.

2.5.3 Centre of Symmetry

You know that the centre of symmetry is a point inside the crystal such that
when a line passes through it, you will find that the similar faces, edges and
interfacial angles are repeated on either side of the crystal at same distances.
Study carefully the Fig. 2.10. You will find that the gypsum type possesses 10
faces and similar face is present on either side of the crystal at the same
distances. Thus, it possesses centre of symmetry. Try to observe this with the
help of a wooden crystal model.
In crystal model, there are equal and opposite faces. The faces (diamond
shaped) like face 2 and face 11 or face 8 and face 17 are similar and opposite
to each other.
Similarly, the faces (triangular shape) such as face 5 and face 6; face 1 and
face 4; face 7 and face 10; face 2 and face 3 and face 8 and face 9 are similar
and opposite to each other.
Thus, gypsum has a centre of symmetry.

Table 2.2: Summary of the centre of symmetry in gypsum type or class.

The front faces numbered from 1 to 9, 19-20, 22 and 23 have
their corresponding opposite faces.
Sr. No. Front faces Corresponding back faces
1 1 9
2 2 10
3 3 7
4 4 8
5 5 6

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Experiment 2 of Orthorhombic and Monoclinic Systems
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Fig. 2.10: Centre of symmetry present in the gypsum type. Number of faces is
shown on the crystal model. Front faces labelled with red numbers,
whereas back faces labelled with yellow numbers are referred to the
corresponding faces at the backside. Note that each face owes a similar
corresponding face.

2.6 LABORATORY EXCERCISES

After you have learnt about the crystallographic axes and identified the
elements of symmetry of Normal class of orthorhombic and monoclinic
systems. You have to record your observations in the following manner:

 Draw the sketch of given crystal model showing crystallographic axes of the
system you are discussing.

 All the axes should be well labelled showing positive and negative ends and
axial angles.

 Mention planes of symmetry whether they are axial or diagonal.

 List axes of symmetry whether they are diad, triad, tetrad, hexad.

 Mention about centre of symmetry if it is present or absent.

Instruction: Redraw the diagrams given in the following exercises and
give their answers in your laboratory file and submit it to your Academic
Counsellor.
Exercise 1: Draw the crystallographic axis of orthorhombic system.
Exercise 1: Draw the crystallographic axis of monoclinic system.
Exercise 2: What do the sketches given below in Fig. 2.11 indicate regarding
the planes of symmetry in the normal class of orthorhombic system? How many
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planes of symmetry are present? Mention the answers and the diagrams in
your laboratory file.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.11: Model of Olivine crystal.

Exercise 3: Explain the axes of symmetry present in an olivine crystal with the
help of well-labelled neat sketches in your laboratory file.
Exercise 4: Demonstrate the plane and axes of symmetry present in a gypsum
type with the help sketch(s) in your laboratory file.
Exercise 5: How many faces are there in an olivine crystal, demonstrate with
the help of neat labelled diagram.
Exercise 6: How many faces are there in gypsum crystal. Give labelled
diagrams.

2.7 REFERENCES
 Gribble, C.D. (1991) Rutley’s Elements of Mineralogy, 27th Edition, CBS
Publishers and Distributors, Delhi.

 Sharma R.S. and Sharma, A. (2013) Crystallography and Mineralogy -

Concepts and Methods, Editors: A.K. Jain and Sandeep Singh, Geological
Society of India, Bangalore.

2.8 LEARNING RESOURCES

 http://www.preservearticles.com/notes/brief-notes-on-the-normal-class-of-
orthorhombic-system/11030

 http://www.preservearticles.com/notes/notes-on-the-normal-class-of-
monoclinic-system/11029
(Websites accessed on 15th July 2019)

40
 EXPERIMENT 3

STUDY OF SYMMETRY ELEMENTS OF

NORMAL CLASS OF HEXAGONAL,
TRIGONAL AND TRICLINIC SYSTEMS

Structure____________________________________________________
3.1 Introduction 3.5 Symmetry Elements of Trigonal System
Expected Skills Planes of Symmetry
3.2 Requirements Axis of Symmetry
3.3 Basic Concepts Centre of Symmetry

3.4 3.6 Symmetry Elements of Triclinic System

Symmetry Elements of Hexagonal System
Planes of Symmetry 3.7 Laboratory Exercises
Axis of Symmetry 3.8 References
Centre of Symmetry 3.9 Learning Resources

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous experiment you have developed the skill to find out symmetry elements in olivine
and gypsum types belonging to the normal class of orthorhombic and monoclinic systems,
respectively. You have also learnt about the basic concepts of crystallography, symmetry elements
and crystal systems that have been discussed in Block 1 Crystallography of the BGYCT-133
course. The crystals have been classified into seven crystal systems on the basis of
crystallographic axis, axial ratios and interfacial angles, and symmetry elements. In this experiment,
you shall work-out with the symmetry elements of crystals belonging to normal class of hexagonal,
trigonal and triclinic systems.
BGYCL-134 Crystallography, Mineralogy and Economic Geology:Laboratory
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Expected Skills___________________________________
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:
 identify planes, axes and centre of symmetry of the normal class of
hexagonal system; and
 recognise the planes, axis and centre of symmetry of the normal class of
trigonal system.
 decipher the planes, axis and centre of symmetry of the normal class of
triclinic system.

3.2 REQUIREMENTS
To perform this experiment successfully, you would require the following:

 wooden / plastic models of normal classes of crystals of hexagonal, trigonal

and triclinic systems
 piece of white chalk, and
 laboratory file
Wooden/ plastic models of normal classes of crystals of hexagonal, trigonal and
triclinic systems will be available at the study centre.
Note: Do not use pen/pencil/marker pen to mark the planes of symmetry
on wooden models. You may use only white chalk so that the models are
not spoilt.
Instructions: You are required to study Units 1, 2 and 3 of BGYCT-133
course (Crystallography, Mineralogy and Economic Geology) before
performing this experiment. Bring this practical manual along with Block
1 of BGYCT-133 course while attending the Practical Counselling session.

3.3 BASIC CONCEPTS

You have read in Block 1 of this course that the crystals have been divided into
seven crystal systems on the basis of:
 number of crystallographic axis
 relative length or axial ratios of crystallographic axis
 linear and angular relationships of crystallographic axis; and
 elements of symmetry, i.e. plane, axis and centre of symmetry.
You have carried out the experiments with the wooden models of the crystals
belonging to isometric, tetragonal, orthorhombic and monoclinic systems to find
out elements of symmetry. Now, in this experiment we will learn to identify
symmetry elements of a normal class of hexagonal, trigonal and triclinic
systems. Before this, let us recall the crystallographic axis of hexagonal,
trigonal and triclinic systems.
 Hexagonal system: Crystals belonging to this system have four axes; three
of these axes lie in a horizontal plane, intersect at 60o and 120o angles, and
are equal in length. Fourth axis is perpendicular to the plane containing

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 Study of Symmetry Elements of Normal Class of Hexagonal,
Experiment 3 Trigonal and Triclinic Systems
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other three axes and is either longer or shorter than the other three axes.
These four axes have been designated as a1, a2, a3 and c (Fig. 3.1a).
Hexagonal system has characteristic one hexad axis of symmetry (1Avi).
Beryl and kalsilite are the examples.
 Trigonal system: This system also has four axes and designated as a1, a2,
a3 and c, quite similar to that of the Hexagonal system. Three of these axes
lie in a horizontal plane, intersect at 60o and 120o angles and are equal in
length; fourth axis is perpendicular to the plane containing other three and is
either longer or shorter than the other axes (Fig. 3.1b). Crystals belonging
to trigonal system exhibit one triad axis of symmetry (1Aiii). Calcite,
hematite and corundum are a few examples of the minerals belonging to
this crystal system.
 Triclinic system: Crystals belonging to this system have three unequal
axes, however, none of the axes are at right angles to each other. These
axes are designated as a, b and c (Fig. 3.1c). The angle between the
positive ends of b- and c-axes is called α (alpha); angle between positive
ends of c- and a-axes is designated as β (beta) and angle between positive
ends of c- and b-axes is called γ (gamma). Triclinic system has no axis of
symmetry. Axinite, plagioclase, kyanite and albite are the examples of this
system.

Fig. 3.1: Crystallographic axis showing different linear and angular relationships
in the seven crystal systems (a) hexagonal system (from the top view
you can see the plane containing 3 horizontal axes); (b) trigonal system,
and (b) triclinic system.

You are advised to read the basic concepts of three elements of

symmetry, i.e. plane of symmetry, axis of symmetry and centre of

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symmetry in Unit 2 Crystal Symmetry of BGYCT-133 course and
Experiments 1 and 2 of this course.

3.4 SYMMETRY ELEMENTS OF HEXAGONAL

SYSTEM
You have read in the Unit 3 of BGYCT-133 course that the crystals belonging to
hexagonal system posses four axes; three of the axes lie in a horizontal plane,
intersect at 120o angles, and are equal in length. Fourth axis is the c- axis
which is vertical, unequal and also perpendicular to the other three horizontal
axes (Fig. 3.1a). The positive and negative ends of the axes are marked in the
Figs. 3.1a and 3.2b. Fig. 3.3 is represented by a plan (top view) of transparent
plastic model of a beryl, where three horizontal axes are clearly shown and c-
axis is depicted by a small black circle. The four axes can be written as:
a1 = a2 = a3 ≠ c
α = β = 90o, γ = 120o
We will perform this experiment with a crystal model of a beryl which belongs to
the normal class of hexagonal system and learn to identify its symmetry
elements. Figures 3.2a and b show you the holding position of a beryl crystal
model. Hold the crystal along c-axis with index finger on the top and thumb at
the bottom (shown with black arrows in the Fig. 3.2b). You will perform this
experiment with the wooden crystal models available at your study centre. You
can use white chalk to mark the planes of symmetry on wooden model.

(a) (b)

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Experiment 3 Trigonal and Triclinic Systems
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Fig. 3.2: Holding position of a beryl: a) wooden model; and b) plastic model
showing holding position of beryl crystal is along c-axis shown by two
arrows.

Fig. 3.3: Top view of a transparent model of plastic crystal of a beryl showing 3
horizontal axes. Note that c-axis is shown by a point.

3.4.1 Planes of Symmetry

Let us hold the a beryl crystal model along c- axis, i.e. in its holding position as
shown in Figs. 3.2a and b. Try to identify those mirror planes along which the
crystal can be divided into two equal halves. You have read in Unit 3 of
BGYCT-133 course that Beryl has seven planes of symmetry and out of which
one is horizontal and other six are vertical. Of the six vertical planes, three are
axial and other remaining three are diagonal planes.
First of all, let us identify three axial planes of symmetry in a beryl type.
Observe the crystal model carefully; there are 6 faces and 6 edges. You will
find that there are 3 axial planes along 3 horizontal axes: a1-axis, a2-axis and
a3-axis.
Figures 3.4 and 3.5 will help you to recognise and visualise the three axial
planes. Here you can see that these horizontal axes are cutting the faces 1, 2
and 3 in the front and 4, 5 and 6 at the back side of the model.

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Fig. 3.4: Three axial planes of symmetry along a1, a2 and a3 planes marked with P-
2, P-4 and P-6. Thus, there are three axial planes of symmetry.

Fig: 3.5: Four axes in beryl. The axial planes of symmetry are along three
horizontal axes. Note that there are six faces. Face 1, 2, 3 are front faces
(marked with black), whereas faces 4, 5, 6 (marked in red) are the faces
at the back side of the model (not shown in the figure). Roman numbers
I, II, III, IV, V and V representing the edges.

Let us proceed further with the identification of three diagonal planes of

symmetry in a Beryl type. There are six edges marked by with the Roman
numerals, such as I, II, III, IV (in the front) V and VI (at the back side of the
model). Try to coincide an edge, e.g. I with corresponding edge IV, II with V,
and III with IV. Likewise you will be able to identify 3 pairs. The plane passing
through any one of this pair will be the mirror plane as it will divide the crystal
into 2 equal halves. Thus, you can identify three diagonal planes of
symmetry.
Now, let us find out the horizontal plane of symmetry. Observe in Fig. 3.4, one
horizontal plane which is parallel to a1, a2 and a3 is cutting c-axis. This
horizontal plane is the mirror plane, signify plane of symmetry.
Thus, you will find that beryl has 7 planes of symmetry.
 Planes 7 6 vertical planes (3 axial + 3 diagonal) and
1 horizontal plane

3.4.2 Axis of Symmetry

You have identified 7 planes of symmetry present in the beryl type. Now, let us
find out 7 axes of symmetry present in it. You have read in Unit 2 Crystal
Systems of BGYCT-133 course that normal class of hexagonal system has
characteristic six axes of two-fold symmetry and one axis of six-fold symmetry
as shown in Fig. 3.6. First of all, let us try to identify 6 axes of two-fold
symmetry in beryl type.
You can identify all the axes by holding the crystal along three vertical faces
and subsequently along three vertical edges as shown in Fig. 3.6a and b. You
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 Study of Symmetry Elements of Normal Class of Hexagonal,
Experiment 3 Trigonal and Triclinic Systems
……………………………............……………………......................................................................
will find that there are 3 axes, if you hold the beryl crystal along the faces, and 3
axes if you hold it along the edges as shown in Fig. 3.6a and b, respectively.

(a)

(b)
Fig: 3.6: Axes of symmetry in beryl type, where F-1, F-2, F-3, F-4, F-5 and F-6
representing six faces and E-1, E-2, E-3, E-4, E-5 and E-6 are the
abbreviations used to designate six edges, respectively. F-5 and F-6
marked with red are the back side faces: a) three axes of symmetry
along the faces, and b) three axes of symmetry along the edges.

Study carefully Fig. 3.6a and perform the following steps to identify 3 axes
along the crystal faces:

1) Hold the crystal along F-1 and F-4 (as shown in Fig. 3.6a) and rotate the
crystal by 360o, you will find that hexagonal face (cutting c-axis) is repeated
twice in one rotation.
2) Now hold the crystal along F-3 and F-6 (as shown in Fig. 3.6a) and rotate
the crystal by 360o, you will find that hexagonal face (cutting c-axis) is
repeated twice in one rotation.

3) Hold the crystal along (F-2 and F-5, as shown in Fig. 3.6a) and rotate the
crystal by 360o, you will find that hexagonal face (cutting c-axis) is repeated
twice in one rotation.
Now to identify 3 axes of symmetry along the crystal edges, perform the
following steps:
1) Hold crystal along E-1 and E-4 ( as shown in Fig. 3.6b) and rotate the
crystal model by 360o, you will find that hexagonal face (cutting c-axis) is
repeated twice in one rotation.
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2) Now, hold crystal along E-3 and E-6 (as shown in Fig. 3.6b) and rotate the
crystal by 360o, you will find that hexagonal face (cutting c-axis) is repeated
twice in one rotation.

3) Hold crystal along E-2 and E-5 (as shown in Fig. 3.6b) and rotate the crystal
by 360o, you will find that hexagonal face (cutting c-axis) is repeated twice
in one rotation.
Thus, you have identified 6Aii (six axes of two-fold symmetry) crystallographic
axes. In the next step, we will find out one axis of six-fold symmetry with the
help of Fig. 3.7.
Hold the crystal along c-axis with index finger on top and thumb at the bottom
(as shown in the figure).
Rotate the crystal by 360o angle, you will find that six vertical faces (F-1, F-2, F-
3, F-4, F-5 and F-6) and six edges (E-1, E-2, E-3, E-4, E-5 and E-6) which are
repeated six times in one rotation.
This denotes one axis of six-fold symmetry.
Axes of symmetry can be denoted as:
 7 Axes- 6Aii (six axes of dad symmetry)
1Avi (one axis of hexad symmetry)

Fig. 3.7: Beryl type showing one axis of six-fold symmetry and a centre of
symmetry.

3.4.3 Centre of Symmetry

Let us recall the definition.
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 Study of Symmetry Elements of Normal Class of Hexagonal,
Experiment 3 Trigonal and Triclinic Systems
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Centre of symmetry is a point inside the crystal that when a line passes through
it, you will have similar parts of the crystal on either side at the same distances.
Study carefully in Fig. 3.7, beryl crystal has 8 faces and each face bears similar
and opposite face at the same distance. Thus, it possesses a centre of
symmetry.

3.5 SYMMETRY ELEMENTS OF TRIGONAL

SYSTEM
We have worked out with the symmetry elements present in a normal class of
the hexagonal system. Now let us familiarize ourselves with the elements of
symmetry in a normal class of the trigonal system. You have read about trigonal
system in Unit 3 of BGYCT-133 course. Please refer to Fig. 3.1b to recall about
the crystallographic axis and axial angles of trigonal system. Three axes are
equal in length and horizontal and they make an angle of 120o to one another.
The fourth ‘c’ axis is vertical and unequal. It is at right angles to the plane
containing the horizontal axes. Positive and negative ends are marked in Fig.
3.1b.
a1 = a2 = a3 ≠ c
α = β = 90o, γ = 120o
Calcite type is the example of a normal class of the trigonal system. Normal
class is known as calcite type.

Fig. 3.8: Holding position of a calcite crystal.

3.5.1 Planes of Symmetry

Let us hold a wooden gypsum crystal along the c-axis, i.e. in its holding position
as shown in Fig. 3.8. Now try to identify the mirror planes along which the
calcite crystal can be divided into two equal halves. You will observe the three
planes as shown in Fig. 3.9. Thus, normal class of trigonal system has three
planes of symmetry. Let us follow these steps to find out three planes of
symmetry:

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If you hold the crystal in its holding position, you will find a mirror plane (along
c-axis) which divides the crystal into two equal halves. This is known as
vertical plane of symmetry.
Now hold the crystal along e-f edge and the opposite d-c edge. The plane along
a1 axis is the mirror plane. This is diagonal plane of symmetry.
Similarly, now hold the crystal along a-b edge and the opposite h-g edge. The
plane along a3 axis is the mirror plane. This is also diagonal plane of
symmetry.
Thus, there are three planes of symmetry: one vertical and two diagonal planes.
This can be mentioned as:
 3 Plane of symmetry 1- vertical plane
2-diagonal planes

Fig. 3.9: One vertical and two diagonal planes of symmetry. Note that this plane
contains c, a1 and a3 axes.

3.5.2 Axis of Symmetry

Now, recall that you have read (in Unit 3 Crystal Systems of BGYCT-133
course) that normal class of trigonal system has 1 axis of three-fold symmetry
and 3 axes of two-fold symmetry.
Let us try to identify both the axes of symmetry in a calcite crystal mentioned
above as shown in Fig. 3.10 and 3.11.
First of all, let us identify 1 axis of three-fold (triad) symmetry (Fig. 3.10) in a
calcite crystal. Hold the crystal along the diagonally placed solid angles ‘a’ and
‘g’. Rotate the crystal by 360o angle, you will find that a rhombic face is
repeated three times as adeh, ehfg and aebf faces. This is the characteristic
feature of a normal class of trigonal system.

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Experiment 3 Trigonal and Triclinic Systems
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Fig. 3.10: One axis of three- fold/triad symmetry observed in a calcite crystal on
holding it along diagonally placed solid angles a and g. Hold the crystal
as shown here.

Now, let us identify 3 axis of two-fold (diad) symmetry (Fig. 3.11) in a calcite
crystal.
1st Step: Hold the crystal along diagonal fb and hg corners and rotate crystal by
360o angle. You will find that a rhomb shape face is repeated two times i.e.
abcd and efgh faces (Fig. 3.11a).
2nd Step: Now, hold the crystal along the diagonal fg and ad corners (Fig.
3.11b); rotate the crystal by 360o angle, you will find that a rhombic face is
repeated two times i.e. face abcd and face egfh.
3rd Step: Now, hold a calcite crystal along the diagonal gc and ea corners;
rotate the crystal by 360o angle, you will find that a rhombic face is repeated
two times i.e. hgcd and efba faces.
The axes of symmetry of a normal class of the calcite system can be mentioned
as below:
 4 Axis of symmetry 1Aiii (one axes of triad symmetry)
3Aii (three axes of diad symmetry)

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3.11: Three axes of two- fold/diad symmetry observed in a calcite crystal.
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3.5.3 Centre of Symmetry
Let us recall the definition.
Centre of symmetry is a point inside the crystal where a line passes through it,
and you will find similar parts of the crystal on either side at the same distances.
Study carefully in Fig. 3.8 and 3.9, calcite crystal bears 6 faces and similar face
are also observed on either side at the same distances.
Try to observe this with the help of a wooden crystal model provided to you.
As observed in the crystal, there are equal and opposite faces. Following pairs
of faces are equal (in size and numbers) and opposite to each other as shown
in Fig. 3.12:
 Face 1 and Face 2;
 Face 3 and Face 6; and
 Face 4 and Face 5
Thus, a calcite crystal possesses a centre of symmetry.

Fig. 3.12: Centre of symmetry present in a calcite crystal. Numbers of faces are
marked over on the crystal. Red is for back face opposite to face 1
(front face). Note that each face has a similar and corresponding face
on the opposite side.

3.6 SYMMETRY ELEMENTS OF TRICLINIC

SYSTEM
We have worked out the symmetry elements present in a normal class of the
trigonal system. Now, let us familiarize ourselves with the elements of
symmetry in a normal class of the triclinic system. You have read about triclinic
system in Unit 3 of BGYCT-133 course. Please refer to Fig. 3.1c to recall about
crystallographic axis and axial angles of the triclinic system. All the three
crystallographic axes are unequal and none is at right angle to the each other.
The a-axis generally smaller, running up and away from the observer is also
known as brachy axis. The b-axis running from right to left is also called as

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 Study of Symmetry Elements of Normal Class of Hexagonal,
Experiment 3 Trigonal and Triclinic Systems
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macro axis. The c-axis is vertical. The angle between ‘+b’ and ‘+c’ is α (alpha),
between ‘+ a’ and ‘+c’ is β (beta) and between ‘+a’ and ‘+b’ is γ (gamma). The
normal class of triclinic system is known as axinite type. As the name suggests
axinite is a common mineral of this class. Triclinic system possesses least
element of symmetry.

(a) (b)
Fig. 3.13: Holding position of an axinite type of a crystal: a) plastic; and b)
wooden models.

The holding position of an axinite type crystal is shown in Fig. 3.13. You will
work with a wooden model of an axinite type.
Let us try to find out the plane along which crystal can be divided into two equal
halves. Hold the crystal along all three axes one by one and find out the plane
of symmetry. Could you identify any plane of symmetry?
Axinite type does not possess plane of symmetry.
Similarly, let us find out axes of symmetry. Hold the crystal along all the three
axes one by one and find out the axis of symmetry. Also, examine the crystal by
holding it along the opposite faces and edges. Could you identify any axes
along which (if) the crystal is rotated, the face is repeated?
You will find the axis of symmetry is absent in axinite type.
Now, let us find out whether centre of symmetry is present in an axinite type.
There are 10 faces in an axinite type crystal. Try to observe similar and
opposite faces in Fig. 8.14. You will find the following similar and opposite pairs
of faces:

 Face 1 and Face 12;

 Face 2 and Face 7;

 Face 3 and Face 8;

 Face 4 and Face 9;

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 Face 5 and Face 11, and

 small Face 6 and Face 10

Thus, an axinite possesses a centre of symmetry.

Fig. 3.14: Centre of symmetry in an axinite type. Note that different pairs of
similar and opposite faces. Front faces are marked with black, whereas
back faces are marked with red.

Thus the symmetry elements of an axinite type can be denoted as follows:

 Plane of symmetry – absent
 Axis of symmetry – absent
 Centre of symmetry – present

3.7 LABORATORY EXCERCISES

After you have learnt about the crystallographic axes and identified the
elements of symmetry of Normal class of hexagonal, trogonal and triclinic
systems. You have to record your observations in the following manner:

 Draw the sketch of given crystal model showing crystallographic axes of the
system you are discussing.

 All the axes should be well labelled showing positive and negative ends and
axial angles.
 Mention planes of symmetry whether they are axial or diagonal.

 List axes of symmetry whether they are diad, triad, tetrad, hexad.
 Mention about centre of symmetry if it is present or absent.
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 Study of Symmetry Elements of Normal Class of Hexagonal,
Experiment 3 Trigonal and Triclinic Systems
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Instruction: Redraw the diagrams given in the following exercises and
give their answers in your laboratory file and submit it to your Academic
Counsellor.

Exercise 1: Draw the crystallographic axis of hexagonal system.

Exercise 1: Draw the crystallographic axis of trigonal system.
Exercise 2: What does the sketch given below in Fig. 3.14 indicate regarding
planes of symmetry in normal class of the hexagonal system? How many
planes of symmetry are present? Mention in your laboratory file.

Fig. 3.14: Beryl type.

Exercise 3: Explain axes of symmetry present in the calcite type with the help
of well labelled neat sketches in your laboratory file.
Exercise 4: Demonstrate the centre of symmetry present in an axinite type
with the help sketch(s) in your laboratory file.
Exercise 5: How many faces are there in a normal class of a calcite type? Give
a well-labelled and neat sketch in your laboratory file.
Exercise 6: How many faces are there in a normal class of an axinite type?
Draw a well labelled diagram in your laboratory file.
Exercise 7: How many faces are there in a normal class of a beryl type? Give a
well-labelled sketch in your laboratory file.

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3.8 REFERENCES
 Gribble, C.D. (1991) Rutley’s Elements of Mineralogy, 27th Edition, CBS
Publishers and Distributors, Delhi.

 Sharma Ram S. and Sharma, Anurag (2013) Crystallography and

Mineralogy - Concepts and Methods. Editors: A.K. Jain and Sandeep
Singh, Geological Society of India, Bangalore.

3.9 LEARNING RESOURCES

 http://www.preservearticles.com/notes/brief-notes-on-the-normal-class-of-
hexagonal-system/11031

 http://www.preservearticles.com/notes/brief-notes-on-the-normal-class-of-
triclinic-system/11026
(websites accessed between 10th July and 5th August 2019)

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 EXPERIMENT 4

STUDY OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF

MINERALS - I

Structure___________________________________________________
4.1 Introduction 4.4 Physical Properties of Minerals
Expected Skills Quartz
4.2 Requirements Orthoclase
4.3 Basic Concepts Microcline
Plagioclase
Muscovite
Biotite
Calcite
4.5 Laboratory Exercises
4.6 References
4.7 Learning Resources

4.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous three experiments, you have worked with crystal models of the seven crystal
systems, namely isometric, tetragonal, hexagonal, trigonal, triclinic, orthorhombic and monoclinic.
The study of crystals, known as crystallography plays an important role in identification of
minerals. Crystallography deals with the crystalline material, which includes any material
possessing a regular internal arrangement of its chemical constituents and has an ordered
internal structure. Therefore, minerals, by definition, are crystalline solids. However, there are
minerals, which may or may not show crystal faces.
You have read in Unit 4 of BGYCT-133 course that out of >5300 minerals known in nature only few
occur abundantly and constitute common rock-forming minerals. Minerals are identified on the
basis of their physical properties and optical properties. In this experiment you will be learn to
recognise some of the important rock-forming minerals in hand specimen (i.e. megascopic study)
with the help of physical properties which you have already studied in Units 4, 6 and 7 of BGYCT-
133 course. In this and the next experiment, you will learn to identify some rock-forming minerals

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such as quartz, orthoclase, microcline, plagioclase, muscovite, and biotite with the help of
physical properties and diagnostic properties. You will also read about their occurrence an

Expected Skills___________________________________
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:
 study the minerals in hand specimen;
 identify some common rock forming minerals like quartz, orthoclase,
microcline, plagioclase;
 recognise common rock forming minerals from mica group like muscovite,
biotite;
 identify commonly occurring rock forming mineral of carbonate group i.e.
calcite, and
 learn about occurrence and uses of these minerals.

4.2 REQUIREMENTS
You will require the following to perform this experiment successfully:
 Hand lens, pen knife, streak plate, coin, hardness box, glass plate
 Laboratory file, pen/ pencil and eraser
 Hand specimens of quartz, orthoclase, microcline, plagioclase, muscovite,
biotite and calcite minerals.

Note:
 Do not use pen/pencil/marker pen to mark the hand specimen of the
mineral.
 Please do not attempt to cleave the minerals in the laboratory. Many of
the specimens you examine cannot be readily replaced.
 Do not break the mineral in order to see its cleavage. Cleavage is
usually induced in the mineral when it is extracted from the rock it is
found in, and is usually seen as planes running through the mineral.

Instructions: You are required to study Units 4, 5 and 6 of BGYCT-133

course (Crystallography, Mineralogy and Economic Geology) before
performing this experiment. Bring this practical manual along with Block
2 of BGYCT-133 course while attending the Practical Counselling session.

4.3 BASIC CONCEPTS

You have read in Unit 4 of the BGYCT-133 course that there are many aspects
in the physical properties of the mineral which are used to recognise in the
mineral hand specimen. The following physical properties of minerals can be
easily used to identify a mineral:
1. Colour 6. Cleavage and parting
2. Transparency 7. Fracture
3. Form/ Habit 8. Luster
4. Streak 9. Odour
5. Hardness 10. Taste
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Experiment 4 Study of Physical Properties of Minerals-I
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11. Magnetism 12. Specific Gravity
The physical properties like odour, taste and magnetism are considered as
special properties for identification of certain minerals.
1) Colour: The colour shown by a mineral depends upon the absorption and
reflection of ordinary white light of visible wavelength. Some minerals such
as calcite, baryte, aragonite appear white whereas minerals like malachite
(brilliant green), nepheline (inky blue), azurite (typical blue) may be
coloured. Minerals may display different colours depending on its varying
chemical composition. For example quartz consists of silica oxide and is
usually transparent or translucent white. However, quartz also displays
varied colours like purple, smoky, milky apart from transparent and
translucent white (Fig. 4.1).

Fig. 4.1: Different colours shown by quartz mineral though their composition is
silica oxide.

Let us discuss another example.

Presence of many inclusions gives quartz, milky white colour called as milky
quartz. The impurities like manganese renders purple colour to quartz and the
mineral is called amethyst. Quartz also shows smoky and pink colours called
morion and rosy quartz respectively. Smoky colour in quartz results from free
silicon formed from the silicon dioxide by natural irradiation. The different

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colours shown by the minerals with same composition can result due to the
varying amount of certain trace elements present in it.
The minerals containing elements like Al, Ca, Na, K, Zr, Ba and Sr are usually
colourless. While those with Fe, Ti, Mn, Cr, Co, Ni, V and Cu usually display
bright colours. The true colour of a mineral also depends upon the nature and
arrangement of its constituent ions and types of bonding as read in Unit 4 of the
BGYCT-133 course.

You will describe the colour of a mineral in the laboratory file as you observe in
the hand specimen.

2) Transparency: It refers to the amount of light which is able to be pass

through a mineral (Figures 4.1 and 4.2). Light is able to pass through
transparent minerals. Light passes through translucent minerals partially.
The opaque minerals do not let any light through.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 4.2: a) Transparent mineral (quartz); b) Translucent mineral (quartz); and c)
Opaque mineral (quartz).

3) Form/Habit: The general term used to describe state of aggregation of

mineral is termed as form/habit. You have read about it in Unit 4 of BGYCT-
133 course. Development of crystal faces depends on the space available
for the crystal to grow. Minerals assume well developed crystal forms and
faces under favourable conditions they are said to be crystallised (see
crystallised quartz in Fig. 4.1). Following general descriptive terms are
associated with crystal characters of minerals:
 crystalline (i.e. aggregate of imperfect crystal grains)
 crystallised (i.e. partly well developed crystals)
 amorphous (i.e. complete absence of crystalline structure).

Habit describes the development of individual or aggregate crystals to

produce a particular external shape in which the mineral is found in nature.
It is used as a powerful diagnostic tool for mineral identification but
sometimes some minerals show one or more of these habits. You can
observe in Fig. 4.1 that quartz can occur both as perfect crystals and also in
massive form. Some common crystal habits are as follows:
 Individual crystal
 Cubic: cube shape
 Octahedral: octahedron shaped
 Tabular: rectangular shaped
 Equant: crystal boundaries of approximately equal length

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 Acicular: long and slender crystals
 Prismatic: abundance of prism faces
 Dendritic: tree-like growth
 Reticulated: lattice-like groups of slender crystals
 Bladed: wedge or knife blade
 Groups of aggregate crystals
 Radiated: radiating groups of crystals
 Globular: radiating individual crystals with spherical shapes
 Drusy: small crystals that cover a surface
 Stellated: radiating individuals with star-like shape
 Fibrous: elongated clusters of fibres
 Botryoidal: smooth bulbous or globular shapes.
 Reniform: kidney shape.

4) Streak: Streak is the colour of the mineral in powdered form. The streak of
a mineral is quite different than the colour of the mineral. Streak is
considered as useful property in mineral identification because even though
the colour of a mineral may vary, the streak is usually constant for a
mineral. The streak is determined by rubbing the mineral on a piece of
unglazed porcelain, known as streak plate (Fig. 4.3). The streak plate has
a hardness of about 7. Thus, it cannot be used for minerals with hardness
greater than 7. The streak of metallic minerals tends to appear dark
whereas non-metallic minerals are generally white. Fig. 4.4 shows that
calcite (non-metallic mineral) has white streak whereas hematite (metallic
mineral) has cherry red streak. Streak is particularly important for metallic
minerals; for example gray galena (Pbs) gives black streak and brassy
yellow pyrite (FeS2) gives black streak. Streak is a more accurate illustration
of the colour of a mineral thus streak is considered as a more reliable
property of minerals than colour for identification.

Fig. 4.3: Streak plate.

(a) (b)
Fig. 4.4: Streak is the colour of the powder of mineral: a) White streak of calcite
(non-metallic mineral); and; b) Cherry red streak of hematite (metallic
mineral).
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Remember! Do not rub the mineral faces on the streak plate for
determining its streak. Always rub the mineral along its fractured or
cleavage surface on the streak plate (Fig. 4.5).

(a) (b)
Fig. 4.5: Correct method to determine streak of a mineral: a) Rub the mineral
along the fractured surface or cleavage plane; and b) Do not rub the
mineral on streak plate along the crystal faces.
5) Hardness: Hardness determination is one of the most important tests used
in identification of minerals. You have learnt in Unit 4 BGYCT-133 course
that hardness is the resistance offered by smooth surface of a mineral on
scratching. Hardness may be tested by rubbing the specimen over a fine
cut file and noting the amount of powder formed and the degree of noise
generated. A soft mineral yields more powder and little noise whereas a
hard mineral yields less powder and more noise. The amount of powder
and the noise are compared with those produced by the minerals of the set
used as standard samples for hardness tests. Hardness box (Fig. 4.6) is a
sequence of the minerals arranged by Mohs in increasing order of
hardness. The Mohs scale is a set of 10 minerals whose hardness is
known. The softest mineral, talc, has hardness 1 on Mohs scale of
hardness. Diamond is the hardest mineral and has a rating of 10. For the
preliminary identification of common minerals a simplified relative hardness
scale is given in Table 4.1. You can use common objects like finger nail,
copper coin, and steel knife/file, glass plate to find out the hardness and
compare it with Mohs scale.
Table 4.1: Mohs scale of hardness.
Comparison with some common
Hardness Mineral
objects
1 Talc
Finger nail (2.2)
2 Gypsum May vary from person to person
Copper coin (2.9)
3 Calcite Brass (wood screw, washer) (3.5)
4 Fluorite Wire (iron) nail (4.5)
Steel nail, Steel Knife blade (5-6.5)
5 Apatite depending on the steel quality
Glass plate (~5.5)
6 Orthoclase Steel file (~6.5)
7 Quartz Streak plate (~7)
8 Topaz Emery sandpaper
9 Corundum Knife sharpener
10 Diamond

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Experiment 4 Study of Physical Properties of Minerals-I
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Fig. 4.6: Hardness box.

6) Cleavage and parting: Cleavage is defined as the property of a mineral to

break along a definite plane surface. Different minerals break in different
ways and exhibit different types of cleavage. If you try to break a mineral
with a hammer it will always split along its weakest points. Mica minerals,
for example muscovite and biotite which have only one set of good
cleavage plane splits easily into very thin layers (Fig. 4.7a). Calcite will split
along three cleavage planes giving a 'diamond' shape called a
rhombohedron (Fig. 4.7b). Orthoclase has two prominent planes of
cleavage at right angles to each other (Fig. 4.7c). Hornblende will show two
directions of distinct cleavage at 124 and 56 (Fig. 4.7d). Cleavage is
absent in quartz. Parting is similar to cleavage, but refers to breaking along
planes of structural weakness due to crystal defects.

Fig. 4.7: a) One direction of cleavage in muscovite; b) Three planes giving rise to
rhombohedral cleavage in calcite; c) Two planes of cleavage in
orthoclase at right angles to each other; and d) Two planes of cleavage
o o
in hornblende at an angle of 124 and 56 .
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Note: Take a print out of the cleavage goniometer given at the end of this
experiment. Cut as asked and use it for measuring cleavage angles and
identify the minerals.

7) Fracture: Fracture refers to rough broken irregular surfaces along which

minerals break randomly (Fig. 4.8). You would identify following types of
fractures commonly found in the minerals:

 Conchoidal fracture: When the mineral breaks along smooth curved

surfaces, resembling a semicircular shell (Fig. 4.8a) as in quartz,
orthoclase, plagioclase, augite minerals. Partially curved fractured
surfaces are called subconchoidal.

 Fibrous and splintery fracture: The fractured surface gives a fibrous

appearance or appears similar to the way wood breaks or a bundle of
fiber, e.g. asbestos. Kyanite shows splintery fracture (Fig. 4.8b).

 Hackly fracture: Fractured surface looks jagged with sharp edges, e.g.
native copper (Fig. 4.8c).

 Uneven or Irregular fracture: Fractured surface appears rough and

irregular, e.g. native copper (Fig. 4.8d).
 Earthy fracture: This describes a mineral that crumbles when broken
and fractured surface appears dull with clay-like fractures with no visible
crystalline affinities (Fig. 4.9).

 Even fracture: Fractured surface can also be even.

Fig. 4.8: Fractured surface of mineral: a) Conchoidal fracture in quartz; b)

Splintery fracture in kyanite; c) Hackly fracture in native copper; and (d)
Uneven fracture in hematite.

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Experiment 4 Study of Physical Properties of Minerals-I
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Fig. 4.9: Kaolinite (clay mineral) shows earthy fracture.

8) Luster: Luster refers to the general appearance of a mineral surface in the

reflected light. There are two types of luster: metallic and non-metallic.
Minerals with an intermediate luster are said to be sub-metallic.
Metallic luster: Minerals having the brilliant appearance like that of a metal
exhibit metallic luster e.g. galena, pyrite and chalcopyrite.
Non-metallic luster: Minerals with non-metallic luster are generally light
coloured and transmit light. The streak of a non-metallic mineral is either
colourless or very light in colour. The non-metallic luster is of following
types:
 Vitreous: It is the luster of broken glass and is well displayed among
silicates and carbonates, sulphates and the halides and other non-metallic
minerals such as quartz (Fig. 4.10a), feldspars, pyroxenes, etc. When it is
less developed it is termed subvitreous and when not developed at all it is
called dull.
 Resinous: It is the luster of resin, e.g. opal, amber, sphalerite.
 Pearly: It gives the luster of a pearl and is usually observed on mineral
surfaces that are parallel to cleavage planes, e.g. orthoclase, muscovite,
biotite (Fig. 4.10b), selenite.
 Greasy: It appears as if mineral surface is covered with thin layer of oil
due to scattering of light by a microscopically rough surface, e.g.
nepheline, massive quartz.
 Silky: It gives silk like luster to the mineral. It is caused by the reflection of
light from a fine fibrous parallel aggregate. The fibrous variety of gypsum
known as satin spar and the fibrous varieties of asbestos, serpentine,
malachite are a few examples (Fig. 4.10c).
 Waxy: Displays shine like paraffin or wax, e.g. smoky quartz (Fig. 4.1).
 Earthy luster: Exhibits dull luster resembling that of a soil, e.g. bauxite,
clay minerals (Fig. 4.9).
 Adamantine luster: It is exceptionally brilliant luster like that of a diamond
due to mineral’s usually high index of refraction such as in galena,
cassiterite (Fig. 4.10d).

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Fig. 4.10: Metallic luster in pyrite. (Photo credit: Shanu Shukla)

Fig. 4.11: Different types of luster: a) Vitreous luster; b) Pearly luster; c) Earthy
luster, and d) Adamantine luster.

9) Specific Gravity: It determines how heavy a mineral is by its relative weight

to water at 40o C. Water has a specific gravity of 1.0. If a mineral has a
specific gravity of 2.7, it means that it is 2.7 times heavier than water.
Minerals with a specific gravity under 2 are considered light, between 2 and
4.5 averages, and greater than 4.5 heavy. Most minerals with a metallic
luster are heavy. In this experiment, you will not determine this property in
the Laboratory. You will write the already determined values of specific
gravity of the particular mineral.

10) Special Properties: There are some properties like magnetism, taste,
odour and feel which are specific to particular minerals.
Magnetism: Common minerals having magnetism are magnetite (strongly),
chromite (weakly, ilmenite (weakly), and hematite (strongly).

Taste, Odour and Feel: Most minerals have no odour unless they are acted
upon in one of the following ways: moistened, heated, breathed upon, or
rubbed. Realgar can smell like sulphur; kaolinite may smell like wet mud. Only
soluble minerals like halite have a taste, but it is very important that minerals
should not be placed in the mouth or on the tongue. You should not test
this property in the Laboratory.

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Experiment 4 Study of Physical Properties of Minerals-I
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A summary of the testing methods of the commonly used physical properties in
laboratory is given in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Mineral Physical Properties Chart.
Physical
Definition Method of Examination
Property
Observe the specimen and determine its colour
Reflection or absorption of
Colour such as pink, blue, green, yellow, red, white,
light from a mineral
black, etc.
Rub/scratch the specimen on the streak plate and
Colour of a mineral in its determine colour of the powder. Note that it is not
Streak
powdered form recommended for mineral having hardness >7 as
it would scratch the streak plate itself
Amount and type of reflection
Observe the specimen and determine if the
Luster of light by a mineral from its
mineral is metallic or non-metallic in appearance
surface
Put the specimen on a piece of newspaper and
Transparency Capability of a mineral to
determine how sharp and distinct outline of the
or diaphaneity transmit light through itself
texts/ objects are
Generally, it is not seen in most of the laboratory
Crystal Form/ General shape or
samples. However, determine it by examining the
Habit appearance of a mineral
shape of a specimen
Breakage of a mineral along Examine the broken surfaces of the specimen
Cleavage
its crystallographic planes and where light reflects
Breakage of a mineral other Examine the broken surfaces of the specimen
Fracture than along planes of and describe the breakage either irregular or
cleavage conchoidal
You can determine relative hardness of a
Resistance of a mineral to
Hardness specimen by scratching it with objects/ minerals of
scratching
known hardness
Electromagnetic force Use a magnet to check if it is attracted by the
Magnetism
generated by a mineral specimen
It determines relative density
of minerals. It is a ratio of the
Specific Check the relative weight of a specimen by
mass of a mineral to the
Gravity holding it in hand
mass of an equal volume of
water
This is to be done only for carbonate samples like
Chemical interaction of dilute calcite. Determine it by placing a small drop of
Reaction to
hydrochloric acid and calcium dilute HCl on a specimen and check for a reaction
acid
carbonate - effervesces (bubbles). Do not forget to clean the
acid from the sample with flowing water

We have discussed the physical properties used for the identification of minerals. Now we will try to
examine and recognise the physical properties of common rock-forming minerals like quartz,
feldspar, etc. Photographs of the samples from IGNOU Geology museum at the Headquarters have
been provided for your better understanding regarding the identification of the minerals you will be
studying.
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4.4 Physical Properties of Minerals

We will now discuss about the physical properties of some minerals based on
which these minerals can be identified.

4.4.1 QUARTZ
Silica is one of the largest groups of minerals occurring in the Earth’s crust
among which quartz mineral is the most common one. It occurs in nature in
crystalline (e.g., quartz), cryptocrystalline (e.g., chalcedony, flint, chert) and
amorphous forms (e.g., opal). Quartz is tektosilicate. Let us study the physical
properties of quartz (Table 4.3 and Fig. 4.13).
Occurrence: Quartz is a commonly occurring mineral found in igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. It is a major constituent of felsic igneous
rocks and is commonly present in sedimentary rocks like sandstone and shale.
It occurs in schist, gneiss, pegmatite and quartzite, and other related
metamorphic rocks.
Uses: Quartz is used in the manufacturing of ceramics, glass, and toothpaste.
Quartz crystals are used in making of crystal oscillator, computers, watches,
mobile phones and many other electronic devices. Some varieties of quartz are
used as a gemstone due to its high durability, hardness and brilliant shine. `

Table 4.3: Physical Properties of Quartz.

S.N. Physical properties Characteristics
1. Crystal system Trigonal
Colourless or white but occurs in almost every
2. Colour colour e.g. grey, purple, yellow, brown, black,
smoky, pink, green, red
3. Transparency Transparent to translucent and sometimes opaque
Commonly prismatic and can also be massive or
4. Form /Habit
granular
5. Streak White (harder than streak plate)
7 (it is represented on Moh’s scale), cannot be
6. Hardness
scratched with knife
7. Cleavage Absent
8. Fracture Conchoidal
9. Luster Vitreous
10. Specific gravity 2.6 - 2.7
11. Chemical composition SiO2
12. Special property Piezoelectric and pyroelectric
Colour - typically white or transparent but can be of
13. Diagnostic properties variegated colours; fracture - conchoidal; luster -
vitreous; hardness - 7; cleavage - absent

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Fig. 4.13: Different colours shown by quartz mineral though their composition is
silica oxide: a) Prismatic quartz; b) Translucent massive white quartz;
c) Transparent quartz; d) Massive milky quartz; e) Massive smoky
quartz; and f) Amethyst (purple coloured quartz) with partially
developed crystal faces. Note that cleavage is absent in quartz.

4.4.2 ORTHOCLASE
Orthoclase is a tektosilicate, known as K- Feldspar belongs to feldspar group.
The other minerals of the K-feldspar group that are polymorphs of orthoclase
are microcline and sanidine. Orthoclase mostly appears in flesh red colour and
crystallises in monoclinic system. The physical properties of orthoclase are
listed in Table 4.4 and shown in the Fig. 4.14.

Occurrence: Occurs in igneous rocks like granites, granodiorite, syenite and

other felsic igneous rocks and in potassium-rich volcanic igneous rocks like
rhyolite and trachyte. It is also found in sedimentary and some metamorphic
rocks.
Uses: Orthoclase is used as a flux in chemical industry and also in the
manufacturing of glass, ceramics, fertilizers and scouring powder. Moonstone,
a rare variety of orthoclase is used as a gemstone due to its transparent to
translucent appearance.
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Table 4.4: Physical Properties of Orthoclase.
S.N. Physical properties Characteristics
1 Crystal System Monoclinic
Shades of red and pink such as flesh red,
2 Colour
reddish white, light pink, colourless, white grey
3 Transparency Translucent to opaque and rarely transparent
Tabular crystals, somewhat flattened crystals,
4 Form /Habit
massive
5 Streak White
6 Hardness 6
7 Cleavage Two sets of cleavage at 900
8 Fracture Conchoidal, subconchoidal
Pearly on cleavage faces and vitreous on
9 Luster
fractured faces
10 Specific gravity 2.6
11 Chemical composition KAlSi3O8
Colour - flesh red; hardness - 6; cleavage -
perfect two sets at 90o; form – tabular; luster -
12 Diagnostic properties
pearly on cleavage faces and vitreous on
fractured faces

Fig. 4.14: Hand specimen of orthoclase: a) White orthoclase; b) Light pink

coloured orthoclase. Note pearly luster on cleavage surface; and c)
o
Pink orthoclase showing two directions of cleavage at 90 .

4.4.3 MICROCLINE
Microcline is also K-feldspar and is an important rock forming tektosilicate. It is
formed under lower temperature than orthoclase and therefore mineral is more
stable at low temperature than orthoclase. Although microcline crystallises in
triclinic system, it has the same chemical composition (KAlSi3O8) and many
physical properties similar to that of orthoclase. It can be distinguished from
orthoclase by its bright green colour (Fig. 4.15). Physical properties of
microcline are listed in Table 4.5.

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Table 4.5 Physical Properties of Microcline.
S.N. Physical properties Characteristics
1. Crystal system Triclinic
2. Colour Bluish green, bright green, white, grey
3. Transparency Translucent to opaque
4. Form /Habit Tabular crystals, rather flattened crystals, massive
5. Streak White
6. Hardness 6 - 6.5
7. Cleavage Two sets of cleavage at 90
8. Fracture Conchoidal, uneven
9. Luster Vitreous to subvitreous
10. Specific gravity 2.55 - 2.63
11. Chemical composition KAlSi3O8
Colour - bright green; cleavage - two sets at 90 ;
form - tabular to massive;
12. Diagnostic properties
distinguished from orthoclase by its bright green
colour

Occurrence: Microcline forms an important constituent of plutonic igneous

rocks like granites and syenites. Microcline also occurs in metamorphic rocks
and sediments.
Uses: Microcline is used in the manufacturing of glass, porcelain and enamel. It
acts as binding cement on heating. The amazonite (blue-green feldspar) also
called amazonstone is used as an ornamental stone.

Fig. 4.15: Bright green microcline with tabular habit.

4.4.2 PLAGIOCLASE
Plagioclase is represented by end-member series of albite to anorthite. The
members of the series have the same chemical formula, but are represented by
variation in the Na and Ca percentage. Physical properties of plagioclase are
given in Table 4.6 and Fig. 4.16.

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Table 4.6: Physical Properties of Plagioclase.
S.N. Physical properties Characteristics
1. Crystal system Triclinic
White, colourless, cream, grey, yellow, orange,
2. Colour
pink, green, blue, red, brown, black
3. Transparency Transparent to translucent and also opaque
Tabular; massive; columnar; tall prismatic and
4. Form /Habit
short and stubby crystals
5. Streak White
6. Hardness 6 - 6.5
7. Cleavage Two sets of cleavage at 90
8. Fracture Conchoidal, uneven
Vitreous on fracture surface, pearly on cleavage
9. Luster
surfaces
10. Specific gravity 2.6 - 2.8
11. Chemical composition NaAlSi3O8 to CaAl2Si2O8
Colour - pale grey or white; form - tabular;
distinguished from quartz by its two sets of
12. Diagnostic properties cleavages; distinguished from orthoclase and
microcline as the former is flesh pink and latter
is often bright green in colour

Fig. 4.16: Plagioclase showing grey colour and tabular habit. Two set cleavage
and uneven fracture seen.

Occurrence: Plagioclase is an important mineral that occurs most commonly in

igneous rocks like granites, syenites, rhyolites and trachytes. It is also found in
some varieties of ultramafic rocks. It also forms an important constituent of
many metamorphic rocks and immature sediments.
Uses: The mineral is used in making of scouring soap, artificial teeth and as
flux in abrasive wheels. It is also used in the manufacture of pottery, glass,
ceramics and enamels.

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4.4.4 MUSCOVITE
Muscovite forms a common mineral of mica group and is also known as
K-rich mica or common mica. It is a phyllosilcate (sheet silicate) mineral of
hydrated aluminium and potassium.
The physical properties of muscovite are given in Table 4.7 and Fig. 4.17.

Table 4.7: Physical Properties of Muscovite.

S.N. Physical properties Characteristics

1. Crystal system Monoclinic

Appears black, brown or silver but when the mineral

2. Colour
is cleaved into thin sheets, it appears colourless

Transparent to translucent when exposed to bright

3. Transparency
light

Characteristically, occurs in lamellar masses or small

4. Form /Habit
flakes/ foliated; crystals are commonly tabular
5. Streak White
6. Hardness 2.5 - 3
7. Cleavage One set of perfect cleavage
8. Fracture Conchoidal to uneven
9. Luster Pearly to vitreous
10. Specific gravity 2.8 - 2.9
11. Chemical composition KAl2(Si3AlO10)(OH)2
Thin cleavage flakes of the mineral may show
12. Special property asterism (i.e. luminous effect shown by stars and as
seen in some gemstones that reflect light)
Colour - colourless or shinning white, brown or silver;
13. Diagnostic properties transparency; form - sheet like; cleavage - one set;
luster - vitreous and pearly

Occurrence: The mineral muscovite is of magmatic origin and commonly

present in felsic igneous rocks such as granite, granodiorite and
pegmatites. In pegmatites, the muscovite occurs in large crystals called
‘Books’ that cleave into thin paper like sheets. It occurs in metamorphic
rocks like phyllite, mica schist or micaceous gneiss. It is also found in some
immature sedimentary rocks.
Uses: Mica is used as an insulator in electrical equipment. Due to its pearly
luster the mica flakes are used in the manufacturing of cosmetics. Ground
mica is used in making of refractory roofing material, paints, plastics and
rubber products.

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Fig. 4.20: Muscovite showing pearly luster, lamellar habit and one directions of
cleavage.

4.4.5 BIOTITE
Biotite is identified as black mica due to its black colour in appearance. Like
muscovite the mineral biotite too is a phyllosilicate or sheet silicate. In biotite
ions of iron magnesium, aluminium, silicon, oxygen and hydrogen make the
sheet structure that are weakly bounded together with potassium ions. It has
perfect one set cleavage and pearly luster (Fig. 4.21). The physical properties
of biotite are given in Table 4.8.
Occurrence: Biotite is found mostly in acidic and intermediate igneous rocks
and forms an important constituent of schist and gneiss metamorphic rocks. It is
rarely found in sediments and clastic sedimentary rocks.
Uses: Commercially, biotite has less importance than that of muscovite. Biotite
is used in making paints and rubber products. It is also used in the preparation
of drilling muds, coating on surface of asphalt shingles and rolled roofings. It is
also used in dating of rocks. Table 4.8: Physical Properties of Biotite.
S.N. Physical properties Characteristics
1. Crystal system Monoclinic
2. Colour Black, dark green, dark brown
Thin sheets are transparent to translucent, books are
3. Transparency
opaque
Characteristically, it occurs in lamellar masses or small
4. Form /Habit flakes/ foliated; crystals are common and typically as
pseudo-hexagonal prisms
5. Streak White and occasionally greyish flakes
6. Hardness 2.5 - 3
One set perfect cleavage.
7. Cleavage
Thin cleavage flakes are both elastic or flexible
8. Fracture Conchoidal to uneven
9. Luster Vitreous
10. Specific gravity 2.7 - 3.4
11. Chemical composition K(Mg,Fe)2-3Al1-2Si2-3O10(OH,F)2
12. Special property Thin cleavage flakes of the mineral may show asterism
Colour - dark; transparency - thin sheets are transparent
13. Diagnostic properties to translucent; form – lamellar; luster – vitreous; cleavage
- one set perfect

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Fig. 4.18: Biotite exhibiting pearly luster, lamellar habit and one set cleavage.

4.4.6 CALCITE
Calcite is one of the most commonly occurring carbonate minerals. The
physical properties of muscovite are given in Table 4.9.
Now try to identify the physical properties of calcite with the help of photographs
of hand specimens given in Figures 4.19a and b.

Table 4.9: Physical properties of Calcite.

S.N. Physical properties Characteristics
Extremely variable but typically white or colourless or
1. Colour with light shades of yellow, orange, blue, pink, red,
brown, green, black and gray
2. Transparency Transparent to translucent
Crystalline, granular, stalactitic, concretionary,
3. Form /Habit
massive, rhombohedral
4. Streak White
5. Hardness 3
6. Cleavage 3 sets perfect (rhombohedral)
7. Fracture Conchoidal to uneven
8. Luster Vitreous

9. Specific gravity 2.7

10. Chemical composition CaCO3

11. Special property It gives effervescence when reacted with dilute HCL

Colour - typically white or colourless or with light

12. Diagnostic properties shades of variegated colours; hardness - 3; and
cleavage - 3 sets (rhombohedral)

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(a)

(b)
Fig. 4.19: a) Transparent and translucent calcite; and b) Calcite showing 3 set of
rhombohedral cleavage.

Occurrence: Calcite is a commonly occurring mineral and widely spread in the

earth’s crust. It mostly occurs in pure form in nature similar to limestones and
chalk and as a cementing material in other sedimentary rocks. Calcite is richly
found in stalactites and stalagmites which form the cave deposits. Marble, is a
metamorphic rock where the mineral calcite is found almost in its pure from. It is
rarely found in igneous rocks such as carbonatite. Calcite is commonly found as
vesicular fillings in igneous rocks.
Uses: Limestone is mostly used in construction material. It is used in the
manufacturing of cement, glass, fertilizers and chemicals. ‘Iceland spar’ a best
known variety of calcite is used in the manufacturing of nicol prism of polarising
microscopes.

4.5 LABORATORY EXERCISES

Study the physical properties of common rock forming minerals like quartz,
orthoclase, plagioclase, microcline, muscovite, biotite and calcite by following
the instructions given here:
1. Get hand lens, pen knife, streak plate, coin, hardness box, broken glass
piece and mineral specimen from your academic counsellor.
2. Study the physical properties of the mineral by taking mineral specimen in
hand and observe its properties with the help of the devices provided by
your academic counsellor.
3. Write down all the properties of the mineral specimen that you have
observed in the laboratory file and infer its diagnostic /special properties
from the physical properties that you have examined.

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4. From the physical properties and especially the diagnostic/special
properties you have observed and known, identify the mineral name and
write it on the laboratory file.
5. Finally, write down the mineral occurrences and uses from the knowledge
you have gained while studying the theory and practical courses.
6. If you find any problem during the study of the mineral specimens do not
hesitate to ask your counsellor.
7. Handle the mineral specimens and all the devices provide to you with great
care and do not damage them.
Exercise 1: Identify the given mineral specimen by studying its physical
properties and write them in your laboratory file.
Study all the minerals one by one as identified above and write the physical
properties of the mineral specimens in the manner as listed below. Also
mention the diagnostic physical properties used by you for the identification of
that particular mineral.

S.N. Physical properties Characteristics

1. Crystal system

2. Colour

3. Transparency
4. Form /Habit
5. Streak
6. Hardness
7. Cleavage
8. Fracture
9. Luster
10. Specific gravity
11. Chemical composition

12. Special property

13. Diagnostic properties

Exercise 2: Write the occurrence and uses of the minerals studied by you,
belonging to feldspar and mica groups.

Exercise 3: How would you distinguish between cleavage and fracture. Explain
by giving suitable examples.

4.6 REFERENCE

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 Bates, R.L. and J.A. Jackson (eds.) (1987) Glossary of Geology, American
Geological Institute, Alexandria, VA, 788 p.
 Busch, R.M. (Ed.) (2015) Laboratory Manual in Physical Geology, 10th
Edition, Pearson, Delhi.

4.7 LEARNING RESOURCES

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2RGL3XB2x3E&t=2s
 https://geology.com/minerals/quartz.shtml
 http://geologyscience.com/minerals/quartz/#Quartz_Physical_Properties
 http://geologyscience.com/minerals/orthoclase
 https://geology.com/minerals/plagioclase.shtml
 http://geologyscience.com/minerals/microcline
 https://geology.com/minerals/calcite.shtml

Note: Use this cleavage goniometer for measuring cleavage angles.

(Source: Busch, R.M. (Ed.) (2015) Laboratory Manual in Physical
Geology, 10th Edition, Pearson, Delhi).

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 EXPERIMENT 5

STUDY OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF

MINERALS-II

Structure________________________________________
5.1 Introduction 5.7 Garnet
Expected Skills 5.8 Kyanite
5.2 Requirements
5.9 Nepheline
5.3 Olivine
5.10 Chlorite
5.4 Augite
5.11 Epidote
5.5 Hypersthene
5.12 Class Room Exercises
5.6 Hornblende
5.13 Learning Resources

5.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous Experiment 4, you have identified the minerals belonging to feldspar and mica
groups and quartz based on the physical properties. Similarly, in this experiment you will identify
some rock forming minerals such as olivine, augite, hypersthene, hornblende, garnet, kyanite,
nepheline, chlorite and epidote by studying their physical properties and diagnostic
characteristics. You are advised to read the Section 4.3 of the previous experiment carefully to
recall the physical properties for mineral identification.

Expected Skills_____________________________________________
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:
 recognise the minerals in hand specimen based on their physical properties;
 identify some common rock-forming minerals like olivine, augite, hypersthene;
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 recognise minerals like hornblende, garnet, kyanite, nepheline, chlorite,
epidote; and
 learn about occurrence and uses of these minerals.

5.2 REQUIREMENTS
You will require the following to perform this experiment successfully:
 Hand lens, pen knife, streak plate, coin, hardness box, glass plate
 Laboratory file, pen/ pencil and eraser
 Hand specimens of hornblende, garnet, kyanite, nepheline, chlorite,
epidote, olivine, augite, hypersthene.
Note:
 Do not use pen/pencil/marker pen to mark the hand specimen of the
mineral.
 Please do not attempt to cleave the minerals in the laboratory. Many of
the specimens you examine cannot be readily replaced.
 Do not break the mineral in order to see its cleavage. Cleavage is
usually induced in the mineral when it is extracted from the rock it is
found in, and is usually seen as planes running through the mineral.
Instructions: You are required to study Units 4, 5 and 6 of BGYCT-133
course (Crystallography, Mineralogy and Economic Geology) before
performing this experiment. Bring this practical manual along with Block
1 of BGYCT-133 course while attending the Practical Counselling session.
You have read in Unit 4 Minerals of BGYCT-133 course that the physical
properties of minerals are helpful in their identification. Each mineral displays
some physical properties that can be recognised megascopically. Minerals
show some of the important physical properties like colour, transparency,
streak, lustre, hardness, specific gravity, form, fracture and cleavage. The
diagnostic properties are unique properties that each mineral possess and on
their basis the mineral can be easily identified.

5.3 OLIVINE
Olivine is a nesosilicate mineral. The physical properties of olivine are given in
Table 5.1. Now try to identify the physical properties of olivine with the help of
photograph of hand specimen given in Fig. 5.1.

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Fig. 5.1: Granular form of olivine.

Table 5.1: Physical Properties of Olivine.

S.N. Physical properties Characteristics

1. Crystal system Orthorhombic

2. Colour It is olive green, but also shows yellow-green to bright green

3. Transparency Opaque
Mostly granular or massive and sometimes foliated, crystals
4. Form /Habit
are uncommon,
5. Streak Colourless or white grey
6. Hardness 6.5-7
7. Cleavage Absent
8. Fracture Conchoidal

9. Lustre Vitreous, dull

10. Specific gravity 3.2-4.4

11. Chemical composition (Mg Fe)2 SiO4

Colour - olive green; form - granular or massive; lustre -

12. Diagnostic properties
vitreous to dull; cleavage - absent; cleavage

Occurrence: Olivine is magmatic in origin and occurs in both mafic and

ultramafic igneous rocks. Dunite is the monomineralic rock which is totally
made of olivine mineral. It occurs in some metamorphic rocks as a primary
mineral. It is uncommonly present in sedimentary rocks due to its susceptible
nature to weathering.
Uses: Olivine is less commonly used in industry. It is used in blast furnaces for
removal of impurities from iron. It is often used in metallurgical processes as a

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slag conditioner. The minerals peridot and chrysolite are the precious
transparent varieties of olivine which are used as gemstones.

5.4 AUGITE
Augite is a single chain inosilicate structure. It is commonly a rock forming
mineral and crystallises in monoclinic system. The physical properties of augite
are given in Table 5.2 and Fig. 5.2.
Occurrence: Augite is a common rock forming mineral mostly found in mafic
and ultramafic igneous rocks like basalt, gabbro, peridotite, etc. It is also found
in diorite, granodiorite and andesite. Iron-rich composition can appear even in
syenite and alkali granite. It is present in metamorphic rocks like amphibolite,
hornblende gneiss, granulite. Due to its susceptibility to weathering, it is
uncommonly found in sedimentary rocks.
Uses: Augite is one of the few minerals which have less economic importance.
But ‘Shajar’ a transparent variety of augite is used as gemstone.

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Table 5.2: Physical Properties of Augite.
S.N. Physical properties Characteristics
1. Crystal system Monoclinic
Dark or dull green color, green, greyish-green, greenish
2. Colour
brown, dark brown, black
3. Transparency Opaque
Occurs as prismatic crystals and stubby crystals are also
4. Form /Habit common; the other forms are columnar, granular, massive,
lamellar, fibrous
5. Streak White to light green
6. Hardness 5-6
Two set of perfect prismatic cleavage (cleavage angle
7. Cleavage
87º and 93º)
8. Fracture Uneven to splintery
9. Lustre Vitreous
10. Specific gravity 3.2-3.3
Chemical (Ca, Na) (Mg, Fe, Al) (Si, Al)2 O6
11.
composition
Diagnostic Colour – dark green, black; form – prismatic; cleavage - two
12.
properties directions of cleavage with angle 87º and 93º

Fig. 5.2: Dark green coloured augite mineral showing prismatic form. Notice one
set distinct cleavage and second set indistinct cleavage.

5.5 HYPERSTHENE
Hypersthene mineral like augite is a common rock- forming mineral. It is an
inosilcate that is classified under pyroxene group of minerals. It crystallizes in
orthorhombic system and forms an important iron rich orthopyroxene.
Hypersthene is an intermediate member of solid solution series with two end
members - enstatite and ferrosilite. A special property shown by hypersthene is
the display of colour in natural light known as schillerisation. The physical
properties of hypersthene are given in Table 5.3 and Fig. 5.3.
Table 5.3: Physical Properties of Hypersthene.
S.N. Physical properties Characteristics
1. Crystal system Orthorhombic
2. Colour Brown, grey, green, yellow-brown, greenish-brown, black

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3. Transparency Opaque
4. Form /Habit Occurs as prismatic stubby crystals and aggregates of
rectangular crystals (Fig. 5.3)
5. Streak Light brown to greyish-white
6. Hardness 5-6
7. Cleavage Two set of perfect prismatic cleavage (cleavage angle
87º and 93º), parting is common
8. Fracture Uneven, brittle
9. Lustre Waxy, submetallic
10. Specific gravity 3.2-3.3
11. Chemical composition (MgFe)SiO3
12. Special property Schillerisation
13. Diagnostic properties Colour - dark brown; Form - prismatic stubby crystal;
lustre - waxy or submetallic; cleavage - two sets with
cleavage angle 87º and 93º,

Fig. 5.3: Hypersthene showing brown colour, stubby prismatic crystals and waxy
lustre.

Occurrence: Hypersthene forms a constituent mineral of plutonic and volcanic

igneous rocks. It is also found in metamorphosed igneous rocks and in stony
meteorites.
Uses: Hypersthene is used as a gemstone.

5.6 HORNBLENDE
Hornblende belongs to amphibole group and it has a double chain inosilcate
structure. Hornblende is a complex mixture of basic silicates of sodium,
calcium, magnesium, and aluminum and is given by a general formula as show
below:
(Ca,Na)2–3(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Al,Si)8O22(OH,F)2

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The physical properties of hornblende are given in Table 5.4 and Fig. 5.4.
Table 5.4: Physical properties of hornblende.
S.N. Physical properties Characteristics

1. Crystal system Monoclinic

2. Colour Black, dark green, dark brown, dark grey (Fig. 5.4a)
3. Transparency Opaque
4. Form /Habit Mostly ccurs as prismatic or tabular crystals with a
diamond-shaped cross-section; also as dense groups
of platy or grainy crystals; occasionally as columnar,
radiating, acicular, fibrous and massive; individual
crystals are rare
5. Streak Grey or pale green
6. Hardness 5-6
7. Cleavage Two sets of prismatic cleavage (cleavage angle
124º and 56º) see Fig. 5.4
8. Fracture Uneven, splintery
9. Lustre Vitreous
10. Specific gravity 2.9-3.4
11. Chemical (Ca Na)2-3 (Mg Fe Al)5 Si6 (Si Al)2 O22 (OH)2
composition
12. Diagnostic Colour - dark green, dark brown; form – prismatic, crystal
properties aggregates; cleavage – 2 set with cleavage angle124º
and 56º (Fig. 5.4b)

(a) (b)
Fig. 6.4: a) Hornblende showing prismatic form and vitreous lustre; and b) Two
o o
set cleavage at 124 -56 .

Occurrence: Hornblende is a commonly occurring rock-forming mineral of

igneous rocks (granite, syenite, diorite, gabbro, basalt, andesite) and
metamorphic rocks (gneiss, schist). Hornblendite is a dark coloured rock
typically formed with major constituent of hornblende mineral.
Uses: Hornblende is a rarely used mineral. It is used in knowing the depth of
formation of plutonic rocks and as well as in mineral exploration.
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5.7 GARNET
Garnet minerals have a nesosilicate structure with divalent and trivalent cations.
They are equidimensional minerals and have the ability to occur as
independent crystals. The general formula of garnet minerals being X3Y2Si3O12 ,
where X = divalent ions such as Ca2+, Mg, Fe, Mn etc., and Y = trivalent ions
such as Al3+,Fe,Cr , Ti etc. You have read about the principal minerals of garnet
group in BGYCT-133 course.
The physical properties of garnet are given in Table 5.5. You can see
rhombohedral form of garnet in Fig. 5.5a.

(a)

(b)
Fig. 5.5: a) Rhomboherdal form of garnet.; and b) Reddish brown colour natural
garnet with its faceted counterparts from Bastar, Chhattisgarh. (Photo
credit: Dr. Sandeep Vansutre)
Occurrence: Garnet is a typical mineral found in metamorphic rocks and in few
igneous rocks, particularly granites and granitic pegmatites formed under
conditions of high temperature and pressure. The mineral almandine is
commonly present in metamorphic rocks and minerals such as pyrope and
uvarovite are generally found in ultrabasic rocks like kimberlite and peridotite.
Garnet is present in clastic sedimentary rocks as heavy fraction.
Uses: Garnet is used as a gemstone. Due to its hardness, absence of cleavage
and affinity to break into uneven grains makes the mineral more suitable for
using it as an abrasive.

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Table 5.5: Physical Properties of Garnet.
S.N. Physical properties Characteristics
1. Crystal system Isometric
Commonly red or reddish brown, orange pink
2. Colour
colour, pale brown, pale green colour
3. Transparency Transparent to opaque
Crystals (rhombododecahedron form)
4. Form /Habit
common, also occurs as granular, massive
5. Streak White or grey
6. Hardness 6.5-7.5
7. Cleavage Absent
8. Fracture Conchoidal to uneven
9. Lustre Vitreous to resinous
10. Specific gravity 3.5-4.3
11. Chemical composition Fe3Al2(SiO4)3 (almandine)
Colour - reddish brown colour; form -
12. Diagnostic properties rhombododecahedron, massive; hardness -
6.5-7.5; cleavage - absent

5.8 Kyanite
Kyanite is a aluminum silicate group mineral and has a nesosilicate structure.
The physical properties of kyanite are given in Table 5.6. You can observe the
bladed form and typical blue colour in kyanite in Fig. 5.6.

Fig. 5.6: Note inky bluish grey colour and bladed form of kyanite.

Occurrence: Kyanite mainly occurs in metamorphic rocks such as

schists and gneisses. It is also found in sedimentary rocks as detrital grains in
heavy mineral fraction.
Uses: Mineral kyanite is used in the manufacture of grinding wheels and cutting
wheels due to its hardness. It is also used in the manufacture of ample variety
of products such as abrasives, insulators, ceramics and refractories. It is used
as an index mineral to know the different conditions like pressure, temperature
and depth under which the rock as undergone metamorphism. Some of its
varieties are used as gemstones.
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Table 5.6: Physical Properties of Kyanite.
S.N. Physical properties Characteristics
1. Crystal System Triclinic
Normally light to dark blue, indigo-blue, shades
2. Colour of blue; rarely colourless, white, grey, green,
orange, or black
3. Transparency Transparent to translucent
Generally occurs as long and slender bladed
4. Form /Habit crystals. Also occurs as radiating, reticulated
and flattened tabular crystals
5. Streak White, colourless
It has hardness of 4.5 to 5 along the length and
6. Hardness
6.5 to 7 across the width of the crystal
Perfect in two directions, exceptionally we find
7. Cleavage
the faces to be striated
8. Fracture Uneven to hackly
9. Lustre Vitreous, greasy
10. Specific gravity 3.5-3.7
11. Chemical composition Al2SiO5
Colour - blue to indigo; form - bladed; hardness
- variable 4.5 to 5 along the length of the crystal
12. Diagnostic properties
and 6.5 to 7 across the width of the crystal ;
cleavage - 2 sets; crystal faces are striated

5.9 NEPHELINE
Nepheline is a rock-forming mineral of feldspathoid group rich in potassium
aluminosilicates. Nepheline is also called as ‘nephelite’ and it is mostly found in
alkali rich rocks like nepheline syenite. It is a tectosilicate mineral. Massive
variety of nepheline with a greasy lustre is named as ‘eleolite’.
The physical properties of nepheline are given in Table 5.7 and Fig. 5.7.

Fig. 5.7: Inky blue nepheline.

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Table 5.7: Physical Properties of Nepheline.

S.N. Physical properties Characteristics
1. Crystal System Hexagonal
2. Colour White, grey or bluish
3. Transparency Translucent to opaque
Crystals uncommon, often massive or granular,
4. Form /Habit
rarely prismatic to columnar crystals
Colourless, white and to some extent reddish
5. Streak
white
6. Hardness 5.5-6
Poor in three directions, prismatic, but rarely
7. Cleavage
seen One set of cleavage is distinct
8. Fracture Subconchoidal to uneven
9. Lustre Vitreous or greasy
10. Specific gravity 2.60-2.65
Chemical Na3KAl4Si4O16
11.
composition
Reactive to acids and it does not bubble like
12. Special property
many of the carbonates
Colour- greyish, bluish, inky blue; form-
13. Diagnostic properties
coarsely crystallized; lustre-greasy

Occurrence: Generally, nepheline occurs in alkali rich and silica deficient

rocks. It is found in both the plutonic and volcanic igneous rocks and in
pegmatite associated with nepheline syenite.
Uses: Nepheline serves as an ore of aluminium. Pure nepheline and nepheline-
feldspars are used in the manufacture of ceramics and glass. It is also used in
the extraction of rare alkaline metals and gallium.

5.10 CHLORITE
Chlorite group represents the sheet silicate (phyllosilicate) minerals formed
during early phases of metamorphism. Clinochlore, pennantite and chamosite
form the common minerals of the chlorite group.
The physical properties of chlorite are given in Table 5.8 and Fig. 5.8.
Occurrence : They are found in all the three types of rocks such as igneous,
metamorphic and to a less extent in sedimentary rocks. They are found in the
rocks formed by hydrothermal activity or contact metamorphism. Chlorite
occurs in low-grade schists of metamorphic rocks. It is abundantly found as
alteration product of biotite and other ferromagnesium minerals in igneous
rocks. It is also found in fraction of clay rich sediments. It occurs in some
sedimentary iron ores like chamosite (an iron-rich chlorite).
Uses: Commercially, the mineral chlorite has less importance. It is mostly used
as a crushed stone.

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Fig. 5.8: Green colour flaky chlorite.

Table 5.8: Physical Properties of Chlorite.

S.N. Physical properties Characteristics
1. Crystal System Monoclinic
Typically green, but some varieties show orange to
2. Colour
brown, violet
3. Transparency Transparent to translucent
Commonly found as scaly aggregates and as fine
4. Form /Habit
grained and earthy masses
5. Streak White, pale green
6. Hardness 2.5
7. Cleavage Perfect, cleavage flakes are flexible but not elastic
8. Fracture Uneven
9. Lustre Vitreous to earthy
10. Specific gravity 2.7- 2.9
11. Chemical composition (Mg,Fe)5Al((Al,Si)3O10(OH)8
Colour: typical green colour; form- scaly aggregates;
12. Diagnostic properties cleavage-perfect cleavage and flakes are flexible but
not elastic

5.11 EPIDOTE
The common minerals of the group are zoisite, clinozoisite, epidote and allanite.
The physical properties of epidote are given in Table 5.9 and Fig. 5.9.
Occurrence: Epidote is found as principal constituent of calcium aluminium
silicates of low and medium grade metamorphic rocks. It occurs in contact-
metamorphosed limestones that are found in association with iron ores. It is
found commonly with zeolites associated with amygdules and other cavity
structures of basalts.

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Uses: Commercially the epidote mineral has less industrial value. It is less
importantly used as a gemstone.
Table 5.9: Physical Properties of Epidote.
S.N. Physical properties Characteristics
1. Crystal System Monoclinic
Pistachio green, yellowish to brownish green
2. Colour
to black
3. Transparency Transparent to translucent
4. Form /Habit Commonly granular and massive, fibrous
5. Streak White or greyish white
6. Hardness 7
7. Cleavage Perfect
8. Fracture Uneven
9. Lustre Vitreous
10. Specific gravity 3.3-3.6
Chemical Ca2 (Al,Fe) 3(SiO4)3(OH)
11.
composition
Colour - Pistachio green, yellowish green
12. Diagnostic properties colour; form - granular form, hardness 7,
perfect cleavage

Fig. 5.9: Pistachio green, massive and granular epidote.

5.12 LABORATORY EXERCISES

Study the physical properties of common rock forming minerals like olivine,
augite, hypersthene, hornblende, garnet, kyanite, nepheline, chlorite and
epidote by following the instructions given here:

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1. Get hand lens, pen knife, streak plate, coin, hardness box, broken glass
piece and mineral specimen from your academic counsellor.
2. Study the physical properties of the mineral by taking mineral specimen in
hand and observe its properties with the help of the devices provided by
your academic counsellor.
3. Write down all the properties of the mineral specimen that you have
observed in the laboratory file and infer its diagnostic /special properties
from the physical properties that you have examined.
4. From the physical properties and especially the diagnostic/special
properties you have observed and known, identify the mineral name and
write it on the laboratory file.
5. Finally, write down the mineral occurrences and uses from the knowledge
you have gained while studying the theory and practical courses.
6. If you find any problem during the study of the mineral specimens do not
hesitate to ask your counsellor.
7. Handle the mineral specimens and all the devices provide to you with great
care and do not damage them.
Exercise 1: Identify the given mineral specimen by studying its physical
properties and write them in your laboratory file.
Study all the minerals one by one as identified above and write the physical
properties of the mineral specimens in the manner as listed below. Also
mention the diagnostic physical properties used by you for the identification of
that particular mineral.

S.N. Physical properties Characteristics

1. Crystal system

2. Colour

3. Transparency

4. Form /Habit

5. Streak

6. Hardness

7. Cleavage

8. Fracture

9. Lustre

10. Specific gravity

11. Chemical composition

12. Special property

13. Diagnostic properties

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Exercise 2: Write the occurrence and uses of the minerals studied by you,
belonging to pyroxene and amphibole groups.

Exercise 3: How would you distinguish between following pairs:

 Augite and hypersthene
 Augite and hornblende
 Nepheline and kyanite
 Chlorite and epidote
 Garnet and olivine
Exercise 4: Write the occurrence and uses of olivine, epidote, chlorite and
olivine.

5.13 LEARNING RESOURCES

 Microscopic Study of Basaltic Rocks
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2RGL3XB2x3E&t=2s
 Identifying the Rock forming minerals
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n5p0hHZT2gg
 Specific Gravity | Physical Properties of Minerals
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o0WGcvG1YBk

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 EXPERIMENT 6

USE OF POLARISING MICROSCOPE

Structure_____________________________________________________

6.1 Introduction 6.4 Optical Properties of Minerals

Expected Skills Under Plane Polarised Light

6.2 Requirements Between Cross Nicol

6.3 Basic Concepts 6.5 Laboratory Exercises

Parts and Functioning of Polarising Microscope 6.6 References
Adjustments of Microscope 6.7 Learning Resources

6.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous two experiments, you have identified minerals based on their physical properties. Now
in the next two experiments, you would learn to identify the same minerals based on their optical
properties. The optical properties are studied under the polarising/petrological microscope, using
transmitted light. So, prior to that get familiarised with a polarising microscope you will be using for
mineral identification. You will be handling and working on polarising microscope for the first time. In
this experiment, you will learn the use of polarising microscope for the study of minerals. In this
experiment we will give a brief account of polarising microscope and its functioning in the
identification of minerals. You will also learn about the optical properties used for the identification of
minerals both under polarised light and cross nicol condition. With the help of these optical properties
you will examine and identify the minerals in the subsequent Experiments 7 and 8.

Expected Skills_______________________________________________
After performing this experiment, you should be able to
 describe polarising microscope;
 discuss functioning and parts of the polarising microscope;
 make necessary adjustments in the microscope for its usage;
 list optical properties of the minerals under plane polarised light, and
BGYCL-134 Crystallography, Mineralogy and Economic Geology: Laboratory
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 list optical properties of the minerals in cross nicol condition.

6.2 REQUIREMENTS
You need to have a polarising microscope in order to know its handling and
use. You will get this microscope from your study centre. If the number of
microscopes is limited in the study centre, you are advised to work in groups.
You would also require thin section of the mineral.

Requirements
Polarising
microscope
Mineral thin sections

Instructions: You are required to study Unit 4 Polarising Microscope of

BGYCT-133 course (Crystallography, Mineralogy and Economic Geology)
before performing this experiment. Bring this practical manual along with
Block 3 Optical Mineralogy of BGYCT-133 course while attending the
Practical Counselling session.

6.3 BASIC CONCEPTS

A polarising microscope, also known as petrological microscope, is a type of
microscope that uses polarised and transmitted light for study of optical
properties of the crystalline material such as minerals and rocks. The polarising
microscopes are of two types:
 transmitted light microscope used for the study of rocks and minerals; and

 reflected light microscope used for the study of opaque minerals, mostly
ores.
In this experiment, we will discuss about transmitted light polarising microscope
in details.

6.3.1 Parts and Functioning of Polarising Microscope

A transmitted light polarising microscope is different from other microscopes as
it is equipped with two polars (i.e., nicol prisms) that are oriented at right angles
to each other so that their polarisation directions are perpendicular to one
another (Fig. 6.1 and 6.2). The lower polarising nicol is called as the ‘polariser’
and the upper as ‘analyser’ as it aids analysis. Light source located below the
stage of the microscope is initially unpolarised. It first passes through the lower
polariser (usually, just called the polariser), where it gets polarised in the
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manner that the light starts vibrating from (the users) right to left. These
directions are referred to East (right) and West (left). This is called Plane
Polarised Light (abbreviated as PPL). The analyser is similar to polariser, but
is oriented at right angle to polariser. It has a polarisation direction exactly
perpendicular to that of the lower polariser. These directions are usually
referred to North-South (Fig. 6.2a and b).

Fig. 6.1: Polarising microscope and important components.

When the analyser is inserted in the microscope, without a thin section of

mineral specimen then the field of view becomes dark, provided polariser and
analyser must be at 90º to each other. Small difference in the angle will little
amount of light to pass through and field of view will not be perfectly dark. In
cross nicol condition the analyser receives light vibrating in an East-West
direction from the polariser, but because of orientation cannot transmit it, as it is
absorbed. The above arrangement of analyser to polariser is referred to as
cross polars or cross nicol condition and is abbreviated as XPL.
Let us discuss different parts of the polarising microscope and their functioning.
 Concave mirror: Near the base of the polarising microscope, there is a
concave mirror which reflects the ordinary light upwards (Fig. 6.1). The
source of light may be natural like sunlight or an artificial, for example, an
electric bulb.

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 Polariser: The ordinary light which is initially unpolarised, becomes
polarised after passing through the polariser. The light leaves the polariser
and starts vibrating parallel to the short diagonal of the nicol prism. This light
first passes through the lower polariser (also known as polariser), where it
becomes polarised and vibrates from the users right to left. These directions
are referred to as East (right) and West (left).
 Sub-stage Diaphragm(s): One or two diaphragms may be located below
the stage. Function of the diaphragms is to reduce the area of light entering
the thin section.

(a) (b)
Fig. 6.2: Polarising Microscope: a) Parts and functioning; and b) Optical path of
transmitted light.

 Mineral Plate on Graduated Rotating Disc or Stage: The graduated

rotatable disc, on which thin section of the mineral or rock is placed, lies in
between the two nicols. The microscopic stage or disc is capable of rotation
and can be locked at any point. It is employed for precise angular
measurement. The light entering from the polariser is resolved into two
vibration directions at right angles to each another. They are parallel to the
vibration direction of the mineral. Hence, two rays leave the mineral plate.
 Objective lens: It is placed at lower end of the microscope tube. Its function
is to produce a sharp and clear image. The light passing through a hole in
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the rotatable stage of the microscope enters the lower lens, called an
objective lens. For mineralogical work, there are three objectives: low,
medium and high power for image magnification as may be required. These
objectives are mounted on nose piece and can be successively rotated into
position.
 Microscope tube: The microscope is focused by moving the tube up and
down. The focusing is done by adjusting both the coarse and fine knobs.
 Analyser: It is the second polariser called analyser mounted within the
microscope tube. It can be pushed in and out so that it can be in the light
path (inserted position) or out of the light path (analyser out position or
without analyser). If the analyser is out such that it is not in the light path
then the polarised light is transmitted through the ocular lens. If the analyser
is in, then the plane polarised light coming from the lower polariser is
blocked and no light is transmitted though the ocular lens above. We have
discussed this phenomenon in the earlier section. We have discussed earlier
that the rays leaving the mineral plate are broken into two vibrations. One
ray is parallel to the long diagonal, which is reflected out. And the other ray
is parallel to the short diagonal of the analyser that reaches the eye piece.
 Ocular/eye piece: It is placed at the upper end of the microscope tube. The
eye piece merely enlarges the image including any imperfection resulted
from poor quality objective. The eye piece in the microscope contains cross-
wires.
 Bertrand Lens: It is used to study minerals in convergent light or under
conoscopic condition. It is inserted into the upper microscope tube.
 Condensing Lens: It is also called condenser or convergent lens. It is a
small hemispherical lens attached to a bar so that it can be inserted. This
lens is used when Bertrand lens is inserted. Both condensing lens and
Bertrand lens are used in case of conoscopic illumination.
The polarising microscope may be assembled either for orthoscopic or
conoscopic illumination. The orthoscopic arrangement provides the eye with
a realistic virtual image with a flat field, showing mineral thin section on the
microscopic stage. If the observation is made under an orthoscopic condition,
either with the polariser alone (in case of plane polarised light) or with the
analyser and polariser both (in case of cross nicol) are used. If the observations
are made in conoscopic arrangement, Bertrand lens and the condenser both
are used.
With the help of polarising microscope, it is possible to study and identify the
minerals and rocks in detail. We hope that now you are familiar with the parts
and working of the polarising microscope.

6.3.2 Adjustments of Microscope

It is important to note that several types of adjustments that need to be made
before examining a thin section of a mineral/rock under the microscope. The
main purpose of the adjustments is to bring all parts of the microscope at a
suitable position so that the thin section can be studied properly.

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 Focusing: There are two types of focusing adjustments in microscope:
coarse and fine, which are carried out by turning the coarse and fine focus
knobs mounted at the left and right sides of the microscope tube. Rotating
these knobs moves the microscope stage up and down. This adjustment
will help you in focusing the microscope in accordance with the lenses so
that the thin section is clearly visible through the eyepiece.
 Ocular adjustment: We know that human beings have variable eyesight.
For clear examination of thin section under the microscope, it is required
that cross-wires of the ocular(s) should be focused as per the eyesight of
the users. The cross-wires of ocular(s) can be brought into focus by
adjusting the height of the eye lens by rotating the eye lens.
 Illumination adjustment: To study a thin section under the microscope,
the thin section must be illuminated by a light source. There are mostly two
kinds of light source for microscope, namely, an external light and a built-in
(i.e. internal) light. Generally, microscopes use an external light source, in
which a thin section is illuminated by directing the light from the Sun or
from a bulb/lamp. This light is directed via a small movable circular (flat or
concave) mirror attached to the base of the microscope, which further
passes upward through a system of lenses and mirrors and illuminates the
thin section. You may fix the intensity of the illumination by moving the
mirror. The built-in light source is located in the modern microscopes to
illuminate thin section. Here the intensity of light is adjusted by inserting or
removing the filters.
 Centering the objectives: In general, centering of the microscope
involves all the optical components such as light source, polars, condenser,
objective, ocular as well as the rotatable microscope stage must be aligned
on a common central axis. This should coincide with the vertical axis of the
microscope, i.e. the direction of vertical light rays in the microscope (Raith
et al., 2012). It is important to center a microscope before we proceed to
study thin section. If centering of the microscope is not done prior to its
uses, it could be possible that the mineral under study may not be visible in
the center of the field of view of the microscope. It may also not remain at a
constant position while rotating the stage. Therefore, it becomes difficult for
us to study the optical properties of the mineral. Hence, it would become
necessary for us that the lens axis of the objective must be aligned or
coincided with the axis of the rotation of the stage. For centering the
objectives, the simple procedure is as follows:
a) Insert a thin section onto the rotatable microscope stage and select a
small grain in the thin section while viewing at ocular.
b) Rotate the stage; if the selected grain or object remains stationary in its
central position, it indicates that the objective is centered.
c) If the selected grain does not remain stationary, it indicates that the
objective is not centered and it needs to be centered.
d) The centering of the objectives can be done by adjusting the centering
screws (provided by the manufacturer) located in the objective casing or
the nose piece using the centering tools available with the microscope.
While centering, if you find that the centre of rotation of the circular path
of the selected grain coincides with the intersection cross-wires of the
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ocular while rotation of the stage, it indicates that the objectives is
centered.

6.4 OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

We have discussed polarising microscope as well as its working and
adjustments. Let us now study optical properties of minerals that you will study
under the microscope. Minerals in thin sections are examined in the following
two positions:
 Under Plane Polarised Light (PPL).
 Between Cross Nicol / Cross Polar (XP).
 Let us list optical properties of minerals studied under plane polarised light
and under cross nicol condition (Table 6.1).
Table 6.1: Optical properties of minerals under plane polarised light and
in cross nicol condition.

S.No. Plane Polarised Under Cross Nicol

Light condition
(PPL) - Analyser Out (XP) - Analyser In

1. Colour Isotropism / Anisotropism

2. Pleochroism Interference colours

3. Form/ Habit Extinction/ extinction

angle
4. Cleavage Twinning

5. Relief/ Refractive
Index
6. Twinkling

6.4.1 Under Plane Polarised Light

1. Colour: In the thin section, a mineral can appear as opaque or non-opaque.
 Non-opaque minerals: If a mineral is transparent or translucent, first its
colour is required to be determined. The coloured minerals in thin
section are much less diverse than those in hand specimen. Many
minerals that appear pink, green, yellow, blue or even black may be
completely colourless or nearly so in thin sections. Some minerals
appear colourless such as quartz, feldspar, whereas minerals like
hornblende, biotite are strongly coloured.
 Opaque minerals: Mostly, metallic minerals are opaque such as
hematite (Fe2O3), magnetite (Fe3O4), pyrite (FeS2). Their grains have
sharp boundaries and appear black or brownish black under PPL.

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2. Pleochroism: Change in quality and quantity of the colour is observed in
some minerals on rotation of the stage. Pleochroism is the variation in
colour resulting from differential absorption of wavelength in different
directions. This property is exhibited by some of the coloured anisotropic
minerals, e.g., biotite shows light yellowish brown to greenish and dark
brown (Fig. 6.3a). Hornblende exhibits light green to dark green (Fig. 6.3b).

(a) (b)
Fig. 6.3: Minerals showing strong pleochroism: a) Biotite shows light yellowish
brown to greenish and dark brown shades
(Source: http://minerva.union.edu/hollochk/c_petrology/ig_minerals.htm); and
b) Hornblende shows light green to dark green shades. (Photo credit:
Mageswari Gayu)

3. Form: We shall consider two aspects in this study i.e. shape and habit.
A) Shape: We can observe following fundamental shapes of the minerals
under the microscope:
 Euhedral: Complete outline or boundary of the mineral grain is seen
such as, hexagonal or rectangular (Fig. 6.4a).
 Subhedral: Only partial outline or boundary of the mineral grain is
observed (Fig. 6.4b).
 Anhedral: The minerals grains are irregular in shape and the grain
boundaries are not visible (Fig. 6.4c).

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 6.4: Fundamental shapes of mineral grains: a) Euhedral; b) Subhedral; and c)
Anhedral.

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B) Habit: It reflects natural state of growth of the minerals. This is very useful in
recognition of those minerals that are characteristically well developed, such
as garnet, zircon and sphene. Many minerals like hornblende usually exhibit
a distinctive prismatic habit; zeolites (only natrolite, not all) have radiating
acicular crystals. Tabular habit is characteristic of feldspars. Mica is flaky in
nature.
Let us now list the commonly recognised habits.
 Equant: The length and width of a crystal are nearly equal (Fig. 6.5a).
 Prismatic or columnar: The length is more than the width of the crystal
(Fig. 6.5b).
 Acicular: They exhibit needle shape crystals which are arranged radially
(Fig. 6.5c).
 Lath shaped: They are prismatic but very small in size (Fig. 6.5d, for
example, plagioclase in basalt.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Fig. 6.5: Common minerals habits: a) Equant; b) Prismatic; c) Acicular; and d)
Lath shape.

4. Cleavage: It is an ability of the mineral to crack along well-defined

crystallographic planes within the lattice structure. Under the microscope
the cleavages appear as parallel lines in the mineral grain, which may be
distinct, faint or absent. If there are more than one set of cleavages, then
the angle between the cleavages is measured to identify the minerals. The
set of cleavages depends upon the chance in which the section is cut.
Prismatic sections of hornblende, augite will show only one direction of
cleavage, whereas their basal sections contain two sets of cleavages. Let
us illustrate the method to find out the cleavage angle. Keep one set of
cleavage parallel to the cross-wire and reading ‘a’ is taken on the scale of
the disc on the stage. Now rotate the stage till the second set of cleavage
becomes parallel to the same cross-wire. In this position, reading ‘b’ is
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taken. The difference between the two readings ‘a’ and ‘b’ is the cleavage
angle.
Some of the important minerals and the cleavage sets exhibited by them
include:
 One set: Present in minerals, such as biotite (Fig. 6.3a) and muscovite (Fig.
6.6a).
 Two sets: Present in minerals such as hornblende intersecting at an angle of
56o and 124o (Fig. 6.3b), in orthoclase intersecting at an angle of 90o (Fig.
6.6b) and augite with 2 sets of cleavages intersecting at an angle of 87o and
93°.
 Three sets: Calcite with 3 sets of perfect rhombohedral cleavage.
 Absent: In minerals such as quartz or olivine, cleavage is absent.
Minerals may have even four (fluorite) or six (sphalerite) sets of cleavages but
number of sets visible under the microscope depend on the orientation of the
section.

(a) (b)
Fig. 6.6: Cleavages under microscope: a) One set of cleavage in muscovite or
0
biotite; and b) Two sets of cleavages at 90 in orthoclase, plagioclase or
microcline.

5. Relief: Certain minerals stand out more sharply as compared to others

when observed under the microscope. Relief is the distinctiveness with
which a mineral stands out from the embedding medium when observed in
plane polarised light under the microscope. Most commonly, Canada
Balsam having refractive index of 1.54 is used as the mounting medium.
Relief is directly related to the refractive index (RI). It depends on the
difference between the refractive index (RI) of the mineral and the RI of the
enclosing cement (the mounting medium) of the thin section. The term
negative relief is used when the refractive index of the mineral is lower
than the mounting medium. Conversely, the term positive relief is used
when the mineral has higher refractive index than the mounting medium.
Greater the difference in refractive index between the mineral and mounting
medium, higher is the relief. Relief may be categorised as:

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 low or faint relief (Fig. 6.7a), e.g., quartz

 moderate relief (Fig. 6.7b), e.g., augite

 high or strong relief (Fig. 6.7c), e.g., zircon

We have discussed in Unit 9 of BGYCT-133 course that the Becke line test is a
technique in optical mineralogy which helps us to determine the relative
refractive index of two materials. It is done by lowering the stage (increasing the
focal distance) of the petrographic microscope and observing which direction
the light appears to move.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 6.7: Sketches showing various categories of relief: a) low; b) moderate; and
c) high.

6. Refractive Index: You have learnt that the relief depends upon the RI of
the mineral and the medium in which it is embedded/ mounted. Now we
shall discuss how to determine refractive index using polarising microscope.
If the mineral has more refractive index than Canada Balsam, it will appear
to be raised up. It will indicate that the mineral has positive relief and higher
refractive index. On the other hand, if the mineral appears to be depressed
it is said to have negative relief and lower refractive index than the
embedded medium, i.e. Canada Balsam.
7. Twinkling: You can observe twinkling in minerals such as calcite and
dolomite. The refractive index of an ordinary ray in calcite is 1.66 and for an
extraordinary ray is 1.49. Refractive index of Canada Balsam is 1.54. Thus,
calcite shows double reflection; it possesses two vibration directions for
transmitted light. When the stage is rotated the calcite shows a rough
surface and inconspicuous cleavages in one position. While in the other
position well defined borders, a smooth surface and conspicuous cleavages
are visible. These extremes of relief are exhibited when the two vibration
directions of calcite in the section are parallel in turn with the vibration
direction of the light emerging from the polariser. This means that each of
the two vibration directions has its own refractive index. A rapid rotation of
the stage produces a rapid change of the relief which is described as
twinkling. You may compare this effect with that of the stars.

6.4.2 Between Cross Nicol

Now, let us move on to the optical properties observed between cross nicol
condition. In order to bring the microscope in this position, please insert
analyser in the microscopic tube. We have read earlier subsection 6.3.1 that
in this position the short diagonal of the lower nicol (polariser) is at right angle to
the inserted upper nicol (analyser). While making observations between cross

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nicol, if the thin section is not kept on the microscopic stage between the two
nicols, the field of view will be completely dark.
We shall now discuss about the optical properties which you would observe
between cross nicol:
1. Isotropism/ Anisotropism
Minerals may be either isotropic or anisotropic. We shall learn about these
terms here:
a) Isotropic: Some minerals become dark when viewed under the cross nicol
and remain completely dark on the rotation of the stage. These minerals are
said to be isotropic minerals. The minerals crystallising in the cubic/isometric
system and amorphous substances are isotropic and the phenomenon is
called isotropism. For example, garnet, glass, leucite, etc. including the
Canada Balsam (Fig. 6.8).

(a) (b)
Fig. 6.8: View of isotropic mineral between cross nicols: a) Sketch; and b)
Photomicrograph of garnet (in black colour) showing isotropism. (Photo
credit: Dr. Meenal Mishra)

b) Anisotropic: Those minerals which transmit light even though under the
cross nicol conditions are called as anisotropic minerals and phenomenon
is called anisotropism. Anisotropic minerals become completely dark four
times on one complete rotation of the microscopic stage by 360o. They
include, the minerals belonging to orthorhombic, monoclinic, triclinic,
tetragonal, trigonal and hexagonal systems (Fig. 6.9).

(a) (b)
Fig. 6.9: Anisotropism in different minerals: a) Sketch and microphotograph of
plagioclase showing black and white bands (polysynthetic twinning). It
becomes dark four times in one complete rotation; and b)
Photomicrograph showing quartz (shades of gray) and colourful zircon
(high relief) between cross nicol exhibiting interference colours.

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2. Interference colours or polarisation colours and birefringence: It is an
important property of a mineral, when we study thin sections under the
microscope. The interference colours of an anisotropic mineral under cross
polars vary depending upon the orientation of the mineral/rock thin section
(Fig. 6.9b). When white light passes through an anisotropic mineral all
wavelengths are split into two polarised rays vibrating at 90o to each other.
Different colours have different wavelengths, so when the rays leave the
crystal, some colours may be retarded. Anisotropic minerals in the
intermediate position between the positions of extinction show different
colours which are the outcome of the interference of the two rays of lights
with the same vibration plane (after their emergence from analyser). Out of
which one is retarded with reference to the other and these colours are
known as interference colours. Interference colours reach their maximum
intensity midway between two extinction positions, i.e., 45o position. The
colours depend upon the thickness, birefringence and crystallographic
orientation of the section. Polarisation colours of mineral range from light
grey to dark grey, light yellow, dark yellow to brown, pink, purple and blue
shades. A standard colour chart designed by Michel-Levy is used to
measure and compare polarisation colour of various minerals that range
from first, second, third or even higher orders. Standard polarisation colours
of common rock-forming minerals such quartz, plagioclase, clinopyroxene
(augite) and olivine are also shown in this Table 6.2.
Birefringence is a measure of the difference between the maximum and
minimum refractive indices of a particular mineral. In other words, it is the
difference between the refractive indices of two rays, i.e., extraordinary ray
and ordinary ray. Calcite shows highest birefringence. In a thin section of
quartz with a standard thickness of 0.03mm, the interference colours may
vary from grey to white. While, olivine shows a wide range of colours from
Newton`s scale of interference colours. Let us now examine and list (Table
6.2) the order of the colours with brief reference to prominent colours.
Interference colour chart is being shown in Fig. 6.10.
Table 6.2: List of orders of interference colours.
Spectrum Colours Examples
First Order Grey, white, light yellow or Quartz, plagioclase,
sometimes light orange orthoclase, hypersthene,
chlorite
Second Order VIBGYOR- sharp, distinct rainbow Augite, hornblende,
colours, i.e. violet, indigo, blue,
green, yellow, orange and red
Third Order VIBGYOR-repeated but faint Muscovite, biotite
rainbow colours
Fourth and Pale green and pink- very faint Calcite zircon
Higher Orders

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(a)

(b)
Fig. 6.10: a) Michel Levy chart showing the order of interference colours for
minerals under microscope; and b) Chart showing standard polarisation
colours of common rock forming minerals. [Source: Cornelis Klein (2007)
Mineral Science, John Wiley and Sons]

3. Extinction: When the vibration direction of an ordinary and an

extraordinary ray of isotropic minerals are parallel to the vibration directions
of nicols in a polarising microscope, no light reaches the eye and the
mineral is said to be in the extinction position. This is because of the light
passing through the polariser also passes through the mineral but is
stopped by the analyser, as it has a vibration direction perpendicular to that
of the polariser. This phenomenon occurs four times during the rotation of
the stage of a microscope at an angle of 360° between the cross nicol. The
isotropic mineral is always in the position of extinction between the cross
nicol. In case of an anisotropic mineral, the two adjacent extinction positions
are separated from each other by 90°.
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Extinction angle is the angle between crystallographic directions and the
position of maximum extinction. This angle is measured with reference to
cleavage, crystal outline, prominent crack or twin plane.
Types of Extinction
In order to determine the extinction angle, we have to keep the cleavage or
crack parallel to the cross-wire between the cross nicols. On the rotation of the
stage, the mineral becomes dark which is called as extinction position.
Following four types of extinctions have been recognised:
a) Straight or parallel extinction: You will observe that the mineral becomes
dark parallel to the cross-wire on rotation of the microscopic stage. It is
called as straight or parallel extinction (Fig. 6.11). Example: hypersthene.

(a) (b)
Fig. 6.11: Straight extinction: a) Sketch; and b) Parallel extinction seen in
hypersthene. Extinction is parallel to one set of cleavage. Note that
hypersthene shows low First order interference colours and 2 sets of
o
cleavages intersecting at 90 .
(Source: http://leggeo.unc.edu/Petunia/IgMetAtlas/minerals/opx.EXT.html)
b) Oblique or Inclined extinction: You will find a mineral that does not appear
dark in the position parallel to the cross-wire. However, when you rotate the
microscopic stage, the mineral grain appears dark at a certain angle, it is
said to have oblique extinction (Fig. 6.12). In case of oblique extinction, you
can measure the extinction angle. Take the initial reading when the
cleavage/ crack / twin plane is parallel to the cross wire. Then rotate the
stage till the mineral grain becomes dark or extinct. The difference between
these two angles will give you the extinction angle. Hornblende and augite
show oblique extinction.

(a) (b)
Fig. 6.13: Oblique extinction: a) sketch; and b) Note the oblique extinction in
plagioclase. (Photo credit: Prof. J. P. Shrivastava)

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c) Symmetrical extinction: This type of extinction is shown by minerals with
squarish outline or rhombic cross-section. The mineral section becomes
extinct parallel to diagonal of rhombic pattern, e.g., calcite (Fig. 6.14).

Fig. 6.14: Symmetrical extinction.

d) Wavy or undulose extinction: This type of extinction appears as a band or
series of bands of darkness crossing a single crystal unit during rotation of
the stage. This may be due to strain and deformation. Minerals do not
becomes extinct completely, e.g. quartz.

5. Twinning: Two or more crystals of the same or related mineral species

intergrown to each other. Such crystals are called twinned crystals.
Twinning is very commonly seen in feldspar minerals. Following types of
twinning are recognised.

a) Carlsbad twinning: This type of twinning shows one set of dark and bright
bands (Fig. 6.15). They alternate their position on rotation of the stage, e.g.,
orthoclase feldspar.

(a) (b)
Fig. 6.15: Carlsbad twinning: a) Sketch; and b) Microphotograph of orthoclase
mineral showing Carlsbad twinning.

(b) Polysynthetic twinning: It consists of many thin dark and alternating bright
bands, e.g. plagioclase feldspars (Fig. 6.16). The bands alternate their
position on rotation.

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(a) (b)
Fig. 6.16: Polysynthetic twinning: a) Sketch; and b) Microphotograph of
plagioclase showing polysynthetic twinning.

(c) Cross-hatch twinning: This twinning is closely present in two directions at

right angles to each other, e.g., in microcline feldspar (Fig. 6.17).

(a) (b)
Fig. 6.17: Cross hatch twinning: a) Sketch; and b) Microphotograph of microcline
showing cross hatch twinning. (Photo credit: Dr. Meenal Mishra)

6.5 LABORATORY EXERCISES

 Draw the sketch of the polarising microscope and label its various parts in
your laboratory file.
 Try to handle the microscope and do the necessary adjustments.
 See whether the microscope is centred by inserting a thin section of a
mineral on the top of the rotatable microscope stage.
 If the optical components of the microscope are not centred, bring them
all in a centered position.

6.6 REFERENCES
 Cornelis, K. (2007) Mineral Science, John Wiley and Sons.
 Raith, M.M., Raase, P. and Reinhardt, J. (2012) Guide to Thin Section
Microscopy.

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 http://leggeo.unc.edu/Petunia/IgMetAtlas/minerals/opx.EXT.html
 http://minerva.union.edu/hollochk/c_petrology/ig_minerals.htm

(Websites accessed between 2nd and 10th August 2019)

6.7 LEARNING RESOURCES

 Introduction to Optical Mineralogy
Link: www.youtube.com/watch?v=_ooSuUHGiiw
 Microscopic study of basaltic rocks
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2RGL3XB2x3E&t=2s
 Microscopy
Link: www.youtube.com/watch?v=8zNQOl3Srr4
 Petrological Microscope
Link: www.youtube.com/watch?v=a6LJSdofqtc
 Petrographic Microscopy - Thin Sections Demonstration
Link: www.youtube.com/watch?v=9DkZRQU52A0
 Thin Section Making
Link: www.youtube.com/watch?v=BR0Lc1n_e2k

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STUDY OF OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF

COMMON ROCK FORMING MINERALS-I

Structure______________________________________
7.1 Introduction 7.4 Optical Properties of Minerals
Expected Skills Quartz
7.2 Requirements Orthoclase
7.3 Basic Concepts Plagioclase
Microcline
Muscovite
Biotite
7.5 Laboratory Exercises
7.6 References
7.7 Learning Resources

7.1 INTRODUCTION
The chemical composition, crystal systems, physical properties and optical properties of minerals
are used to identify a particular mineral. You have studied physical properties of some of the
common rock-forming minerals in the previous two experiments i.e., in Experiment 5 and 6. You
have also studied polarising microscope and optical properties of minerals in Experiment 4. Now, in
this experiment, you will examine optical properties of four rock-forming minerals, namely, quartz,
orthoclase, plagioclase and microcline under a polarising microscope.

Expected Skills_______________________________________________
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:
 recognise optical properties of quartz under plane polarized light and under
cross nicol conditions;
 identify feldspar group of minerals such as orthoclase, plagioclase and
microcline; and
 get acquainted with the optical properties of mica group of minerals such as
muscovite and biotite.
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7.2 REQUIREMENTS
To perform this experiment successfully you would require the following:
 Polarising microscope with light source
 Thin sections of quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase and microcline, muscovite,
biotite minerals
 Pen, pencil, eraser, scale, sharpener, colour pencils and drawing
compass
 Laboratory file
Instructions: You are required to study Units 8, 9 and 10 of BGYCT-133
course (Crystallography, Mineralogy and Economic Geology) before
performing this experiment. Bring this practical manual along with Block
3 of BGYCT-133 course while attending the Practical Counselling session.

7.3 BASIC CONCEPTS

You have read about basic concepts related to the optical properties of
minerals studied under the polarising microscope, both under plane polarised
light and cross nicol. Microscopic study of minerals helps in the precise
identification. It is the cheapest and fastest method for the identification of
minerals. The properties which you will observe under plane polarised light
are:
 Colour
 Pleochroism
 Form/habit
 Cleavage
 Relief
 Refractive Index
 Twinkling
Optical properties to be studied between cross nicol condition are:
 Isotropism/anisotropism
 Interference colours/Polarisation colours
 Extinction/extinction angle
 Twinning
 Apart from the above optical properties, there are some other properties
such as inclusions and pleochroic haloes, alteration of minerals and
zoning, etc about which you have read in Unit 9 and 10 of the course
BGYCT-133.
How to write Experiments 7 and 8 in the laboratory file?
You are instructed to follow the following steps:
 To describe optical properties of the mineral you will observe under the
polarising microscope in thin section, draw a circle (using drawing
compass) in your laboratory file
 Divide the circle drawn by you into two equal halves (as shown in Fig. 7.1)

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 You will draw the sketch of the characters of a mineral grain as observed
under the plane polarised light (abbreviated as PPL) In one half of the
circle
 In the other half of the circle, you will have to draw optical properties of
mineral observed under the cross nicol condition (abbreviated as XPL)
 Make use of coloured pencils to represent colour(s) of the mineral
observed as observed under the microscope.
You are instructed to draw the sketch of the optical properties observed
in plane polarised light in one half of the circle and crossed polars/cross
nicol in another half as shown on Fig. 7.1.

Fig. 7.1: Circle representing field of view under the microscope in plane
polarised light (PPL) and crossed polars (XP).

After writing about the observed optical properties of the minerals and making
their sketches both under the plane polarised light and cross nicol you will have
to mention the diagnostic optical property of the mineral in your laboratory file.
Diagnostic property forms the basis of mineral identification. Please note that it
is important for you to learn the diagnostic optical properties of a mineral given
to you in order to identify it under the microscope. Before examining the optical
properties of some common rock-forming minerals such as quartz, orthoclase,
plagioclase and microcline, you are advised to recall the Experiment 4.

7.4 OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

We have studied the optical properties of minerals both under plane polarised
light and cross nicol in Units 9 and 10 of BGYCT-133 course and Experiment 4
of this course. Now, we will identify quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase and
microcline, muscovite, biotite minerals in thin sections on the basis of their
optical properties.

7.4.1 Quartz
Quartz (SiO2) belongs to tectosilicate group of the silicate minerals and is one
of the dominant minerals of the group. It occurs in all the three types of rocks
such as igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. Let us recall physical
properties of quartz that we have learnt in Unit 10 of BGYCT-133 of this course.
Observe optical properties of quartz in the polarising microscope as discussed
below (as shown in Figure 7.2a, b and c).
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Under Plane Polarised Light
1. Colour : Colourless in thin section
2. Pleochroism : Non - pleochroic
3. Form/habit : Quartz commonly displays anhedral form
but euhedral prismatic forms are also
common
4. Cleavage : Absent
5. Relief : Very low
6. Refractive Index : 1.55
Between Cross nicol
1. Isotropism/anisotropism : Anisotropic
2. Interference colours : First order white and gray
3. Extinction : Undulose extinction
4. Twinning : Not visible in thin section
5. Inclusions : Present

Diagnostic properties: Quartz in thin section is colourless with low relief

recognized by lack of cleavage and alteration in PPL. First order white or weak
yellow interference colours, and undulatory extinction in XP. Quartz shows all
the negative optical characters.

(a)

(b)

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(c)

Fig. 7.2: Quartz in thin section: a) Sketch of quartz with low relief in PPL and XP;
b) Photomicrograph of quartz under PPL and between XP (Source:
http://minerva.union.edu/hollochk/c_petrology/ig_minerals.htm); and c) Wavy
extinction in quartz.

7.4.2 Orthoclase
Orthoclase, plagioclase and microcline are minerals belonging to the feldspar
group of the silicate minerals. Feldspar group of minerals are the most
abundant and are found nearly in most of igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks. These minerals display more or less similar physical
properties, but they display distinctive optical properties. Let us recall physical
properties of orthoclase that we learnt in Unit 10 of BGYCT-133 of this course.
Observe the optical properties of orthoclase in polarising microscope as
discussed below (as shown in Figures 7.3a and b).
Under Plane Polarised Light
1. Colour : Colourless in thin section, but also shows pale brown
2. Pleochroism : Non-pleochroic
3. Form/habit : Orthoclase displays subhedral to euhedral forms
4. Cleavage : Two sets of cleavages intersecting each other at an
angle of 90o; one set of perfect cleavage and one set of
imperfect
5. Relief : Low
6. Refractive Index : 1.52
Between Cross nicol
1. Isotropism/anisotropism : Anisotropic
2. Interference colours : First order, white and light gray
3. Extinction : Oblique extinction, angle varies from 0 to 12o
4. Twinning : Simple Carlsbad twinning
Diagnostic properties: Orthoclase is colourless or turbid due to alteration; low
relief; one or two sets distinct cleavages intersecting at an angle at 90o. It
displays first-order interference colours and usually exhibits simple Carlsbad
twinning.

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(a)

(b)
Fig.7.3: Orthoclase in thin section: a) Sketch of orthoclase with two set cleavage
in PPL and XP; b) Photomicrograph of orthoclase in PPL and in XP.
(Source: www.gsi.gov.in)

7.4.3 Plagioclase
Plagioclase is sodic-calcic feldspar (NaAlSi3O8 to CaAl2Si2O8) in composition.
Let us recall physical properties of plagioclase that we learnt in Unit 10 of
BGYCT-133 of this course. Observe optical properties of plagioclase in the
polarising microscope as discussed below (as shown in Figures 7.4a, b and c).
Under Plane Polarised Light
1. Colour : Colourless in thin section
2. Pleochroism : Non-pleochroic
3. Form/habit : Normally subhedral to anhedral, lath shape
4. Cleavage : Two set of cleavages intersecting at 90o, one set is
perfect cleavage and the other one is poor
5. Relief : Low
6. Refractive Index : 1.58

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Between Cross nicol
1. Isotropism/anisotropism : Anisotropic
2. Interference colours : First order light grey to yellowish gray
3. Extinction : Oblique extinction, angle varies with the
composition
4. Twinning : Polysynthetic twinning, Albite Twin Law
5. Zoning : Present (Fig. 7.4c)

(a)

(b)

(c)
Fig.7.4: Plagioclase in thin section: a) Sketch of plagioclase with two set
cleavage in PPL and XP; b) Photomicrograph of plagioclase in PPL and
noticed polysynthetic twinning under XP (Photo credit: Dr. Amit Kumar);
and c) zoning seen in plagioclase feldspar between cross nicol. (Photo
credit: Prof. J. P. Shrivastava)
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Diagnostic properties: Plagioclase is colourless; subhedral to anhedral form,
lath shape; low relief in PPL; two sets of cleavages in PPL. Plagioclase displays
first order interference colours and oblique extinction and typical polysynthetic
or sometimes Carlsbad twinning in XP.
Plagioclase shows concentric black-gray-white patterns when viewed under the
crossed polar called zoning. It is due to mixing of two end-members (albite and
anorthite) in variable proportions (Fig. 7.4c).

7.4.4 Microcline
Microcline is potassium feldspar (KAlSi3O8) in composition. It is white, grey,
greyish yellow, yellowish, tan, salmon-pink, bluish green, green colour in hand
specimen. Let us recall physical properties of microcline that we learnt in Unit
10 of BGYCT-133 of this course. Observe optical properties of plagioclase in
the polarising microscope as discussed below (as shown in Figures 7.5a, b and
c).

(a)

(b)
o
Fig. 7.5: Microcline in thin section: a) Sketch of microcline with cleavage at 90 in
PPL and XP; and b) Photomicrograph of microcline in PPL and XP
showing cross hatched twinning.

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Under Plane Polarised Light

1. Colour : Colourless, may appear cloudy
2. Pleochroism : Non- pleochroic
3. Form/habit : Commonly subhedral or anhedral plates or lath shape
4. Cleavage : Two set intersecting at an angle at 90o
5. Relief : Low
6. Refractive Index : 1.52 - 1.53
Between Cross nicol
1. Isotropism/anisotropism : Anisotropic
2. Interference colours : First order gray
3. Extinction : Inclined or oblique, angle varies up to 15o
4. Twinning : Cross-hatched (Pericline law) or grid
twinning
Diagnostic properties: Microcline is colourless; low relief subhedral or
anhedral plates or laths; one or two cleavages. Microcline displays first-order
interference colours and usually shows; exhibits typical cross-hatched or grid
twinning in XP.

7.4.5 Muscovite
We will identify optical properties of muscovite and biotite. They are mica group
of minerals bearing sheet-like silicate structure. Muscovite has chemical
composition KAl2(Si3AlO10)(OH)2. In hand specimen it is colourless or shinning
white, silver with brownish tint, with sheet like form. Let us recall the physical
properties of muscovite that we learnt in Unit 10 of BGYCT-133 of this course.
Observe the optical properties of muscovite in the polarising microscope as
discussed below (as shown in Figures 7.6a, b and c).

Under Plane Polarised Light

1. Colour : Usually colourless

2. Pleochroism : Non-pleochroic, may be pale green pleochroic
3. Form : Tabular crystals, lamellar, flaky
4. Cleavage : One set of perfect micaceous cleavage
5. Relief : Moderate
6. Refractive Index : 1.55 to 1.61

Between Cross Nicol

1. Isotropism/anisotropism : Anisotropic
2. Interference colours : Up to second order yellow or red
3. Extinction : Parallel extinction
4. Twinning : Hard to detect

Diagnostic features: Colourless to pale green; flaky form; one set of perfect
cleavages in PPL. Muscovite exhibits second order interference colours and
parallel extinction in XP.

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(a)

(b)
Fig. 7.6: Muscovite in thin section: a) sketch of muscovite with one set cleavage
in PPL and XP showing straight or parallel extinction; and b)
Photomicrograph of muscovite in PPL and XP. (Source:
http://minerva.union.edu/hollochk/c_petrology/ig_minerals.htm)

7.4.6 Biotite
Biotite has the chemical composition of K(Mg,Fe)2-3Al1-2Si2-3O10(OH,F)2. Let us
recall physical properties of biotite that we learnt in Unit 10 of BGYCT-133 of
this course. Observe optical properties of biotite in the polarising microscope as
discussed below (Figure 7.7a, b and c).

(a)

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(b)
Fig.7.7: Biotite in thin section: a) Sketch of biotite with one set cleavage and
pleochroic haloes in PPL and XP showing straight or parallel extinction;
b) Photomicrograph of biotite in PPL and XP; notice small circular black
patches, they are pleochroic haloes. (Photo credit: Mageswari Gayu)

Under Plane Polarised Light

1. Colour : Pale green, light brown, red brown or greenish brown.
2. Pleochroism : Strongly pleochroic from light brown/green to dark
brown/green
3. Form : May be in hexagonal plates also occur commonly as
flakes
4. Cleavage : One set of distinct cleavages
5. Relief : Moderate
6. Refractive Index : 1.605–1.675
7. Pleochroic haloes : Present
Between Cross Nicol
1. Isotropism/anisotropism : Anisotropic
2. Interference colours- : Strong, ranges up to second order red
3. Extinction : Parallel extinction
4. Twinning : Not easily observable
Diagnostic features- Biotite is brown to yellowish green, reddish brown or
green in colour; flaky form; strongly pleochroic, one set distinct cleavages;
pleochroic haloes may be present (Fig. 7.7c) in PPL. Second order red; parallel
extinction; pleochroic haloes in XP.

7.5 LABORATORY EXERCISES

Study optical properties of any four common rocks-forming minerals, namely,
quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase, microcline, muscovite and biotite by following
the instructions given below:

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1. Get a polarising microscope and thin section of a mineral from your
counsellor.
2. Make all necessary adjustments of the microscope and make sure that
light source is working properly and illuminating the field view of the
microscope.
3. Please do not disturb the centring of the microscope.
4. Place thin section of a mineral on the rotatable stage of the microscope.
5. Study optical properties of mineral under plane polarised light.
6. Rotate the stage of the microscope and see whether mineral is pleochroic.
7. Study the optical properties of mineral between cross nicol/crossed polars.
8. Rotate the stage of the microscope and see whether mineral is isotropic or
anisotropic.
9. If you face any problem during the examination of thin section of minerals
in the microscope, consult your counsellor.
10. Draw the sketches (one under plane polarised light and other under the
cross nicol setting of the microscope) of mineral grain under observation in
your laboratory file.
11. Handle the polarising microscope carefully and do not damage it.
12. If number of students is more and microscopes are less then you are
advised to work in groups.
Instructions: Carefully observations of the optical properties of the
mineral thin section given to you. Draw labelled sketches of the mineral
as observed under plane polarised light and between cross nicol as
instructed in Section 7.2 of this experiment and write their optical
properties as discussed in Section 7.4. Give answers of the following
exercises in your laboratory file and submit it to your Academic
Counsellor.

Exercise 1: Identify optical properties of quartz under plane polarised light and
cross nicol. Mention its diagnostic properties and draw neat sketch.

Exercise 2: Identify optical properties of plagioclase under plane polarised light

and cross nicol. Mention its diagnostic properties and draw neat sketch.

Exercise 3: Categorise feldspar minerals namely orthoclase, plagioclase and

microcline on the basis of their optical properties.

Exercise 4: Recognise the optical properties of biotite under plane polarised

light and cross nicol condition. Mention its diagnostic properties and draw neat
sketch.

Exercise 5: Identify optical properties of muscovite under plane polarised light

and cross nicol conditions. Mention its diagnostic properties and draw neat
sketch.

Exercise 6: How would you distinguish between muscovite and biotite on the
basis of their optical properties?

7.6 REFERENCES
 http://minerva.union.edu/hollochk/c_petrology/ig_minerals.htm
 www.gsi.gov.in
(Websites accessed on 18th August 2019)
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7.7 LEARNING RESOURCES

 Birefringence and interference colour
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2-W520RXf9Q
 Earth Optics Video 1: Plane Polarized Light
Link:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ahS5KlXqQXc
 From Hand Specimen To Thin Section
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o9jKr5MiINM
 Optical Properties
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dZhgOuG4C0A
 Orthoclase under microscope
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FLII1L68gWI
 Muscovite under microscope
Link:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=410Z3VyRERg
 PolariSation of Light: circularly polarized, linearly polarized,
unpolarized light
Link:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8YkfEft4p-w
 Properties of Minerals in Thin Section
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4WWAyYSVogU
 [Ca] Plagioclase under microscope
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1OdYmVq9r2g
 Microscopic study of basaltic rocks
Link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2RGL3XB2x3E&t=2s
 Quartz under microscope
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r0RPz0i7Rww

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 EXPERIMENT 8

STUDY OF OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF

COMMON ROCK-FORMING MINERALS-II

Structure_____________________________________________________
8.1 Introduction 8.5 Optical Properties of Olivine and Garnet
Expected Skills Olivine
8.2 Requirements Garnet

8.3 Optical Properties of Augite and 8.6 Optical Properties of Calcite

Hypersthene 8.7 Laboratory Exercises
Augite 8.8 References
Hypersthene
8.9 Learning Resources
8.4 Optical Properties of Hornblende

8.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous experiment, you have determined the optical properties of four common rock-forming
minerals, namely, quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase, microcline, muscovite and biotite. In continuation to
the previous experiment, you will study optical properties of more common rock-forming minerals.
These minerals are olivine, garnet, augite, hypersthenes, hornblende and calcite.

Expected Skills________________________________________________
After studying and performing this experiment, you should be able to
 identify common rock-forming minerals of pyroxene group-augite and hypersthene on the basis of
optical properties; and
 recognise optical properties of garnet, olivine, hornblende and calcite.

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8.2 REQUIREMENTS
To perform this experiment successfully you would require the following:
 Polarising microscope with light source
 Thin sections of augite, hypersthene, hornblende, olivine, garnet and calcite
 Pen, pencil, eraser, scale, sharpener, colour pencils and drawing compass
 Laboratory file
Instructions: You are required to study Units 8, 9 and 10 of BGYCT-133
course (Crystallography, Mineralogy and Economic Geology) before
performing this experiment. Bring this practical manual along with Block
3 of BGYCT-133 course while attending the Practical Counselling session.
Study centre may provide polarising microscope and thin sections to you for
determining the optical properties of the minerals. Please handle the
microscope very carefully. If you face any problem please discuss it with the
academic counsellor.
You have to follow the instructions regarding handling the polarising /
petrological microscope mentioned in the previous experiment.
Let us study optical properties of the following rock-forming minerals.

8.2 OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF AUGITE AND

HYPERSTHENE
Augite and hypersthene belong to pyroxene group. They occur in many igneous
and metamorphic rocks. Pyroxenes that crystallize in the monoclinic system are
known as clinopyroxenes and those crystallising in the orthorhombic system are
known as orthopyroxenes.
We will read and learn optical properties of augite and orthopyroxene.

8.3.1 Augite
The chemical composition of augite is (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al)(Si,Al)2O6. Observe
optical properties of augite in the polarising microscope as discussed below
(Figure 8.1a and b).
Let us recall optical properties of augite that we have learnt in Unit 10 of
BGYCT-133 course.
Optical Properties under Plane Polarised Light
1. Colour : Colourless to yellowish brown
2. Pleochroism : Slightly pleochroic
3. Form/habit : Eight-sided crystal (in basal section), prismatic four sided
Crystals (in normal section)
4. Cleavage : Two sets of well-developed cleavages at 87o and 93o
5. Relief : High
6. Refractive Index : 1.68 -1.73

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Between Cross nicol

1. Isotropism/anisotropism : Anisotropic
2. Interference colours : Bright colours of second and third order
3. Extinction : Oblique extinction and angle varies from 36o to 45o
4. Twinning : Simple or polysynthetic
Diagnostic properties: Augite is normally colourless, pale green or purple
brown; slightly pleochroic; short prismatic crystals; high relief; two sets of
distinct cleavages at 87o and 93o, second-order interference colours, and
extinction angle at 36o to 45o in XP.

(a)

(b)
Fig. 8.1: Augite in thin section: a) Sketch of augite in PPL and XP showing
cleavage; and b) Photomicrograph of augite in PPL and XP showing
second order interference colours. Augite has two set cleavage. Also
notice plagioclase grain (Plag).
(Source: http://minerva.union.edu/hollochk/c_petrology/ig_minerals.htm)
8.3.2 Hypersthene
The chemical composition of hypersthene is (Mg,Fe)Si2O6.
Let us recall the physical properties of hypersthene that we learnt in Unit 10 of
BGYCT-133 of this course. Observe optical properties of hypersthene in the
polarising microscope as discussed below (Figure 8.2).
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Optical Properties under Plane Polarised Light

Colour : Body colour is more marked in hypersthene, usually
colourless or pale pink
Pleochroism : Strongly pleochroic shows pink, yellow and green colour
Form/Habit : Anhedral but may be euhedral also, prismatic
Cleavage : Two sets of cleavages intersecting at right angles
Relief : Moderately high to high
Between Cross nicol
Isotropism/anisotropism : Anisotropic
Interference colours : First order
Extinction : Parallel extinction
Diagnostic features: Hypersthene is colourless or pale pink to green;
prismatic; high relief; strongly pleochroic; 2 sets of cleavages intersecting at
90o. Hypersthene has low birefringence; parallel extinction; schiller structure.
Schillerisation is due to presence of regular and oriented inclusions of minute
(sometimes microscopic), platy crystals in a regular manner along two or more
intersecting planes.

Fig. 8.2: Photomicrograph of hyperthene showing 2 sets of cleavages and

pleochroism under PPL. Parallel extinction and low birefringence seen
under XP condition. (Source:
http://geolab.unc.edu/Petunia/IgMetAtlas/minerals/hypersthene.UX.html).

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8.4 OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF HORNBLENDE

The chemical composition of hornblende is Ca Na)2-3(Mg Fe Al)5 Si6(Si
Al)2O22(OH)2. It is widely found in igneous and metamorphic rocks. It is also
found in some igneous rocks. Let us recall physical properties of hornblende
that we learnt in Unit 6 of BGYCT-133 course.
Hornblende is black, dark green, dark brown, dark gray in colour in hand
specimen and commonly occurs as prismatic or tabular crystals. It has two sets
of perfect prismatic cleavages at angles of 56o and 124o.
Observe the optical properties of hornblende under the polarising microscope
as discussed below (Figure 8.4a and b).

(a)

(b)
Fig. 8.4: Hornblende in thin section: a) Sketch of hornblende in PPL and XP
o o
showing 2 sets of cleavage at 56 and 124 ; and b) Microphotograph of
hornblende (with hexagonal shape) in PPL and XP.
(Source:
http://www.science.smith.edu/geosciences/petrology/petrography/horn
blende/CrossPolars.html)
Optical Properties under Plane Polarised Light
1. Colour : Various shades of yellow, green or brown
2. Pleochroism : Strongly pleochroic, yellowish green to dark brown
3. Form : Six sided (basal section), prismatic crystals with
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4. Cleavage : Two distinct cleavages at 56o and 124o diamond-shaped

cross sections
5. Relief : Moderate to high.
Between Cross nicol
1. Isotropism/Anisotropism : Anisotropic
2. Interference colours : Second order
3. Extinction : Oblique extinction, extinction angle varies
between 12o to 20o
4. Twinning : Commonly simple twins
Diagnostic features: Hornblende is yellow, green or brown strongly pleochroic;
characteristic prismatic form: 2 set cleavage (124o to 56o); relief moderate to
high in PPL. Second order; oblique extinction; maximum extinction angle varies
between about 12o to 30o in XP.

8.5 OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF OLIVINE AND

GARNET
In this section, we will discuss about the optical properties of olivine and garnet.
You have identified physical properties of olivine and garnet in Experiment 5.
Let us recall optical properties of olivine and garnet that we have learnt in Unit 9
of BGYCT-133 course. Observe optical properties of plagioclase in the
polarising microscope as discussed below (Fig. 8.5 a and b).

8.5.1 Olivine
Chemical composition of olivine is (Mg Fe)2SiO4. In hand specimen olivine is
usually olive green, but it is also yellow-green to bright green. It occurs as
granular masses. Cleavage is absent. Observe optical properties of olivine in
the polarising microscope as discussed below (Figures 8.5a and b).
Under Plane Polarised Light
1. Colour : Colourless or faint greenish
2. Pleochroism : Non pleochroic
3. Form/ Habit : Rounded or anhedral often traversed by polygonal cracks
along which mineral is altered into greenish serpentine and network of iron-
oxide.
4. Cleavage : Absent, cracks along which mineral is altered into greenish
serpentine and network of iron-oxide.
5. Relief : High relief
Between Cross Polars
1. Isotropism/Anisotropism : Anisotropic
2. Interference colours : Bright colours of second and third-order
3. Extinction : Parallel to cleavage and crystal outlines
4. Twinning : Rare and poorly developed
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Diagnostic features: Olivine is mostly colourless or pinkish; anhedral grains;

cleavage is absent; relief moderately high in PPL. It has bright second-order
interference colours; irregular fracture; extinction parallel to crystal outline. It is
commonly rimmed with brownish or greenish alteration products, often
serpentine.

(a)

(b)
Fig. 8.5: Olivine in thin section: a) sketch of olivine in PPL and XP showing
cracks filled with altered products; and b) photomicrograph of olivine in
PPL and XP. Notice the bright second and third order interference
colours and brownish alteration products along the cracks. (Photo credit:
Dr. Amit Kumar)

8.5.2 Garnet
The chemical composition of garnet is A3B2(SiO4)3
A can be Ca, Mg, Fe2+ or Mn2+,
B can be Al, Fe3+, Mn3+, V3+ or Cr3+
Let us recall the physical properties of garnet that we have learnt in Unit 6 of
BGYCT-133 course. In hand specimen garnet is often red, reddish brown or
black in colour. It typically occurs as perfect rhombododecahedron form but
also found as granular masses.

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Observe the optical properties of garnet in the polarising microscope as

discussed below (Figure 8.6a and b).
Under Plane Polarised Light
Colour : Colourless or pink and light shades of red, brown, green
Pleochroism : Very slightly pleochroic
Form/Habit : Occurs as rounded crystals, euhedral crystals are six- or eight-
sided, traversed by branching cracks
Cleavage : None, but irregular fractures are common
Relief : Very high
Between Cross Nicol
Isotropism/Anisotropism: Isotropic
Diagnostic features: Garnet is colourless but often having a pale pink tinge;
irregular fracture with inclusions; euhedral crystals are six- or eight-sided;
irregular polygons or subhedral to anhedral crystals are also common; high
relief in PPL. Garnet is isotropic in XP.

(a)

(b)

Fig.8.6: Garnet in thin section: a) Sketch of garnet showing cracks in PPL and
isotropism XP altered products; and b) Photomicrograph of garnet in
PPL and XP. Garnet shows isotropism. (Photo credit : Dr. Divya
Prakash)

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8.6 OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF CALCITE

Let us recall physical properties of calcite that we have learnt in Unit 6 of
BGYCT-133 course.
The colour of the calcite in hand specimen is extremely variable, but generally
white or colourless or with light shades of yellow, orange, blue, pink, red,
brown, green, black and gray. There are three sets of perfect rhombic
cleavages present in the calcite.
Observe optical properties of calcite under the polarising microscope as
discussed below (Figure 8.7a and b).
Under Plane Polarised Light
1. Colour : Usually colourless and also cloudy in thin sections.
Calcite tends to be grainy in appearance and shows pastel hues or twinkling
effects
2. Pleochroism : Non-pleochroic
3. Form/ habit : Typically fine to coarse grained subhedral to euhedral
aggregates
4. Cleavage : 3 sets of perfect rhombohedral cleavage
5. Relief : High to Low, variable relief
Under Cross Nicol Condition
1. Isotropism/Anisotropism : Anisotropic
2. Interference colours : High, third, fourth or fifth order colours
3. Extinction : Symmetrical to cleavages
4. Twinning : Polysynthetic twinning
5. Twinkling : Prominent. In plane polarised light, when a thin
section of an anisotropic mineral (with widely differing refractive indices) is
rotated, twinkling is observed. The 'twinkling' is caused by rapid changes in
relief

(a)

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(b)
Fig. 8.7: Calcite in thin section: a) Sketch of calcite with three set
rhombohedral cleavage in PPL and XP; and b) Photomicrograph
of calcite. Notice twinkling and 3 set of cleavage in PPL and third
order interference colours under XP. (Source:
www.science.smith.edu/geosciences/petrology/petrography/calcite/cal
cite2.htm)
Diagnostic features: Calcite is colourless; 3 sets of rhombohedral cleavages;
high relief, high order interference colours three sets of cleavages,
polysynthetic twinning; twinkling.

8.7 LABORATORY EXERCISES

Instructions: Careful observations of the optical properties of the mineral
in thin section are given to you. Draw the sketches of the mineral as
observed under plane polarised light and between cross nicol as
instructed in Section 7.2 of this experiment and write their optical
properties as discussed in Section 7.4. Give answers of the following
exercises in your laboratory file and submit it to your Academic
Counsellor.

Exercise 1: Identify properties of calcite under plane polarised light and cross
nicol. Mention its diagnostic characters and draw neat sketches.

Exercise 2: Identify optical properties of hornblende under plane polarised light

and cross nicol condition. Mention its diagnostic characters and draw neat
sketches.

Exercise 3: Distinguish between augite and hypersthene on the basis of their

optical properties.

Exercise 4: Recognise optical properties of biotite under plane polarised light

and cross nicol conditions. Mention its diagnostic properties and draw neat
sketches.

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Exercise 5: Identify the optical characters of garnet under plane polarised light
and cross nicol conditions. Mention its diagnostic properties and draw neat
sketches.

Exercise 6: How would you identify garnet on the basis of its optical
properties?

8.8 REFERENCES
 http://geolab.unc.edu/petunia/IgMetAtlas/minerals/hornblende.UX.html
 http://minerva.union.edu/hollochk/c_petrology/ig_minerals.htm
 http://studyblue.com/notes/note/n/thin-sections/deck/11071119
 http://www.science.smith.edu/geosciences/petrology/petrography/hornblen
de/CrossPolars.html
 www.science.smith.edu/geosciences/petrology/petrography/calcite/calcite2
.htm
(websiteS accessed between 10th August and 5th September 2019)

8.9 LEARNING RESOURCES

 Birefringence and interference colour
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2-W520RXf9Q<
 Hornblende under microscope
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JmqdWKHOaoU
 Introduction to Optical Mineralogy
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_ooSuUHGiiw
 Microscopic study of basaltic rocks
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2RGL3XB2x3E&t=2s
 Olivine Thin Section Under Polarizing Microscope
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7x9oWprgSvo

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 EXPERIMENT 9

MEGASCOPIC STUDY OF ECONOMIC

MINERALS

Structure______________________________________________________
9.1 Introduction Zinc Ores
Expected Skills Aluminium Ores

9.2 Requirements 9.5 Physical Properties of Non-Metallic Minerals

9.3 Basic Concepts Mica
Gypsum
9.4 Physical Properties of Metallic
Ores Magnesite

Iron Ores Asbestos

Manganese Ores 9.6 Laboratory Exercises

Copper Ores 9.7 References
Lead Ores 9.8 Learning Resources

9.1 INTRODUCTION
You have studied about physical properties of some of the common rock-forming minerals in the
Experiments 4 and 5, and about optical properties in Experiments 7 and 8. The study of physical and
optical properties of a mineral is useful to identify that mineral in the field and laboratory respectively.
Economic minerals/ores (both metallic and non-metallic) are the basic building blocks of the modern
industrialised society. Minerals of the economic importance are the subject matter of the Economic
Geology. In this experiment, you will get hands-on experience of identifying metallic and non-metallic
minerals/ores in hand specimens. In this experiment, you will work with the physical properties of

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some of the common ore minerals (iron, manganese, copper, lead, zinc and aluminium) an
metallic minerals (mica, gypsum, magnesite and asbestos).

Expected Skills_____________________________________
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:
 identify physical properties of iron, manganese, copper, lead, zinc and
aluminium ores; and
 recognise non-metallic minerals/ores such as mica, gypsum, magnesite and
asbestos.

9.2 REQUIREMENTS
To perform this experiment successfully, following are the requirements:
 Pen, pencil, eraser, scale, sharpener, coloured pencils and drawing
compass
 Laboratory File
 Hand specimens of iron, manganese, copper, lead, zinc and aluminium
ores and non-metallic mica, gypsum, magnesite and asbestos minerals.
Note:
 Do not use pen/pencil/ marker pen to mark the hand specimen of the
mineral.
 Please do not attempt to cleave the minerals in the laboratory. Many of
the specimens you examine cannot be readily replaced.
 Do not break the mineral/ores in order to see its cleavage. Cleavage is
usually induced in the mineral when it is extracted from the rock it is
found in and is usually seen as planes running through the mineral.
Instructions: You are required to study Units 13 and 14 of BGYCT-133
course (Crystallography, Mineralogy and Economic Geology) before
performing this experiment. Bring this practical manual along with Block
4 of BGYCT-134 course while attending the Practical Counselling session.

9.3 BASIC CONCEPTS

You have already studied about the physical properties of minerals and based
on them you have identified common rock-forming minerals in Experiments 4
and 5. This study of minerals is also known as megascopic study and is the
cheapest and fastest method of identification for ores and minerals. Form
(habit), colour, cleavage, fracture, hardness, specific gravity, lustre, streak and
magnetism are some of the common physical (megascopic) properties of the
minerals. The same physical properties are used to identify ores and non-
metallic minerals in this experiment.
You will use the following physical properties of minerals to identify a mineral:
1. Form/Habit
2. Colour
3. Cleavage
4. Fracture
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5. Hardness
6. Specific Gravity
7. Lustre
8. Streak
Study all the minerals one by one and write the physical properties of the
ore/mineral specimens in the manner as listed below in Table 9.1. Also,
mention diagnostic physical properties in the laboratory file as used by you in
the identification of a particular mineral/ore.
Table 9.1: Format for describing ore/mineral specimens.
S.N. Physical properties Characteristics
1. Chemical composition
2. Crystal system
3. Form/Habit
4. Colour
5. Cleavage
6. Fracture
7. Hardness
8. Specific gravity
9. Lustre
10. Streak
11. Special property
12. Diagnostic properties

9.4 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALLIC ORES

Let us examine the physical properties of ores/minerals of iron, manganese,
copper, lead, zinc and aluminium metals.

9.4.1 Iron Ores

Iron is abundantly present on the crust of the Earth and it accounts for more
than 95% of all metals used by the human society. Iron is mostly found in rocks
in the forms of oxides, carbonates, sulphides and silicates that you have read in
unit 13 of BGYCT-133 course. The common iron ores are hematite, magnetite
and pyrite. You will identify their physical properties and write the chemical
composition, crystal system and diagnostic properties as given in Table 9.2 for
hematite (Fig. 9.1a & b); Table 9.3 for magnetite (Fig. 9.2a) and Table 9.4 (Fig.
9.2b); for pyrite.

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(a) (b)
Fig. 9.1: Hematite: a) Massive form; and b) Reniform (kidney ore).
Table 9.2: Physical properties of hematite.
S.N. Physical properties Characteristics
1. Chemical composition Fe2O3 (Fe: 70%)
2. Crystal system Hexagonal
3. Form/Habit Massive (Fig. 9.1a), tabular, crystalline, oolitic,
reniform (Fig. 9.1b), amorphous
4. Colour Steel gray to black, bright red
5. Cleavage None
6. Fracture Uneven to sub-conchoidal
7. Hardness 5.5 - 6.5
8. Specific gravity 4.9 - 5.3
9. Lustre Metallic, submetallic
10. Streak Cherry-red to red-brown
11. Special property Weakly magnetic
12. Diagnostic properties Forms - Reniform, oolitic; differs from other ores
of iron such as magnetite, ilmenite and goethite
Streak - Cherry-red
Hardness - High
Weakly magnetic

Table 9.3: Physical properties of magnetite.

S.N. Physical properties Characteristics
1. Chemical composition Fe3O4 (Fe: 72%)
2. Crystal system Cubic/Isometric
3. Form/Habit Massive (Fig. 9.2a), granular
4. Colour Steel grey to black
5. Cleavage None
6. Fracture Conchoidal to sub-conchoidal
7. Hardness 5.5 - 6.5
8. Specific gravity 5.1
9. Lustre Metallic, sub-metallic
10. Streak Black
11. Special property Weakly magnetic
12. Diagnostic properties Streak - black and strongly magnetic

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Fig. 9.2: a) Magnetite in massive form; and b) Aggregate of pyrite crystals.

Table 9.4: Physical properties of pyrite.

S.N. Physical properties Characteristics

1. Chemical composition FeS2 (Fe: 46.6%)
2. Crystal system Cubic/Isometric
3. Form/Habit Cubic (Fig. 9.2b), crystalline, massive,
nodular, globular, radial-fibrous
4. Colour Pale brass yellow, bronze yellow, yellowish
brown
5. Cleavage Indistinct
6. Fracture Uneven, conchoidal
7. Hardness 6 - 6.5
8. Specific gravity 4.8 - 5.1
9. Lustre Metallic, splendid
10. Streak Black
11. Special property Weakly magnetic
12. Diagnostic properties Colour - Pale brass yellow, bronze yellow
Form/Habit – Cubic crystals
Hardness - High,
Lustre - Metallic and splendid
Streak - Black and strongly magnetic

9.4.2 Manganese Ores

Manganese is a transition metal. It occurs in association with iron and in
combination with other minerals. The common ores of manganese are oxides
that you have read in unit 13 of BGYCT-133 course. The common manganese
ores are psilomelane and pyrolusite. You will identify their physical properties
and write the chemical composition, crystal system and diagnostic properties as
given in Table 9.5 for psilomelane (Fig. 9.3a) and Table 9.6 for pyrolusite (Fig.
9.3b).
Table 9.5: Physical properties of psilomelane.
S.N. Physical properties Characteristics
1. Chemical composition [BaMn3(OH)6Mn8O18]
2. Crystal system Monoclinic
3. Form/Habit Massive, botryoidally (Fig. 9.3a) reniform,
radial-fibrous
4. Colour Iron black
5. Cleavage None
6. Fracture Brittle
7. Hardness 5–6
8. Specific gravity 3.7 - 4.7
9. Lustre Submetallic
10. Streak Brownish black with shine
11. Diagnostic properties Colour - Iron black
Form - Massive, botryoidal
Hardness - 5 – 6
Streak - Brownish black with shine

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(a)

(b)
Fig. 9.3: Manganese ores: a) Psilomelane in botryoidal form; and b) Pyrolusite in
massive form.

Table 9.6: Physical properties of pyrolusite.

S.N. Physical properties Characteristics
1. Chemical composition MnO2 (Mn: 63%)
2. Crystal system Orthorhombic
3. Form/Habit Massive (Fig. 9.3b), reniform, fibrous,
radiate
4. Colour Black, iron gray, dark steel gray
5. Cleavage Perfect, poor
6. Fracture Brittle (soils finger)
7. Hardness 2 - 2.5
8. Specific gravity 4.8 – 5
9. Lustre Submetallic
10. Streak Black, bluish black
11. Diagnostic properties Hardness - Low
Streak - Black, bluish black
Fracture - Brittle

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9.4.3 Copper Ores
Native copper is an element and a mineral. It is rarely found in large quantities.
Most copper produced is extracted from sulphide deposits. The common
copper ores are chalcopyrite, malachite and cuprite. You will identify their
physical properties and write the chemical composition, crystal system and
diagnostic properties as given in Table 9.7 for chalcopyrite (Fig. 9.4a), Table
9.8 for malachite (Fig. 9.4b) and Table 9.9 for cuprite (Fig. 9.4c).

Table 9.7: Physical properties of chalcopyrite.

S.N. Physical properties Characteristics

1. Chemical composition CuFeS2 (Cu: 34.5%)
2. Crystal system Tetragonal
3. Form/Habit Commonly massive (Fig. 9.4a)
4. Colour Golden yellow
5. Cleavage Imperfect, indistinct
6. Fracture Conchoidal, uneven, brittle
7. Hardness 3.5 - 4
8. Specific gravity 4.1 - 4.3
9. Lustre Metallic
10. Streak Greenish black
11. Diagnostic properties Colour - Golden yellow
Hardness – Medium (3.5 – 4)
Streak - Greenish black

Table 9.8: Physical properties of malachite.

S.N. Physical properties Characteristics

1. Chemical composition CuCO3Cu(OH)2 (Cu: 57.3%)
2. Crystal system Monoclinic
3. Form/Habit Massive, botryoidally granular (Fig. 9.4b),
earthy, reniform, encrusting, radial, fibrous
4. Colour Green, bright green
5. Cleavage Perfect, distinct
6. Fracture Conchoidal, uneven, brittle
7. Hardness 3.5 – 4
8. Specific gravity 3.7 - 4.0
9. Lustre Silky, dull, vitreous
10. Streak Pale green
11. Diagnostic properties Colour - Bright green
Form - Radial, fibrous and encrusting
Streak - Pale green

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(a) (b)

(c)
Fig. 9.4: Photographs of copper ores: a) Chalcopyrite; b) Malachite; and c)
Cuprite (copper red) associated with chalcopyrite (golden yellow).

Table 9.9: Physical properties of cuprite.

S.N. Physical properties Characteristics
1. Chemical composition Cu2O (Cu: 88.8%)
2. Crystal system Cubic/Isometric
3. Form/Habit Massive (Fig. 9.3d), earthy
4. Colour Copper-red
5. Cleavage Poor
6. Fracture Uneven, brittle, conchoidal
7. Hardness 3.5 – 4
8. Specific gravity 5.8 - 6.1
9. Lustre Adamantine, submetallic, earthy
10. Streak Dark brownish red with shine
11. Diagnostic properties Colour - Copper-red
Lustre - Adamantine, submetallic,
earthy
Streak - Dark brownish red with shine

9.4.4 Lead Ores

Owing to strong geochemical affinity, lead (Pb) is usually, associated with zinc
(Zn). Lead is largely used in the manufacture of batteries. Galena is chief ore of
the lead and is described as galena. You will identify their physical properties
and write the chemical composition, crystal system and diagnostic properties as
given in Table 9.10 for galena (Fig. 9.5).

Table 9.10: Physical properties of galena.

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S.N. Physical properties Characteristics
1. Chemical composition PbS
2. Crystal system Cubic/Isometric
3. Form/Habit Massive, granular, cubic (Fig. 9.5)
4. Colour Lead-grey to steel-grey
5. Cleavage Perfect cubic
6. Fracture Brittle, flat, even
7. Hardness 2–3
8. Specific gravity 7.4 - 7.6 (very high)
9. Lustre Metallic
10. Streak Lead grey
11. Diagnostic properties Colour - Lead gray
Cleavage - Cubic
Hardness - Low
Specific gravity - Very high
Streak - Lead grey with shine

Fig. 9.5: Hand specimens of galena.

9.4.5 Zinc ore

As mentioned earlier, zinc commonly occurs in association with the lead.
Sphalerite is one of the chief ore of zinc and we will study about it. You will
identify their physical properties and write the chemical composition, crystal
system and diagnostic properties as given in Table 9.11 for sphalerite (Fig. 9.6).
Table 9.11: Physical properties of sphalerite.
S.N. Physical properties Characteristics
1. Chemical composition ZnS
2. Crystal system Cubic, tetrahedral
3. Form/Habit Tetrahedra and rhombdodecahedra, often twinned
and occurs as massive, compact (Fig. 9.6a)
4. Colour Black or brown sometimes yellow or white, rarely
colourless.
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5. Cleavage Prefect parallel to the rhombdodecaderon faces
6. Fracture Brittle, conchoidal
7. Hardness 3.5 - 4
8. Specific gravity 3.9 - 4.2
9. Lustre Resinous, Adamantine
10. Streak White to pale yellow to off white to reddish brown
11. 1
Diagnostic properties Cleavage - Perfect
1

Fig. 9.6: Hand specimen of sphalerite mineral.

9.4.6 Aluminium Ores

Aluminium is most widespread metal on the earth, making up more than 8% of
the Earth’s Core mass. It easily binds with other elements; hence pure
aluminium does not occur in nature. The most common ore of aluminium is
bauxite. You will identify their physical properties and write the chemical
composition, crystal system and diagnostic properties as given in Table 9.12for
bauxite (Fig. 9.7a and b).

Table 9.12: Physical properties of bauxite.

S.N. Physical properties Characteristics

1. Chemical composition Al2O3.nH2O Bauxite is a mixture of diaspora,
boehmite, and gibbsite in different amounts
2. Crystal system Monoclinic, mostly occurs as amorphous in earthy
granular or pisolitic masses, rarely crystalline

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3. Form/Habit Pisolitic structure (Fig 9.7a), granular (Fig 9.7b),
amorphous
4. Colour Dirty white, greyish, yellow or reddish brown
5. Cleavage Absent
6. Fracture Earthy
7. Hardness 1-3
8. Specific gravity 2 - 2.5 (Low)
9. Lustre Dull, earthy
10. Streak White
11. Diagnostic Form – Pisolitic structure, granular
properties Colour - Yellowish, Reddish brown
Hardness - 1 – 3 : Streak - White

(a) (b)
Fig. 9.7: Hand specimens of bauxite: a) Pisolitic; and b) Granular or Oolitic form.

9.5 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF NON-METALLIC

MINERALS
Let us examine the megascopic properties of some common non-metallic
(industrial) minerals such as muscovite, gypsum, magnesite and asbestos.

9.5.1 Mica
Muscovite or white mica, and phlogopite, or amber mica, are the principal
commercial micas. White mica is associated with the pegmatite and granite
intrusive. Large crystals or books separable into very thin sheets, bend without
breaking and snap back when bent and released are considered highly
commercial. The sheets must be free from checks and crinkles. Colours or
impurities of hematite and other dark minerals are found that lower the value.
Muscovite mined in India is usually wine-colored or purplish. Here you will
identify muscovite (Table 9.13 and Fig. 9.8a) and phlogopite (Table 9.14 and
Fig. 9.8b) type of micas.
Table 9.13: Physical properties of muscovite.

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S.N. Physical properties Characteristics
1. Chemical composition H2KAl3(SiO4)3
2. Crystal system Monoclinic
3. Form/Habit Six sided hexagonal plates, disseminated scales
or massive (Fig. 9.8a)
4. Colour Thick specimen often appear black, brown, or
silver; thin sheet is colorless, white, sometimes
with a tint of brown, yellow, green or rose
5. Transparency Transparent
6. Cleavage Perfect
7. Fracture Conchoidal to uneven
8. Hardness 2.5 to 3
9. Specific gravity 2.77 to 2.88
10. Lustre Pearly to vitreous
11. Streak White, often separable in to tiny flakes
12. Diagnostic properties Colour – Thin sheets as usually colourless or
white or pale yellow
Cleavage - Perfect
Transparency - Transparent

(a)

(b)
Fig. 9.8: Hand specimens of: a) Muscovite; and b) Phlogopite.
Table 9.14 Physical properties of phlogopite.
S.N. Physical properties Characteristics
1. Chemical composition K2(Mg, Fe)6 [Si6Al2O20](OH,F)4 (Mg:Fe is >2:1)
2. Crystal system Monoclinic
3. Form/Habit Six sided, tabular, large plates, massive and
disseminated in scales (Fig. 9.8b)
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4. Colour White, colourless, black, brown, yellow or green.
5. Transparency Transparent to translucent
6. Cleavage Perfect, parallel to basal pinacoid
7. Fracture Conchoidal to uneven
8. Hardness 2 - 2.5
9. Specific gravity 2.76 - 2.9 (low)
10. Lustre Pearly
11. Streak White, often separable in to tiny flakes
12. Diagnostic properties Form - Crystalline, scales
Colour - White, colourless, brown, copper red
Lustre - Pearly

9.5.2 Gypsum
Temporally, gypsum is associated with the sedimentary rocks of almost all the
ages of shale, sandstone, and limestone. It is often found with rock salt. Almost
valueless mineral, anhydrite (CaSO4) is found with gypsum, and may be
mistaken for it; but it is harder, heavier, and breaks into square pieces. Please
refer Table 9.15 and Fig. 9.9 to identify gypsum mineral.
Table 9.15: Physical properties of gypsum.
S.N. Physical properties Characteristics
1. Chemical composition CaSO4.2H2O
2. Crystal system Monoclinic (Gypsum type)
3. Form/Habit Crystalline (Fig. 9.9), combination of prism and
clinopinacoid, twinned crystals are of (a) swallow
–tail and (b) arrow-head types
4. Colour Colourless to white, may be yellow, tan, blue,
pink, brown, reddish brown or grey due to
impurities
5. Transparency Transluscent
6. Cleavage Perfect, parallel to clinopinacoid
7. Fracture Subconchoidal
8. Hardness 1.5 - 2
9. Specific gravity 2.31 to 2.33
10. Lustre Vitreous to silky, pearly
11. Streak White
12. Diagnostic properties Cleavage - Perfect
Form – Crystalline, massive
Hardness – Low

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Fig. 9.9: Hand specimens of gypsum.

9.5.3 Magnesite
Magnesite, commonly results from the alteration of magnesium-rich rocks
during low grade metamorphism while they are in contact with carbonate-rich
solutions. Magnesite has the same crystal structure of calcite, hence its
inclusion into the calcite mineral group. Many of the properties of magnesite are
either identical or similar to those of calcite. However, the magnesium ion does
not allow the carbonate ion (CO3) to interact as easily with cold acids, as the
calcium ion does in calcite. This provides the best means of distinguishing
magnesite from calcite. Please refer Table 9.16 and Fig. 9.10 to identify
magnesite mineral.
Table 9.16: Physical properties of magnesite
S.N. Physical properties Characteristics
1. Chemical composition MgCO3
2. Crystal system Hexagonal-trigonal (calcite type)
3. Form/Habit Massive (Fig. 9.10), fibrous, compact,
granular, rarely crystalline
4. Colour White or grey, also tinted yellow or brown
5. Cleavage Perfect, rhombohedral
6. Fracture Flat or conchoidal
7. Hardness 3.5 - 4.5
8. Specific gravity 3 - 4.8
9. Lustre Vitreous or pearly, earthy, dull in massive or
fibrous varieties
10. Streak White to off-white
11. Diagnostic properties Form/Habit - Rhombohedral with curved
faces, massive, fibrous
Cleavage - Perfect, in three directions forming
rhombohedrons
Gives effervescences when treated with hot
acids

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Fig. 9.15: Hand specimen of magnesite.

9.5.4 Asbestos
Asbestos includes fibrous forms of amphibole. The fibers in general are very
long, thin and flexible. In strictest sense, the term asbestos is confined to the
fibrous form of actinolite but common asbestos include fibrous varieties of a
number of different silicates. The following minerals are now included in
commercial asbestos:
 Chrysotile
 Actinolite
 Amosite
 Crocidolite
Please refer Table 9.17 and Fig. 9.11 to identify asbestos.
Table 9.17: Physical properties of Asbestos.
S.N. Physical properties Characteristics
1. Chemical composition Ca2(Mg,Fe)5[Si8O22](OH,F)2
2. Crystal system Monoclinic
3. Form/Habit Long bladed prismatic crystals, fibrous (Fig. 9.11),
massive
4. Colour White to greenish
5. Cleavage Perfect
6. Fracture Uneven
7. Hardness 5–6
8. Specific gravity 2.9 – 3.4 (low)
9. Lustre Vitreous or silky
10. Streak White
11. Diagnostic properties Colour-White to greenish
Form – Massive, fibrous
Lustre - Vitreous or gray
Streak - White

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Fig. 9.11: White fibrous asbestos.

9.6 LABORATORY EXERCISES

You have studied chemical composition, crystal system and physical properties
of some of the common ores and minerals (iron, manganese, copper, lead, zinc
and aluminium) and non-metallic minerals (mica, gypsum, magnesite and
asbestos).
While performing this experiment, you will have to perform the following
activities:
1. Observe these minerals in hand specimens by naked eyes very carefully.
2. Record their physical properties on your laboratory file, and
3. Identify the given specimens.
You should keep in your mind that in any case, no harm should be done to the
hand specimens while undertaking their megascopic study.
We are listing below a performa that should be used for recording the physical
properties of all the given specimens provided to you. You will record all the
exercises as Laboratory Exercise 1, Exercise 2, Exercise 3 and so on. By
following above mentioned procedure.You will have to describe all the given
specimens of the minerals/ores one by one.
Date: ……………
Exercise 1…………: Metallic/ Non-metallic Mineral 1………….
S.N. Physical properties Characteristics
1. Chemical composition
2. Crystal system
3. Form/Habit
4. Colour
5. Cleavage
6. Fracture
7. Hardness
8. Specific gravity
9. Lustre
10. Streak
11. Diagnostic properties
Inference
(Name of the metallic/
non- metallic mineral)

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9.7 REFERENCES
 Farndon, J. (2016) Rocks, Minerals and Gems. Hermes House
Anness Publishing Ltd, London.
 Read, H.H. (Rev. ed. C.D. Gribble) (1988) Rutley’s Elements of
Mineralogy” (27th Edition), CBS Publications.
 Shrivastava, J.P. (2007) Introduction to Ore Microscopy, PHI
Learning Pvt. Ltd.

9.8 LEARNING RESOURCES

 Hydrothermal Mineralisation
Link: http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/53461
 Contact Metasomatic and Contact Metamorphic Deposits-
Link: http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/53458
 Late Magmatic Deposits
Link: http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/53457
 Early Magmatic Deposits
Link: http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/53456
 Classifications of Ore Deposits
Link: http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/53455
 Introduction to Ore Deposits
Link: http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/53454
 Minerals & their uses
Link: http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/53487
 https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-ore-definition-types-uses-
examples.html
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=32NG9aeZ7_c
 https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-pyrite-fools-gold-
properties-definition-facts.html

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 EXPERIMENT 10

PREPARATION OF MAPS SHOWING

IMPORTANT METALLIC AND NON-
METALLIC DEPOSITS

Structure_________________________________________________________________
10.1 Introduction 10.4 Non-Metallic Deposits
Expected Skills 10.5 Laboratory Exercises
10.2 Requirements 10.6 Reference
10.3 Metallic Deposits

10.1 INTRODUCTION
You have read in block 2 of BGYCT-133 course that India has rich and varied deposits of metallic
and non-metallic minerals. The distribution of these minerals is largely controlled by three main
physiographic divisions of the country such as Peninsular India, Indo-gangetic plains and the
Himalayan region. Among them, the majority of mineral the deposits occur in the Precambrian
crystalline rocks and the Gondwana sediments of peninsular India. However, a few minerals of
economic importance are present in the Himalayan region. The Indo-gangetic plain is almost
devoid of minerals of industrial importance.
The metallic and non-metallic minerals are very important for domestic and industrial growth of
the country. In the Experiment 9, you have examined the physical properties of metallic and non-
metallic minerals. In this experiment, you will prepare different maps of India showing
geographical or spatial distribution of some of the important metallic and non-metallic mineral
deposits of India.

Expected Skills_____________________________________________
After performing this experiment, you should be able to
 list spatial distribution of metallic and non-metallic mineral deposits of India;
 plot distribution of metallic and non-metallic mineral deposits on the map of India; and
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 identify the regions, with the maximum concentration of metallic and non-metallic mine
deposits.

10.2 REQUIREMENTS
To perform this experiment successfully, following are the requirements:
 Pen, pencil, eraser, scale, sharpener and coloured pencils
 Laboratory file
 Blank maps of India of A4 size (with demarcated states boundaries)
 Atlas of India (it will help you to plot the localities of economic minerals in the
blank map of India)
Instructions: You are required to study Units 13 and 14 of BGYCT-133
course (Crystallography, Mineralogy and Economic Geology) before
performing this experiment. Bring this practical manual along with the
Block 4 of BGYCT-133 course while attending the Practical Counselling
sessions.

10.3 METALLIC DEPOSITS

You have read that the metal-bearing mineral is known as ore, for example,
hematite is an ore of iron. The rock body comprising reasonable quantity of
metal is termed as metallic deposit, for example, the banded iron ore deposits
of Peninsular India. It is important to note that iron, manganese, aluminium,
copper, lead and zinc are the major metals and their deposits are widely
located in India (Prasad, 2011). Out of these metals, the copper, lead and zinc
ores/minerals occur together in nature because of their close chemical affinities.
They form base of the industry therefore called as base metals.
Let us first look at the distribution of iron ore deposit in India and plot in the
map.
Distribution of Iron ore Deposits
The distribution of iron ore deposit in India is given in Table 10.1 and Fig. 10.1.
The map in Fig. 10.1 will provide you the locations of iron ore deposits in the
Indian states. Try to find out the states with the help of Table 10.1 which have
rich deposits of iron ore. Take a blank map of India (with demarcated states
boundaries) and mark the ore deposits statewise. Find out the states which are
very rich in iron ore deposit.
Table 10.1: Spatial distribution of Iron ore deposits.
States District/ locality
Jharkhand : Singhbhum and Palamau (Banded Iron Formation)
Odisha : Keonjhar, Sundargarh, Mayurbhanj, Koraput and Cuttack
(Banded Iron Formation)
Madhya Pradesh : Katni
Chhattisgarh : Durg, Bastar and Bailadila, Rajnandgaon
Karnataka : Sandur, Shimoga, Chitradurga and Chikmaglur (Banded Iron
Formation)
Andhra Pradesh : Guntur and Ongole, Vishakhapatanam
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Goa : Entire Goa

Fig. 10.1: Map of India showing spatial distribution of iron ore deposits. (Source:
Modified after Prasad, 2011)

Distribution of Manganese ore deposits

You have marked the places which are rich in iron ore on the map of India. Now
plot the districts or places with rich manganese deposits on map of India. Take
help of the atlas while marking the localities.
The distribution of manganese deposits in India is given below (Table 10.2, Fig.
10.2).
Table 10.2: Spatial distribution of Manganese ore deposits.
States District/ locality
Madhya Pradesh : Balaghat, Chhindwara and Jhabua
Maharashtra : Bhandara, Ratnagiri and Nagpur
Gujarat : Panchmahal and Vadodara
Odisha : Sundargarh, Ganjam, Keonjhar, Bolangir, Sambalpur
and Koraput
Jharkhand : Singhbhum
Andhra Pradesh : Srikakulam and Visakhapatnam
Telangana : Adilabad
Karnataka : Bellary, Chitradurga, Dharwad and Uttarkannad
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Rajasthan : Banswara

Fig. 10.2: Map of India showing spatial distribution of manganese ore deposits.
(Source: Modified after Prasad, 2011)

The map in Fig. 10.2 will provide you the locations of manganese ore deposits
in the Indian states. Try to find out the states possessing rich deposits of
manganese ore with the help of Table 10.2. Take a blank map of India (with
demarcated states boundaries) and mark the ore deposits statewise. Find out
the states which are very rich in manganese ore deposit.

Distribution of Aluminium Deposits

You have marked the places which are rich in manganese ore on the map of
India. Now plot the districts or places with rich aluminium deposits on map of
India. Take help of the Atlas.
The distribution of aluminium deposits in India is given below (Table 10.3, Fig.
10.3).
The map in Fig. 10.3 will provide you the locations of aluminium ore deposits in
the Indian states. Try to find out the states with the help of Table 10.3 which
possess rich deposits of aluminium ore. Take a blank map of India (with

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Experiment 10 Preparation of Maps Showing Important Metallic and Non-Metallic Deposits
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demarcated states boundaries) and mark the ore deposits statewise. Find out
the states which are very rich in aluminium ore deposit.

Fig. 10.2: Map of India showing spatial distribution of aluminium deposits.

(Source: (modified after Deb and Kaur, 2004)

Table 10.3: Spatial distribution of Aluminium ore deposits.

States District/ locality

Andhra Pradesh Galikonda, Vishakhapatnam, East Godavari and
West Godavari (East coast bauxite deposit)
Odisha Kalahandi, Koraput, Sambalpur, Balangir, Keonjhar
and Sundargarh
Karnataka Belgaum, Uttarkannad,
Madhya Pradesh Jabalpur, Mandla, Balaghat and Amarkantak
Jharkhand Ranchi, Rajmahal, Daltonganj, Ranchi, Gumla and
Lohardaga
Chhattisgarh Durg, Raigarh and Bilaspur
Maharashtra Pune, Kolhapur, Ratangiri, Thane and Satara
Tamilnadu Madurai, Salem and Nilgiri

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Gujarat Kachhch, Kheda, Sabarkantha, Jamnagar and
Amreli

Distribution of Copper, Lead and Zinc Deposits

You have marked the places which are rich in aluminium ore on the map of
India. Now mark the districts or places with rich copper, lead and zinc deposits
on map of India. Take help of the atlas while marking the localities. The
distribution of copper, lead and zinc deposits in India is given below (Table
10.4; Fig. 10.4 and 10.5):
The map in Fig. 10.4 and 10.5 will provide you the locations of copper ore and
lead and zinc ore deposits in the Indian states. With the help of Table 10.4 try to
find out the states which possess rich deposits of copper, lead and zinc ore
deposits. Take a blank map of India (with demarcated states boundaries) and
mark the ore deposits statewise. Find out the states which are very rich in
copper, lead and zinc ore deposits.

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Fig. 10.4: Map of India showing spatial distribution of copper ore deposits.
(Source: (modified after Deb and Kaur, 2004)

Table 10.4: Spatial distribution of copper, lead and zinc deposits.

States District/ locality
Jharkhand : Singhbhum, Chotanagpur and Hesatu-Belbathan
Rajasthan : Khetri copper belt (Jhunjhunu), Pur-Banera-Bhinder
(Alwar), Pali, Udaipur, Sirohi, Nagaur, Charu, Rampura-
Agucha lead-zinc belt (Bhilwara), Rajpura-Dariba and
Zawar lead-zinc deposits
Karnataka : Chitradurga and Hassan, Ingaldal
Madhya Pradesh : Malanjkhand
Andhra Pradesh : Agnigundla (Guntur) and Kurnool
Odisha : Sundargarh, Sambalpur and Mayurbhanj

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Fig. 10.5: Map of India showing spatial distribution of lead and zinc ore deposits.
(Source: (modified after Deb and Kaur, 2004)

10.4 NON-METALLIC DEPOSITS

The non-metallic minerals are also known as industrial minerals. In fact, non-
metallic minerals form back-bone of several industries such as chemical,
ceramic, fertiliser or refractory. India has the largest, widely distributed deposits
of non-metallic minerals. Numerous rocks and minerals are utilised for industrial
purposes. Amongst them, the geographical distribution of mica, limestones, fire
clay, and gypsum in India are studied in detail (Tables 10.5 – 10.8, Figs. 10.6
and 10.7). You have marked the places which are rich in metallic deposits like
iron, manganese, aluminium, copper, lead and zinc ores on the map of India.
Now mark the districts or places with rich in non-metallic deposits such as mica,
limestone, gypsum and fire clay on the map of India. Take help of the atlas
while marking the localities.
Table 10.5: Geographical distribution of Mica deposits in India.
State District/ locality
Jharkhand : Koderma, Hazaribagh and Giridih
Bihar : Jamui and Bhagalpur
Rajasthan : Jaipur, Udaipur, Ajmer and Bhilwara
Andhra Pradesh : Nellore and Guntur
Tamil Nadu : Nilgiri
Karnataka : Hassan and Mysore
West Bengal : Bankura and Purulia

Table 10.6: Geographical distribution of Limestone in India.

States District/ locality

Andhra Pradesh : Guntur, Cuddapah, Kurnool, Nellore, West Godavari, and
Visakhapatnam
Telangana : Warangal, Khammam, Adilabad, Nalgonda and
Karimnagar,
Assam : Lakhimpur, Karbi-Anglong, Sibsagar and Nagaon
Arunachal : Lohit
Pradesh
Jharkhand : Hazaribagh, Ranchi, Dhanbad and Singhbhum
Gujarat : Jamnagar, Kachhch, Bhavnagar, Bharauch, Junagarh,
Keda and Amreli
Jammu and : Doda, Kathua, Punch, Udhampur, Ladakh and Srinagar
Kashmir
Himachal : Chamba, Bilaspur, Mandi and Simla
Pradesh
Haryana : Bhiwani, Ambala and Mahendragarh

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 Experiment 10 Preparation of Maps Showing Important Metallic and Non-Metallic Deposits
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Madhya Pradesh : Katni, Kaimur, Sidhi, Satna, Damoh, Maihar
Chattisgarh : Raipur, Bilaspur, Raigarh (near Champa), Kawrdha
Uttar Pradesh : Sonbhadra

Fig. 10.6: Map of India showing spatial distribution of Mica and Limestone
deposits. (Source: Modified after Prasad, 2011)

Table 10.7: Geographical distribution of Fire clay in India.

States District/ locality
Andhra Pradesh : East and West Godavari
Telangana : Adilabad
Karnataka : Hassan and Chitradurga
Gujarat : Rajkot, Surat, Surrendranagar, Sabarkantha and
Kachhch
Jharkhand : Hazaribagh, Giridih, Deoghar, Ranchi, Dhanbad
and Singhbhum
Bihar : Bhagalpur
Madhya Pradesh : Jabalpur, Katni, Shahdol, Anoopur
Odisha : Dhenkanal, Cuttack, Sambalpur and Puri

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BGYCL-134 Crystallography, Mineralogy and Economic Geology:Laboratory
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Rajasthan : Bikaner, Alwar and Jhunjhunu
Tamilnadu : South Arcot, Tiruchirapalli and Chengalpattu

Table 10.8: Geographical distribution of Gypsum in India.

States District/ locality
Andhra Pradesh : Guntur, Nellore and Prakasam
Karnataka : Gulbarga
Jammu and : Doda, Ladakh and Baramula
Kashmir
Gujarat : Kachhch, Jamnagar, Bhavnagar, Surendranagar
and Junagarh
Rajasthan : Bikaner, Barmer, Nagaur, Jaisalmer, Churu, and
Ganganagar
Bihar : Bhagalpur
Uttarakhand : Dehradun, Garhwal and Nanital
Tamilnadu : Coimbatore, Ariyalur and Tiruneveli

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Experiment 10 Preparation of Maps Showing Important Metallic and Non-Metallic Deposits
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Fig. 10.7: Map of India showing spatial distribution of Fire clay and Gypsum
deposits. (Source: Modified after Prasad, 2011)
10.5 LABORATORY EXERCISES
A blank map of India is given below (Fig. 10.8). You can make outline of map of
India on your laboratory file or you can use India outline map showing the
political boundaries of the states and plot the geographical distribution of
various metallic and non-metallic mineral deposits on the map of India.

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Fig. 10.8: An outline map of India.

Exercise 1: Write the localities or districts yielding deposits of iron and

manganese in your laboratory file and plot the same in the blank outline map of
India. You can consult Table 10.3.1 and 10.3.2, and Fig. 10.1 and 10.2 for
spatial distribution of iron and manganese deposits.

Exercise 2: Write the localities or districts yielding deposits of aluminium in

your laboratory file and plot the same in the blank outline map of India. You can
consult Table 10.3.3 and Fig. 10.3 for spatial distribution of aluminium deposits.

Exercise 3: Write the localities or districts yielding deposits of copper, lead and
zinc in your laboratory file and plot the same in the blank outline map of India.
You can consult Table 10.3.4 and Fig. 10.4 and 10.5 for spatial distribution of
copper, lead and zinc deposits.

Exercise 4: Write the localities or districts yielding deposits of mica and

limestone in your laboratory file and plot the same in the blank outline map of
India. You can consult Table 10.3.5 and 10.3.6, and Fig. 10.6 for spatial
distribution of mica and limestone deposits.

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Experiment 10 Preparation of Maps Showing Important Metallic and Non-Metallic Deposits
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Exercise 5: Write the localities or districts yielding deposits of fire clay and
gypsum in your laboratory file and plot the same in the blank outline map of
India. You can consult Table 10.3.7 and 10.3.8, and Fig. 10.7 for spatial
distribution of fire clay and gypsum deposits.

10.5 REFERENCES
 Gokhale, K.V.G.K. and Rao, T.C. (1983): Ore Deposits of India, East West
Press Pvt. Ltd.
 Prasad U. (2011) Economic Geology: Economic Mineral Deposits. 2nd
Edition, CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.
 Sharma, N.L. and Ram, K.V.S. (1972): Introduction to India’s Economic
Minerals, Dhanbad Publ.
 Deb, M and Kaur, G., (2004) Earth Processes and Resources.
Metallogeny, NSDL, New Delhi, 50 p.

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 EXPERIMENT 11

PREPARATION OF MAPS WITH

IMPORTANT COAL AND OILFIELDS IN
INDIA

Structure ____________________________________________________
11.1 Introduction 11.4 Indian Oilfields
Expected Skills 11.5 Laboratory Exercises
11.2 Requirements 11.6 References
11.3 Indian Coal Deposits

11.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous experiment you have prepared maps showing distribution of important metallic and
non-metallic deposits of India. In this experiment, you will identify the important Gondwana and
Tertiary coalfields and also recognise lignite deposits in the Indian map. Further we will also
familiarise you with the distribution of some important oilfields of India. You will locate and plot coal
and oil fields in the map of India. Before starting this experiment make sure that you have read Unit
15 Coal and Petroleum of BGYCT-133 course. Major coalfields of country are situated in Damodar,
Mahanadi, Godavari and Son-Narmada valleys. In India Coal deposits mainly found in various parts
of the country which includes Jharkhand, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Orissa, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Jammu. In India
basically 26 petroliferous sedimentary basins have been identified. They are situated at Cambay,
Mumbai offshore, Rajasthan, Krishna Godavari, Assam area.

Expected Skills_______________________________________________
After completing this experiment, you would be able to:
BGYCL-134 Cryatallography, Mineralogy and Economic Geology: Laboratory
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
 list and plot the Gondwana and Tertiary coalfields in the Indian map;
 list and plot the lignite deposits in the Indian map; and
 list and plot the oilfields in the Indian map.

11.2 REQUIREMENTS
To perform this experiment successfully you require the following:
 Paper
 Pencil/coloured pencil
 Pen
 Eraser
 Ruler
 Blank maps of India with state boundary demarcated
 Laboratory file

Instructions: You are required to study Units 15 of BGYCT-133 course

(Crystallography, Mineralogy and Economic Geology) before performing
this experiment. Bring this practical manual along with Block 4 of BGYCT-
133 course while attending the Practical Counselling session.

11.3 INDIAN COAL DEPOSITS

You have been provided map of India with states demarcated. Now mark the
districts or places with coalfields on the map of India. Take help of the atlas
while marking the localities. The map in Fig. 11.1 will provide you the locations
of coalfields in the Indian states. Try to find out the states which possess rich
deposits of coal. Take a blank map of India (with demarcated states
boundaries) and mark the coalfields statewise. Find out the state which is very
rich in coal deposit.
On the basis of occurrence of coal deposits relative to geological age, coal
deposits of India are classified into two groups: Gondwana Coals and Tertiary
Coals.
(i) Gondwana Coals: About 98 percent of annually produced coal in India
comes from the formations of the Lower Gondwana sequence (200 million
years old) of the Permian age. The Lower Gondwana coals are mainly of
bituminous type.
The major coalfields are listed below:
 Jharia Coalfield is in Dhanbad district of Jharkhand and is regarded as
the most important coalfields of India.
 Bokaro Coalfield is spreading about 65 km from east to west and 10 to
16 km from north to south of Bokaro District of Jharkhand.
 Raniganj Coalfield is one of the largest coalfields of the country. Most
of the coalfields are in the Raniganj area in Burdwan district in West
Bengal and extended to adjoining areas of Jharkhand.

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 Experiment 11 Preparation of Maps with important Coal and Oilfields in India
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Fig. 11.1: Map showing major Gondwana coalfields of India. (Prepared by Rohit Kumar)

 Singrauli Coalfield is one of the most important coalfields of Madhya

Pradesh. It lies partly in Madhya Pradesh and partly in Chhattisgarh
mostly in the basin of the Son River.
 Talcher Coalfield is the most important coalfield of Odisha and is
in Angul district of Odisha.
 Rajmahal Coalfield is located in Jharkhand. Coal basins namely Hura,
Chuperbhita, Pachwara, Mahuagarhi and Brahmani comprising the
Rajmahal Coalfield.
 Wardha Valley Coalfield is located in Chandrapur district in
the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra.

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BGYCL-134 Cryatallography, Mineralogy and Economic Geology: Laboratory
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(ii) Tertiary Coals: These coals are best developed in north-eastern states and
a number of coal occurrences are reported. These coals are found in the
states of Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh.
You have marked Gondwana coalfields on the map of India. Now let us plot
Tertiary coalfields.
 Tertiary coal of Assam is spread in Makum, Nazira, Mikir Hills, Dilli-
Jeypore and Lakhuni.
 Meghalaya, coal deposits occur in the areas of Khasi Jaintia and Mikir
hills. Darrangiri, Siju, Maolong.
 Coal deposits of Arunachal Pradesh occur at Namchik-Namphuk.

Fig. 11.2: Map showing major Tertiary Coalfields of India. (Prepared by Rohit Kumar)

11.4 INDIAN OILFIEDS

You have learned to plot coalfields. Now you will mark important oilfields on the
map of India provided. Take help of the atlas while marking the localities. The

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 Experiment 11 Preparation of Maps with important Coal and Oilfields in India
…..………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
map in Fig. 11.3 will provide you the locations of oilfields in the Indian states.
Try to find out the states which possess rich deposits of petroleum. Take a
blank map of India (with demarcated states boundaries) and mark the coalfields
statewise. Find out the state which is very rich in petroleum.
Some of the important oil reserves are found in Assam, Gujarat, Maharashtra
and Rajasthan (Fig. 11.3). In Assam, oil is from Digboi, Naharkatiya, Moran,
Rudrasagar and Lakwa oil fields. Some of the well-known oil fields of Western
India are: Ankleshwar oilfield in Gujarat, Mumbai High (Arabian Sea offshore)
oilfields SW of Maharashtra, Cambay oilfield, Kalol oilfield. Potential oil/gas
fields are also located in Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura, Nagaland, Andhra
Pradesh and West Bengal. Some of the important oilfields are:
 Digboi Oilfield is situated in a part of the Naga Hills in the north-eastern
part of India. The oil field occupies 13 km2 area of Tinsukia district and
occurs in Tipam sandstone in an anticlinal trap.

Fig. 11.3: Distribution of major oilfields in India. (Prepared by Rohit Kumar)

 Cambay Oilfield is situated in Gujarat and in the Cambay-Kalol area

north of the Gulf of Cambay and lies about 8 km north-west of the
Cambay city. The other oil producing fields are: Kalol oil field, Sanand oil

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BGYCL-134 Cryatallography, Mineralogy and Economic Geology: Laboratory
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field, Nawagam oilfield. These oilfields are situated in the north of the
Narmada river.
 Ankleshwar Oilfield is situated about 81km SSW of Baroda, South of the
Narmada river.
 Coastal Oilfields located along the East Coast of the Peninsular India
include: Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Coastal areas of Orissa. Ravva
oilfield in the Krishna-Godavari basin is one of the important oilfields
located in coastal Andhra Pradesh. Mumbai High is another important
offshore oilfield located165 kilometres off the coast of Mumbai.

11.5 LABORATORY EXERCISES

 Exercise 1: Identify and label Gondwana Coalfields of India in the map of
India given in Fig. 11.4.

 Exercise 2: Label the Tertiary Coalfields of India in the map of India given
in Fig. 11.5.

 Exercise 3: Label any ten major Oilfields of India in the map of India given
in Fig. 11.5.

 Exercise 4: Identify Gondwana and Tertiary coalfields of India from Fig.

11.1 and 11.2 and prepare a list of the Gondwana and Tertiary coalfields.

11.6 REFERENCES
 Levorsen, A.I. (1985) Geology of Petroleum, CBS Publishers and
Distributors, Shahdara, Delhi 110032, India, 3-51p.
 Prasad, U. (1996) Economic Geology, CBS Publishers and Distributors,
Delhi 110032, India, 164-177p.
 Unit 15 of BGYCT-133 course (Crystallography, Mineralogy and
Economic Geology).

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 Experiment 11 Preparation of Maps with important Coal and Oilfields in India
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Fig. 11.4: Political map of India.

163