Chapter 3
SIGNAL CONDITIONING AND CONVERSION
3.1. Deflection Bridges
3.2. Amplifiers & Attenuators
3.3. Oscillators
3.4. Filters
Signal conditioning elements convert the output of sensing elements into a form suitable for
further processing. This form is usually a d.c. voltage, a d.c. current or a variable frequency a.c.
voltage. Signal conditioning / processing is concerned with improving the quality of the reading
or signal at the output of a measurement system, and one particular aim is to attenuate any noise
in the measurement signal that has not been eliminated by careful design of the measurement
system as discussed previously. However, signal processing performs many other functions apart
from dealing with noise, and the exact procedures that are applied depend on the nature of the
raw output signal from a measurement transducer. Procedures of signal amplification, signal
attenuation, signal filtering, signal linearization and bias removal are applied according to the
form of correction required in the raw signal. In this chapter we will see about deflection
Bridges, Amplifiers & Attenuators, Oscillators and Filters.
Deflection bridges are used to convert the output of resistive, capacitive and inductive
sensors into a voltage signal.
Amplifiers are necessary in order to amplify low-level signals, e.g. thermocouple or
strain gauge bridge output voltages, to a level which enables them to be further
processed.
Attenuators are useful to reduce the amplitude of a signal (including noises) that
may have power levels so large that they can over drive or damage components
Oscillators are feedback systems which rely on the dynamic property of a closed-
loop system, consisting of elements with dynamic characteristics, to sustain
continuous oscillations, if certain conditions are satisfied.
A filter is an element which transmits a certain range (or ranges) of frequencies and
rejects all other frequencies. An analogue filter is an electrical network, consisting
usually of resistors, capacitors and operational amplifiers, which conditions
continuous signals. A digital filter is usually a digital computer programmed to
process sampled values of a signal. Provided that the power spectrum of the
measurement signal occupies a different frequency range from that of the noise or
interference signal, then filtering improves the signal-to-noise ratio.
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3.1 DEFLECTION BRIDGE CIRCUITS
Bridge circuits are of immense importance in measurement system technology because so many
transducers measuring physical quantities have an output that is expressed as a change in
resistance, inductance or capacitance. The displacement-measuring strain gauge, which has a
varying resistance output, is but one example of this class of transducers.
Bridge circuits are used very commonly:
As null detectors where they provide an accurate method of measuring resistance,
inductance and capacitance values, and enable the detection of very small changes in
these quantities about a nominal value.
As a variable conversion element in measurement systems and produce an output in the
form of a voltage level that change as the measured physical quantity changes.
Normally, excitation of the bridge is by a d.c. voltage for resistance measurement and by an a.c.
voltage for inductance or capacitance measurement. Both null and deflection types of bridge
exist and, in a like manner to instruments in general, null types are mainly employed for
calibration purposes and deflection types are used within closed-loop automatic control schemes.
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Figure 3.1 below shows a general deflection bridge network. E Th is the open-circuit output
voltage of the bridge, i.e. when current i in BD = 0. Using Kirchhoff’s laws:
VS
V S = i1 Z 2 + i1 Z 3 ; i. e . i1 =
Loop PABCQ: Z2 + Z3
Fig 3.1 Calculation of Thevenin equivalent circuit for a deflection bridge
Thévenin voltage for general deflection bridge
ZTh is the impedance, looking back into the circuit, between the output terminals BD, when the
supply voltage VS is replaced by its internal impedance. Assuming the internal impedance of the
supply is zero, and then this is equivalent to a short circuit across AC.
We see that ZTh is equal to the parallel combination of Z 2 and Z3 in series with the parallel
combination of Z1 and Z4, i.e.
Thévenin impedance for general deflection bridge
If a load, e.g. a voltmeter or amplifier, of impedance Z L is connected across the output terminals
BD, then the current through the load is i = E Th /(ZTh + ZL). The corresponding voltage across the
load is VL = ETh ZL / (ZTh + ZL). Thus, in the limit that, |ZL| >> |ZTh| gives VL → ETh.
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DESIGN OF RESISTIVE DEFLECTION BRIDGES
In a resistive or Wheatstone bridge all four impedances Z 1 to Z4 are pure resistances R1 to R4.
From the equation of Thévenin voltage for general deflection bridge we have:
We first consider the case when only one of the resistances is a sensing element. Here R1 depends
on the input measured variable I, i.e. R1 = RI, and R2, R3 and R4 are fixed resistors. This gives
From which we see that to design a single element bridge we need to specify the three
parameters VS, R4 and R3 /R2. The individual values of R2 and R3 are not critical; it is their ratio
which is crucial to the design. The three parameters can be specified by considering the range
and linearity of the output voltage and electrical power limitations for the sensor. Thus if I MIN and
IMAX are minimum and maximum values of the measured variable, and R IMIN and RIMAX are the
corresponding sensor resistances, then in order for the bridge output voltage to have a range from
VMIN to VMAX the following conditions must be obeyed:
Often we require VMIN = 0, i.e. the bridge to be balanced when I = I MIN; in this case the equation
for VMIN reduces to:
Relationship between resistances in a balanced Wheatstone bridge
A third condition is required to complete the design. One important consideration is the need to
limit the electrical power (i2)2 RI ) in the sensor to a level which enables it to be dissipated as heat
flow to the surrounding fluid; otherwise the temperature of the sensor rises above that of the
surrounding fluid, thereby affecting the sensor resistance. Thus if Watts is the maximum
Vs
power dissipation, using the equation i 2 = Z 1 + Z 4 we require:
For the case IMIN ≤ I ≤ IMAX
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A.C. BRIDGES
As always in bridge measurement circuits, the unknown quantity is “balanced” against a known
standard, obtained from a high-quality, calibrated component that can be adjusted in value until
the null detector device indicates a condition of balance. Depending on how the bridge is set up,
the unknown component's value may be determined directly from the setting of the calibrated
standard, or derived from that standard through a mathematical formula.
A couple of simple bridge circuits are shown below, one for inductance and one for capacitance:
Symmetrical bridge measures unknown inductor by comparison to a standard inductor.
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Symmetrical bridge measures unknown capacitor by comparison to a standard capacitor.
Simple “symmetrical” bridges such as these are so named because they exhibit symmetry
(mirror-image similarity) from left to right. The two bridge circuits shown above are balanced by
adjusting the calibrated reactive component (Ls or Cs). They are a bit simplified from their real-
life counterparts, as practical symmetrical bridge circuits often have a calibrated, variable resistor
in series or parallel with the reactive component to balance out stray resistance in the unknown
component. But, in the hypothetical world of perfect components, these simple bridge circuits do
just fine to illustrate the basic concept.
An example of a little extra complexity added to compensate for real-world effects can be found
in the so-called Wien Bridge, which uses a parallel capacitor-resistor standard impedance to
balance out an unknown series capacitor-resistor combination (Figure below). All capacitors
have some amount of internal resistance, be it literal or equivalent (in the form of dielectric
heating losses) which tend to spoil their otherwise perfectly reactive natures. This internal
resistance may be of interest to measure, and so the Wien Bridge attempts to do so by providing
balancing impedance that isn't “pure” either:
Wien Bridge measures both capacitive Cx and resistive Rx components of “real” capacitor.
Being that there are two standard components to be adjusted (a resistor and a capacitor) this
bridge will take a little more time to balance than the others we've seen so far. The combined
effect of Rs and Cs is to alter the magnitude and phase angle until the bridge achieves a condition
of balance. Once that balance is achieved, the settings of Rs and Cs can be read from their
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calibrated knobs, the parallel impedance of the two determined mathematically, and the unknown
capacitance and resistance determined mathematically from the balance equation (Z 1/Z2 = Z3/Z4).
It is assumed in the operation of the Wien Bridge that the standard capacitor has negligible
internal resistance, or at least that resistance is already known so that it can be factored into the
balance equation. Wien bridges are useful for determining the values of “lossy” capacitor designs
like electrolytic, where the internal resistance is relatively high.
They are also used as frequency meters, because the balance of the bridge is frequency-
dependent. When used in this fashion, the capacitors are made fixed (and usually of equal value)
and the top two resistors are made variable and are adjusted by means of the same knob.
DESIGN OF REACTIVE DEFLECTION BRIDGES
A reactive bridge has an a.c. supply voltage; two arms are usually reactive impedances and two
arms resistive impedances. Figure 3.2(a) shows the bridge to be used with the capacitance level
transducer and here we have:
Fig 3.2 (a) Bridge for capacitive level sensor (b) Bridge for inductive push-pull displacement
sensor.
This gives:
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Thus in order to get ETh = 0 at minimum level hMIN, we require C0 = ChMIN (R3 /R2), giving:
Again if R3 /R2 is made large compared with 1, this approximates to the linear form:
The most common two-element reactive bridges incorporate either capacitive or inductive push-
pull displacement sensors. The capacitive sensor has C 1 = εε0A / (d + x) and C2 = εε0A / (d − x);
if this is connected into an a.c. bridge so that Z1 = l/( jωC1), Z2 = Z3 = R, Z4 = 1/( jωC2) we have:
This gives:
i.e. the relationship between ETh and x is linear and independent of frequency ω. We note that the
alternative way of connecting the sensor into the bridge so that Z 1 = l/ (jωC1) and Z2 = 1/ (jωC2)
gives an output voltage which is non-linearly related to x and dependent on the supply frequency
ω. A similar result is obtained with the variable reluctance push-pull displacement sensor. This
has:
and from Figure 3.2(b) we have Z1 = jωL1, Z2 = Z3 = R, Z4 = jωL2, giving:
From which:
Again the relationship between ETh and x is linear and frequency independent.
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Example:
An interesting variation on this theme is found in the next bridge circuit, used to precisely
measure inductances.
Maxwell-Wien Bridge measures an inductor in terms of a capacitor standard.
This ingenious bridge circuit is known as the Maxwell-Wien bridge (sometimes known plainly
as the Maxwell bridge), and is used to measure unknown inductances in terms of calibrated
resistance and capacitance. Calibration-grade inductors are more difficult to manufacture than
capacitors of similar precision, and so the use of a simple “symmetrical” inductance bridge is not
always practical. Because the phase shifts of inductors and capacitors are exactly opposite each
other, capacitive impedance can balance out inductive impedance if they are located in opposite
legs of a bridge, as they are here.
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Example:
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3.2. AMPLIFIERS & ATTENUATORS
3.2.1. Instrumentation Amplifiers
Amplifiers are necessary in order to amplify low-level signals, e.g. thermocouple or strain gauge
bridge output voltages, to a level which enables them to be further processed.
An instrumentation amplifier is a high-performance differential amplifier system consisting of
several closed-loop operational amplifiers. An ideal instrumentation amplifier gives an output
voltage which depends only on the difference of two input voltages V 1 and V2, i.e. where the
gain K is precisely known and can be varied over a wide range. A practical instrumentation
amplifier should have a gain which can be set by a single external resistor and should combine
the following:
• High input impedance
• High common mode rejection ratio
• Low input offset voltage
• Low temperature coefficient of offset voltage.
The differential amplifier which uses a single operational amplifier is inadequate: in order to
obtain high gain, RIN must be low. This means low input impedance; also the differential
amplifier is highly susceptible to any mismatch in resistance values.
Figure 3.3 shows a typical instrumentation amplifier system consisting of three operational
amplifiers, A1, A2 and A3. The two input non-inverting amplifiers A 1 and A2 provide an overall
differential gain of (1 + 2R1/RG) and a common mode gain of unity. The output amplifier A 3 is a
unity gain differential amplifier.
A typical precision instrumentation amplifier, INA 115, has:
• ZIN ≈ 1010 Ω in parallel with 6 pF.
• (CMRR) dB ≈ 115 dB min.
• Offset Voltage VOL ≈ 50 μV max.
• Temperature coefficient of offset voltage γ ≈ 0.25 μV °C−1.
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Fig 3.3.Typical instrumentation amplifier
3.2.2 Attenuator Circuits:
An attenuator circuit allows a known source of power to be reduced by a predetermined factor
usually expressed as decibels. A powerful advantage of an attenuator is since it is made from
non-inductive resistors, the attenuator is able to change a source or load, which might be
reactive, into one which is precisely known and resistive. This power reduction is achieved by
the attenuator without introducing distortion. Signals may have power level so large that they can
over drive or damage components. Therefore to over come these problem attenuators are used to
reduce the amplitude of a signal or voltage level. An attenuator circuit is a voltage divider
network that allows many ranges of input and provides a constant range of outputs. To obtain
constant output voltage small signals will be amplified while large signals will be attenuated
which is accomplished by a voltage divider circuits.
Now let’s see how an attenuator with various input levels and constant output can be designed.
Example: Design an attenuator that has input voltage of 1, 3, 10, 30, and 100V with a
constant output voltage of 500mV and 10MΩ of input resistance as shown below.
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VCC
VCC R1
5MΩ 1
100V
R2
3.3MΩ
R3
1.74MΩ
Rotary switch
R4
332kΩ
R5
115kΩ
R6
50kΩ
Fig 3.4.Typical instrumentation attenuator
3.3. Oscillator Circuits:
A voltage or current with deliberately induced and time-varying characteristics is called a signal.
Signal generating circuit is called an oscillator. An oscillator is a circuit that outputs a periodic
signal. The circuit is basically energy converter in that dc power usually is fed into the device
and a time-varying signal as a function of time is the result or output. Oscillating circuits play a
central and increasingly important role in digital and analogue electronic system. Digital devices
require precise system timing, a function provided by oscillators and similar timing sources.
Oscillators, clocks and timers are essential to the performance of most modern electronic
devices. Signal - generating devices perform the following things: i.e. conversion of direct or
constant voltage to a particular periodically varying voltage, the manipulation of that voltage to a
desired wave shape, and the precise control of the magnitude and frequency of that voltage.
3.4. Filter Circuits:
What is a filter?
In its broadest sense, a filter can be defined as a signal processing system whose output signal,
usually called the response, differs from the input signal, called the excitation, such that the
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output signal has some prescribed properties. In more practical terms an electric filter is a device
designed to suppress, pass, or separate a group of signals from a mixture of signals according
to the specifications in a particular application. The application areas of filtering are manifold,
for example to band-limit signals before sampling to reduce aliasing, to eliminate unwanted
noise in communication systems, to resolve signals into their frequency components, to convert
discrete-time signals into continuous-time signals, to demodulate signals, etc. Filters are
generally classified into three broad classes: continuous-time, sampled data, and discrete-time
filters depending on the type of signal being processed by the filter. Therefore, the concept of
signals is fundamental in the design of filters.
A signal is a function of one or more independent variables such as time, space, temperature, etc.
that carries information. The independent variables of a signal can either be continuous or
discrete. Assuming that the signal is a function of time, in the first case the signal is called
continuous-time and in the second, discrete-time. A continuous-time signal is defined at every
instant of time over a given interval, whereas a discrete-time signal is defined only at discrete-
time instances. Similarly, the values of a signal can also be classified in either continuous or
discrete. In real-world signals, often referred to as analog signals, both amplitude and time are
continuous. These types of signals cannot be processed by digital machines unless they have
been converted into discrete-time signals. By contrast, a digital signal is characterized by discrete
signal values that are defined only at discrete points in time. Digital signal values are represented
by a finite number of digits, which are usually binary coded.
Filters can be classified on the basis of the input, output, and internal operating signals. A
continuous data filter is used to process continuous-time or analog signals, whereas a digital
filter processes digital signals. Continuous data filters are further divided into passive or active
filters, depending on the type of elements used in their implementation.
Perhaps the earliest type of filters known in the engineering community are LC filters, which can
be designed by using discrete components like inductors and capacitors, or crystal and
mechanical filters that can be implemented using LC equivalent circuits. Since no external power
is required to operate these filters, they are often referred to as passive filters. In contrast, active
filters are based on active devices, primarily RC elements, and amplifiers. In a sampled data
filter, on the other hand, the signal is sampled and processed at discrete instants of time.
Depending on the type of signal processed by such a filter, one may distinguish between an
analog sampled data filter and a digital filter.
In an analog sampled data filter the sampled signal can principally take any value, whereas in a
digital filter the sampled signal is a digital signal. Examples: of analog sampled data filters are
switched capacitor (SC) filters and charge-transfer device (CTD) filters made of capacitors,
switches, and operational amplifiers.
Filter Classification
Filters are commonly classified according to the filter function they perform. The basic functions
are: low-pass, high-pass, band pass, and band stop.
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If a filter passes frequencies from zero to its cutoff frequency W c and stops all frequencies
higher than the cutoff frequencies, then this filter type is called an ideal low pass filter.
In contrast, an ideal high-pass filter stops all frequencies below its cutoff frequency and passes
all frequencies above it. Frequencies extending from W 1 to W2 are passed by an ideal band pass
filter, while all other frequencies are stopped.
An ideal band stop filter stops frequencies fromW 1 to W2 and passes all other frequencies. Figure
above depicts the magnitude functions of the four basic ideal filter types. So far we have
discussed ideal filter characteristics having rectangular magnitude responses.
These characteristics, however, are physically not realizable. As a consequence, the ideal
response can only be approximated by some non ideal realizable system.
Several classical approximation schemes have been developed, each of which satisfies a different
criterion of optimization. This should be taken into account when comparing the performance of
these filters characteristics.
A common need for filter circuits is in high-performance stereo systems, where certain ranges of
audio frequencies need to be amplified or suppressed for best sound quality and power
efficiency. You may be familiar with equalizers, which allow the amplitudes of several
frequency ranges to be adjusted to suit the listener's taste and acoustic properties of the listening
area. You may also be familiar with crossover networks, which block certain ranges of
frequencies from reaching speakers.
A tweeter (high-frequency speaker) is inefficient at reproducing low-frequency signals such as
drum beats, so a crossover circuit is connected between the tweeter and the stereo's output
terminals to block low-frequency signals, only passing high-frequency signals to the speaker's
connection terminals. This gives better audio system efficiency and thus better performance.
Both equalizers and crossover networks are examples of filters, designed to accomplish filtering
of certain frequencies.
Another practical application of filter circuits is in the “conditioning” of non-sinusoidal voltage
waveforms in power circuits. Some electronic devices are sensitive to the presence of harmonics
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in the power supply voltage, and so require power conditioning for proper operation. If a
distorted sine-wave voltage behaves like a series of harmonic waveforms added to the
fundamental frequency, then it should be possible to construct a filter circuit that only allows the
fundamental waveform frequency to pass through, blocking all (higher-frequency) harmonics.
