Week-4

4.3.7 Fast Ethernet

5.2
What leads to fast Ethernet?

 To pump up the speed, various industry groups proposed

two new ring based optical LANs.
 One was called FDDI and the other was called fiber
channel.
 Both of them failed for desktop, management was
complicated, complex chips and very expensive
Ethernet
Physical Media :-
10 Base5 - Thick Co-axial Cable with Bus Topology
10 Base2 - Thin Co-axial Cable with Bus Topology
10 BaseT - UTP Cat 3/5 with Tree Topology
10 BaseFL - Multimode/Singlemode Fiber with Tree
Topology

Maximum Segment Length

10 Base5 - 500 m with at most 4 repeaters (Use Bridge to extend
the network)
10 Base2 - 185 m with at most 4 repeaters (Use Bridge to extend
the network)
10 BaseT - 100 m with at most 4 hubs (Use Switch to extend the
network)
Fast Ethernet

100 Mbps bandwidth

Uses same CSMA/CD media access protocol
and packet format as in Ethernet.
100BaseTX (UTP) and 100BaseFX (Fiber)
standards
Physical media :-
100 BaseTX - UTP Cat 5e
100 BaseFX - Multimode / Singlemode
Fiber
Full Duplex/Half Duplex operations.
Fast Ethernet

Provision forAuto-Negotiation of media

speed:
10 Mbps or 100Mbps (popularly available for
copper media only).

Maximum Segment Length

100 Base TX - 100 m
100 Base FX - 2 Km (Multimode Fiber)
100 Base FX - 20 km (Singlemode
Fiber)
Gigabit Ethernet
1 Gbps bandwidth.
Uses same CSMA/CD media access protocol as in
Ethernet and is backward compatible (10/100/100
modules are available).
1000BaseT (UTP), 1000BaseSX (Multimode Fiber) and
1000BaseLX (Multimode/Singlemode Fiber)
standards.
Maximum Segment Length
1000 Base T - 100m (Cat 5e/6)
1000 Base SX - 275 m (Multimode Fiber)
1000 Base LX - 512 m (Multimode Fiber)
1000 Base LX - 20 Km (Singlemode Fiber)
1000 Base LH - 80 Km (Singlemode Fiber)
Routing Algorithm

 Part of N/L
 Decides 2 things:
 Which i/p pkt to transmit?
 Where/Which o/p line to select?
 Session routing: for the whole session no need to change
the output line selected by 1st packet
 In general routers have 2 phase:
 Forwarding
 Table updating
Non-adaptive & adaptive algorithm

 Routing algorithm can be grouped into:

Non-adaptive algorithms (fixed traffic

light)
do not base their routing decisions on
measurements or estimates of the current
traffic and topology.
Instead, the choice of the route to use to get
from I to J (for all I and J)is computed in
advance, off-line, and downloaded to the
routers when the network is booted.
This procedure is sometimes called static
routing.
• Adaptive algorithms
 change their routing decisions to reflect
changes in the topology, and usually the
traffic as well.
 Adaptive algorithms differ in where they
get their
information (e.g., locally, from adjacent
routers, or from all routers),
when they change the routes (e.g., every ∆T
sec, when the load changes or when the
topology changes), and
What metric is used for optimization (e.g.,
distance, number of hops, or estimated
transit time).
The Optimality Principle
 the optimality principle and the sink tree provide a benchmark against
which other routing algorithms can be measured.
 a general statement about optimal routes without regard to network topology or
traffic
 It states that if router J is on the optimal path from router I to router K, then the
optimal path from J to K also falls along the same route.
 Where the distance metric is the number of hops.
 Sink tree is not necessarily unique; other trees with the same path lengths
may exist.
 The goal of all routing algorithms is to discover and use the sink trees for
all routers.
 Design Goals of Routing Algorithms
 Algorithm Types
 Routing Metrics
 Dynamic Routing Algorithms
Algorithm types

 Static Vs Dynamic
 Single Path Vs Multiple Path
 Host Intelligent Vs Router Intelligent
 Intradomain Vs Interdomain
Routing Metrics

 Path Length
 Reliability
 Delay
 Bandwidth
 Load
 Communication cost
Static Algorithms
 Shortest Path Algorithm
 Flooding
 Flow based Routing

Dynamic Algorithms
 Distance Vector Routing
 Link State Routing
 Hierarchical Routing
 Shortest Path Routing
(a non-adaptive routing algorithm)
 Given a network topology and a set of weights describing the cost to
send data across each link in the network
 Find the shortest path from a specified source to all other
destinations in the network.
 Shortest path algorithm first developed by E. W. Dijkstra
Mark the source node as permanent.
Designate the source node as the working node.
Set the tentative distance to all other nodes to
infinity.
While some nodes are not marked permanent
Compute the tentative distance from the
source to all nodes adjacent to the working
node. If this is shorter than the current
tentative distance replace the tentative
distance of the destination and record the
label of the working node there.
Examine ALL tentatively labeled nodes in the
graph. Select the node with the smallest
Example of Shortest Path Routing
Flooding
(a nonadaptive routing algorithm)

 Brute force routing

 Every incoming packet is sent on every outgoing line
 Always finds the shortest path quickly
 Also finds many long paths
 Time to live is set to size of subnet
 Selective Flooding
 Flood only in the direction of the destination
 Practical in a few settings
 Military Applications
 Distributed Databases
 Metric for comparison
Distance Vector Routing
(an adaptive routing algorithm)
 Bellman-Ford Routing
 Ford Fulkerson Algorithm
 Original ARPANET routing algorithm
 Previously used on Internet (RIP)
 Early version of DecNet and Novell’s IPX
 AppleTalk and Cisco routers use improved versions of this algorithm
Distance Vector Routing
(an adaptive routing algorithm)

 Neighboring routers periodically exchange information from their

routing tables.
 Routers replace routes in their own routing tables anytime that
neighbors have found better routes.
 Information provided from neighbors
 Outgoing line used for destination
 Estimate of time or distance
 can be number of hops, time delay, packet queue length, etc.
Distance Vector Routing
(an adaptive routing algorithm)
Distance Vector Routing
(an adaptive routing algorithm)
The Count to Infinity Problem
 Link State Routing
(an adaptive routing algorithm)

Five Steps
1.) Discover your neighbors and learn their addresses.
2.) Measure the cost (delay) to each neighbor.
3.) Construct a packet containing all this information
4.) Send this packet to all other routers.
5.) Compute the shortest path to every other router.

1.) Discovering Your Neighbors

Send “Hello” packet on each point-to-point
line. Destination node replies with its
2.) Measuring Line Cost

 Send an “ECHO” packet over the line.

 Destination is required to respond to “ECHO” packet immediately.
 Measure the time required for this operation.
 Question: Should we measure just the time it takes to transmit the
packet, or should we include the time that the packet waits in the
queue?
Argument 2:

 We should include the time that the packet spends in

the queue, as this provides a more accurate picture of
the real delays.
 We should only include the transmission times,
otherwise the network is likely to oscillate between
preferred paths.
 Build Link State Packets

Building the link state packets is easy.

when to build? 1) periodically, and
2) when some significant event occurs,
 Distributing the Link State
Packets
 Use selective flooding
 Sequence numbers prevent duplicate packets from
being propagated
 Lower sequence numbers are rejected as obsolete

Computing the New Routes

Dijkstra’s Shortest Path algorithm is used to
determine the shortest path to each
Internetworking

 More networks are connected to form internet

 The purpose of interconnecting all these networks is to
allow users on any of them to Communicate with users
on all the other ones and also to allow users on any of
them to access data on any of them.
How Networks Differ
How Networks Can Be
Connected?
 Repeaters or Hubs (which layer?)
 Bridges and Switches. (?)
 Can translate protocol from Ethernet to FDDI or to 802.11.
(minor protocol translation)
 Routers (?)
 A router that can handle multiple protocols is called a
multiprotocol router.
Switch vs Router

 Switch only checks MAC address, but

 Router checks the IP address.
Tunneling
Fragmentation. Why?

1. Hardware (e.g., the size of an Ethernet frame).

2. Operating system (e.g., all buffers are 512 bytes).
3. Protocols (e.g., the number of bitsin the packet length
field).
4. Compliance with some (inter)national standard.
5. Desire to reduce error-induced retransmissions to some
level.
6. Desire to prevent one packet fromoccupying the
channel too long.
IP Fragmentation
MTU = 2000
host
router
router MTU = 1500
host
MTU = 4000

 Every Network has Own Maximum Transmission Unit

(MTU)
 Largest IP datagram it can carry within its own packet frame
 E.g., Ethernet is 1500 bytes
 Don’t know MTUs of all intermediate networks in advance

 IP Solution
 When hit network with small MTU, fragment packets
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 Might get further fragmentation as proceed farther
Fragmentation Related Fields

 Length
 Length of IP fragment

 Identification
 To match up with other fragments

 Fragment offset
 Where this fragment lies in entire IP datagram

 Flags
 “More fragments” flag
 “Don’t fragment” flag

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Fragmentation Related Fields

 Length
 Length of IP fragment

 Identification
 To match up with other fragments

 Fragment offset
 Where this fragment lies in entire IP datagram

 Flags
 “More fragments” flag
 “Don’t fragment” flag

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IP Fragmentation Example #1

router
host
MTU = 4000

Length = 3820, M=0

IP IP
Header Data

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IP Fragmentation Example #2
MTU =
2000
router
router
Length = 2000, M=1, Offset = 0
Length = 3820, M=0
IP IP
IP IP Header Data
Header Data

1980 bytes
3800 bytes
Length = 1840, M=0, Offset = 1980

IP IP
Header Data

IP Header= 20 bytes
1820 bytes
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 IP Fragmentation Example #3
Length = 1500, M=1, Offset = 0

host IP IP
router
MTU = 1500 Header Data

Length = 2000, M=1, Offset = 0

1480 bytes
IP IP Length = 520, M=1, Offset = 1480
Header Data
IP IP
Header Data
1980 bytes
Length = 1500, M=1, Offset = 1980
500 bytes
Length = 1840, M=0, Offset = 1980 IP IP
Header Data
Length = 360, M=0, Offset = 3460
IP IP
Header Data IP IP
1480 bytes Header Data
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1820 bytes
340 bytes
IP Reassembly
 Fragments might arrive out-of-order
Length = 1500, M=1, Offset = 0  Don’t know how much memory required
until receive final fragment
IP IP
Header Data

Length = 520, M=1, Offset = 1480

 Some fragments may never arrive
IP IP
Header Data  After a while, give up entire process
Length = 1500, M=1, Offset = 1980

IP IP
Header Data

Length = 360, M=0, Offset = 3460 IP IP IP IP

Data Data Data Data
IP IP
Header Data

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