13 Vibrations and Waves

ENCOUNTER THE PHENOMENON

Write the Encounter the Phenomenon question for this module.

How can this pendulum save a building from earthquake damage?

Use the “What I Know” column to list the things you know about the Encounter the Phenomenon
question. Then list the questions you have about the Encounter the Phenomenon question in the
“What I Want to Find Out” column. As you read the module, fill in the “What I Learned” column.

K W L
What I Know What I Want to Find Out What I Learned
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Vibrations and Waves
1 Periodic Motion
REVIEW Recall and write the definition of the Review Vocabulary term.
VOCABULARY
gravitational field a vector quantity that relates the mass of an object
gravitational field (g)
to the gravitational force it experiences at a given location; near Earth’s

surface, g is 9.8 N/kg toward the center of Earth

NEW VOCABULARY Use your book to fill in the term that matches each definition.
periodic motion
motion that repeats in a regular cycle
period
the time needed for an object to repeat one complete cycle of the
motion
amplitude
the maximum distance the object moves from the equilibrium position
simple harmonic motion
a motion that occurs in any system in which the force acting to restore
an object to its equilibrium position is directly proportional to the
displacement of the object
Hooke’s law
states that the magnitude of the force exerted by a spring is equal to
the spring constant times the distance the spring is stretched or
compressed from its equilibrium position
simple pendulum
a device that consists of a massive object, called the bob, suspended
by a string or a light rod, which can demonstrate simple harmonic
motion
resonance
a special form of periodic motion that occurs when forces are applied
to a vibrating or oscillating object at time intervals equal to the period
of oscillation and the amplitude of the vibration increases

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 1 Periodic Motion (continued)
Write an explanation for each term in Hooke’s law.

the distance from the equilibrium

the spring constant point that the spring is stretched
or compressed

F = -kx

the magnitude of the restoring force

exerted by a string

Explain how a spring gets elastic potential energy.

When you stretch a spring, you transfer energy from your body to the

spring. The energy in the spring is stored as elastic potential energy.

 se with Example
U TRY IT!
Problem 1.
Problem
Use this column for
THE SPRING CONSTANT AND THE ENERGY OF A SPRING A spring
scratch work and
is stretched by 15 cm when a bag of oranges weighing 48 N is
sketches.
suspended from its end.
a. Determine the spring constant.
b. How much elastic potential energy does the spring
have when it is stretched this far?
1. ANALYZE AND SKETCH THE PROBLEM
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KNOWNS UNKNOWNS
x = 15 cm F = −48 N k =? PEsp =?

2. SOLVE FOR THE UNKNOWNS

a. Use Hooke’s law and isolate k.
_ _
F
k = ​  x ​ = ​ 
−48 N
 ​ = 320 N/m
0.15 m

b. Use the relationship among the potential energy of a spring, the

spring constant, and the distance the spring is stretched.
_
1 _ 1
PEsp = ​   ​ kx2 = ​   ​ (320 N/m)(0.15 m)2 = 3.6 J
2 2

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1 Periodic Motion (continued)
TRY IT! (CONTINUED)
3. EVALUATE THE ANSWER
• Are the units correct? Yes, N/m is the correct unit for the spring

constant. J is the correct unit for energy.

Get It? Compare the period of a very massive pendulum, like the
one shown at the beginning of the module, with the period of a
pendulum with the same length but a tiny mass.

The periods are the same or similar because the period of a pendulum

depends only on its length and the gravitational field. Any differences are

due to differences in the gravitational field at the location of the

pendulum.

List several examples of resonance.

Possible answers: “pumping” or pushing someone on a swing, jumping

on a trampoline or diving board, air or strings in a musical instrument

 se with Example
U TRY IT!

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Problem 2.
Problem
FINDING g USING A PENDULUM A pendulum with a length of
Use this column for 25.3 cm has a period of 1.00 s. What is the gravitational field at the
scratch work and pendulum’s location?
sketches.
1. ANALYZE AND SKETCH THE PROBLEM
KNOWNS UNKNOWN
ℓ = 25.3 cm T = 1.00 s  g =?

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 1 Periodic Motion (continued)
TRY IT! (CONTINUED)
2. SOLVE FOR THE UNKNOWN

Use the relationship among the period, the length, and the
gravitation field.

√_ _
ℓ (2π) ℓ __
2 2
4π (0.253 m)
T = 2π​  ​  g ​ ​ Thus, g = ​   ​ = ​     ​ = 9.99 N/kg
T2 (1.00 s)2

3. EVALUATE THE ANSWER

• Are the units correct? Yes, N/kg is the correct unit for g.

• Is the magnitude reasonable? Yes; on Earth, g ≈ 9.8 N/kg, so 9.99 N/kg

is reasonable.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

8. Periodic Motion Explain why a pendulum is an example of periodic motion.

The pendulum swings back and forth, following the same path each cycle and requiring the same

amount of time to complete each cycle.

9. Energy of a Spring The springs shown in Figure 5 are identical. Contrast the
potential energies of the bottom two springs.
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The energy of the second spring is 4.0 times greater than

the energy of the first spring.

2 cm

4 cm
Figure 5

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1 Periodic Motion (continued)
10. Hooke’s Law Objects of various weights are hung from a rubber band that is
suspended from a hook. The weights of the objects are plotted on a graph against
the stretch of the rubber band. How can you tell from the graph whether the rubber
band obeys Hooke’s law?

If the graph is a straight line, the rubber band obeys Hooke’s law. If the graph is curved, it does not.

11. Pendulum How must the length of a pendulum be changed to double its period?
How must the length be changed to halve the period?

To double the period, the length must be quadrupled; to halve the period, the length is reduced

to one-fourth its original length.

12. Resonance If a car’s wheel is out of balance, the car will shake strongly at a
specific speed but not at a higher or lower speed. Explain.

At that speed, the tire’s rotation frequency matches the resonant frequency of the car.

13. Critical Thinking How is uniform circular motion similar to simple harmonic motion?
How are they different?

Both are periodic motions. In uniform circular motion, the accelerating force is not proportional

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to the displacement; in simple harmonic motion, it is. Simple harmonic motion is one-dimensional

and uniform circular motion is two-dimensional.

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 Vibrations and Waves
2 Wave Properties
REVIEW Recall and write the definition of the Review Vocabulary term.
VOCABULARY
period in any periodic motion, the amount of time required for an object
period
to repeat one complete cycle of motion

NEW VOCABULARY Use your book to fill in the blanks below.

wave
Types of waves A wave is a disturbance that carries energy
wave pulse
through matter or space without transferring matter. There are several
transverse wave transverse wave
types of waves. A is a wave that disturbs the
periodic wave
particles in the medium perpendicular to the direction of the wave’s
longitudinal wave periodic wave
travel. A is a wave that disturbs the particles
surface wave
in the medium and the disturbances continue at a constant rate.
trough longitudinal wave
A is a wave in which the disturbance is parallel
crest to the direction of the wave’s travel. A surface wave is a
wavelength wave in which the medium’s particles follow a circular path that is at
frequency times parallel to the direction of travel and at other times
perpendicular to the direction of wave travel. A wave pulse is
a single bump or disturbance that travels through a medium.

Wave properties The low point on a transverse wave is called the

trough . The high point on a transverse wave is called the
crest . The shortest distance between points where the wave
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pattern repeats itself is called the wavelength . The

frequency of a wave is the number of complete oscillations
a point on that wave makes each second.

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2 Wave Properties (continued)
Compare and contrast how transverse waves, longitudinal waves,
and surface waves disturb particles by completing the table below.

Transverse Waves Longitudinal Waves Surface Waves

disturb the particles disturb the particles disturb the particles

perpendicular to the parallel to the in a circular path
direction the wave is direction the wave
traveling is traveling

All three types of waves All of these waves are disturbances that
carry energy through matter or space without transferring matter.

Get It? Summarize how changing a wave’s amplitude, frequency, or

wavelength affects the wave’s speed.

Changing a wave’s amplitude, frequency, or wavelength does not affect

a wave’s speed.

Explain how frequency is related to the period of a wave.

The frequency of a wave is equal to the reciprocal of the period.

Write the equation used to find wavelength below and explain what
each term means.

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the wave’s speed
v

the wavelength λ=

f
the wave’s frequency

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 2 Wave Properties (continued)
 se with Example
U TRY IT!
Problem 3.
Problem
CHARACTERISTICS OF A WAVE A sound wave has a frequency of
Use this column for 184 Hz and travels the length of a stadium, 125 m, in 0.325 s.
scratch work and
sketches. a. What is the speed of the wave?
b. What is the wavelength of the wave?
c. What is the period of the wave?
d. If the frequency were changed to 475 Hz, what would be the new
wavelength and period?

1. ANALYZE AND SKETCH THE PROBLEM

KNOWNS

f= 184 Hz ∆d = 125 m

∆t = 0.325 s f2 = 475 Hz

UNKNOWNS

v =? λ = ?   T =?

λ2 =? T2 =?

2. SOLVE FOR THE UNKNOWNS

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a. Use the definition of velocity.

v = ​ 
_
∆d _
 ​= ​ 
125 m
 ​ = 385 m/s
∆t 0.325 s

b. Use the relationship among wave velocity, wavelength, and

frequency.
v _ _
λ = ​   ​ = ​ 
385 m/s
 ​ = 2.09 m
f 184 Hz

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2 Wave Properties (continued)
TRY IT! (CONTINUED)
c. Use the relationship between period and frequency.
_ _
1
T = ​   ​ = ​ 
1
 ​ = 0.00543 s
f 184 Hz

d. Use the relationship among wave speed, frequency, and

wavelength and the relationship between period and frequency.

_ _
v
λ2 = ​   ​ = ​ 
385 m/s
 ​ = 0.811 m
f2 475 Hz

_ _
1
T2 = ​   ​ = ​ 
1
 ​ = 0.00211 s
f2 475 Hz

3. EVALUATE THE ANSWER

−1
• Are the units correct? 1 Hz equivalent to 1 s , so
(_) m
(_) m
​ ​  s ​ ​/Hz = ​ ​  s ​ ​s = m, which is the correct unit for wavelength.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

25. Transverse Waves Suppose you and your lab partner are asked to demonstrate
that a transverse wave transports energy without transferring matter. How could
you do it?

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Loosely tie a piece of yarn somewhere near the middle of a rope. With your partner holding one end

of the rope, shake the other end up and down to create a transverse wave. Note that while the wave

moves down the rope, the yarn moves up and down but stays in the same place on the rope.

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 2 Wave Properties (continued)
26. Wave Characteristics You are creating transverse waves on a rope by shaking
your hand from side to side. Without changing the distance your hand moves, you
begin to shake it faster and faster. What happens to the amplitude, wavelength,
frequency, period, and velocity of the wave?

The amplitude and velocity remain unchanged, but the frequency increases while the period and

wavelength decrease.

27. Longitudinal Waves Describe longitudinal waves. What types of mediums transmit
longitudinal waves?

In longitudinal waves, the particles of the medium vibrate in a direction parallel to the motion of the

wave. Nearly all mediums—solids, liquids, and gases—transmit longitudinal waves.

28. Speeds in Different Mediums If you pull on one end of a coiled spring toy, does
the pulse reach the other end instantaneously? What happens if you pull on a
rope? What happens if you hit the end of a metal rod? Compare the pulses
traveling through these three materials.

It takes time for the pulse to reach the other end in each case. It travels faster on the rope than on

the spring, and fastest in the metal rod.

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29. Critical Thinking If a raindrop falls into a pool, it produces waves with small
amplitudes. If a swimmer jumps into a pool, he or she produces waves with large
amplitudes. Why doesn’t the heavy rain in a thunderstorm produce large waves?

The swimmer’s energy is transferred to the water in a small space over a short time, whereas the

raindrops’ energy is spread out in area and time.

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Vibrations and Waves
3 Wave Behavior
REVIEW Recall and write the definition of the Review Vocabulary term.
VOCABULARY
tension the specific name for the force exerted by a rope or a string
tension

NEW VOCABULARY Use your book to fill in the term that matches each definition.
incident wave pulse that strikes a boundary between two mediums
reflected wave returning wave that results when some of the energy of an incident
wave is reflected by a boundary
principle of superposition states that the displacement of a medium caused by two or more
waves is the algebraic sum of the displacements caused by the
individual waves
interference result of the superposition of two or more waves
node the stationary point where two wave pulses with equal amplitudes
meet and destructively interfere, resulting in a displacement of zero
antinode the point of largest displacement where two waves meet
standing wave a wave that appears to be standing still
wavefront a line that represents the crest of a wave in two dimensions
ray a line drawn at a right angle to the wavefront
normal a line that shows the orientation of a barrier and is drawn
perpendicular to the barrier

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law of reflection states that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
refraction the change in the direction of waves at the boundary between two
different mediums

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 3 Wave Behavior (continued)
Draw a diagram and explain what happens when a wave pulse meets
the boundary between two springs.

The drawing should show a transmitted wave and a reflected wave.

When a wave meets a boundary between two springs, a transmitted

wave pulse and a reflected wave pulse form. If the waves in the first

spring have a greater speed because the spring is stiffer, then the

reflected wave will be inverted.

Draw a diagram and explain what happens when a wave pulse

encounters a rigid boundary.

The drawing should show a reflected wave that is inverted with

the same magnitude as it had before it hit the rigid boundary.
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When a wave pulse encounters a rigid boundary, it is reflected back

toward the origin with almost the same amplitude as it had before it hit

the boundary. The reflected wave is inverted.

Describe what happens when a pulse traveling through a medium

encounters a reflected pulse.

The two waves combine to form a new wave. The new wave is the

algebraic sum of the displacements caused by the individual waves.

If the waves travel in the same medium, they can cancel or form a new

wave of lesser or greater amplitude.

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3 Wave Behavior (continued)
Get It? Compare the wave medium’s displacement at a node and
at an antinode.

The medium’s displacement is zero at a node. Displacement is at

a maximum at the antinode.

Identify two examples of waves that reflect or refract in nature.

Possible answer: sound echoes and rainbows

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 3 Wave Behavior (continued)
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
30. Wave Characteristics Which characteristics remain unchanged when a wave crosses a
boundary into a different medium: frequency, amplitude, wavelength, velocity, direction?

Frequency remains unchanged. In general, amplitude, wavelength, and velocity will change when

a wave enters a new medium. Direction may or may not change, depending on the original direction

of the wave.

31. Superposition of Waves Sketch two wave pulses whose interference produces a
pulse with an amplitude greater than either of the individual waves.

Answers will vary, but both pulses should have displacements in the same direction.

32. Refraction of Waves In Figure 19 (in your textbook), the wave changes direction as
it passes from one medium to another. Can two-dimensional waves cross a
boundary between two mediums without changing direction? Explain.

yes, if they strike the boundary while traveling normal to its surface, or if they have the same

speed in both media

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33. Standing Waves In a standing wave on a string fixed at both ends, how is the
number of nodes related to the number of antinodes?

The number of nodes is always one greater than the number of antinodes.

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3 Wave Behavior (continued)
34. Critical Thinking As another way to understand wave reflection, cover the
right-hand side of each drawing in the left panel in Figure 15 with a piece of paper. The
edge of the paper should be at point N, the node. Now, concentrate on the resultant
wave, shown in darker blue. Note that it acts as a wave reflected from a boundary. Is the
boundary a rigid wall? Repeat this exercise for the middle panel in Figure 15.

1 N 1 A 1

A
N
2 2 2
A

3 N 3 3

A
4 N 4 4

5 N 5 A 5

Figure 15

The left panel of Figure 15 behaves like a rigid wall because the reflected wave is inverted; the

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wave in the center panel behaves like a reflection from a non-rigid boundary because the boundary

is an antinode and the reflected wave is not inverted.

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