Chapter-I Mechanical Properties of Materials 2017

Chapter 1

Mechanical Properties of Materials

1.1 Introduction

Strength of materials is a branch of the major discipline of solid mechanics. This subject is concerned with the
calculation of the response of a structure that is subjected to external load. A structure’s response is the stress,
strain, displacement, and related to induced variables. External load encompasses the mechanical load, the
thermal load, and the load that is induced because of the movement of the structure’s foundation. The response
parameters are utilized to design buildings, bridges, power plants, automobiles, trains, ships, submarines,
airplanes, helicopters, rockets, satellites, machinery, and other structures, A beam, for example, is designed to
ensure that the induced stress is within the capacity of its material. Thereby, its breakage or failure is avoided.
Likewise, the magnitude of compressive stress in column must be controlled to prevent its buckling. Excessive
displacement can crack a windowpane in building or degrade the performance of the bridge. Then magnitude and
direction of displacement also plays an important role in calculating load to design airborne and space borne
vehicles, like aircraft and rockets. Strain is important because the failure of a material is a function of this variable.

Mechanical properties of materials

A. Tensile Strength: is the ability of a material to withstand stretching loads without breaking.
B. Compressive strength: is the ability of a material to withstand compressive (squeezing) loads without
being crushed or broken.
C. Shear strength: is the ability of a material to withstand offset loads, or transverse cutting (shearing
actions)
D. Toughness (impact resistance): is the ability of a material to withstand shatter. If a material shatters it is
brittle (e.g. Glass). Rubbers and most plastic materials do not shatter, therefore they are tough.
E. Rigidity (stiffness): is the measure of the ability not to deflect under an applied load. E.g. Under a light load
cast iron deflects less than steel since cast iron is more rigid. But steel is much stronger than cast iron.
Thus a material which is rigid is not necessarily strong.
F. Brittleness: materials that fail in tension at relatively low values of strain (deformation per unit length) are
classified as brittle materials.
G. Elasticity: is the ability of a material to deform under load and return to its original shape and size when
the load is removed.

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 Chapter-I Mechanical Properties of Materials 2017
H. Plasticity: is the exact opposite to elasticity. It is the state of a material that has been loaded beyond the
elastic state. Under a load beyond that required to cause elastic deformation the material deforms
permanently. It takes a permanent set and will not return to its original shape and size when the load is
removed.
I. Hardness: defined as the ability of a material to withstand scratching (abrasion) or indentation by another
hard body. It is an indication of the wear resistance of the material.
1.2. Normal stress and Strain

Normal Stress

Consider a prismatic bar that is loaded by axial forces P at the ends, as shown in Fig 1.1(a) below. Note that a
prismatic bar is a straight structural member having constant cross-section throughout its length.

P P

(a)
L

m δ

P P
(b) n
d
m
P σ (c)
n
Fig. 1.1 Prismatic bar in tension

Consider two side views of the bar in Fig. 1.1b, one showing the bar before the loads are applied and the other
showing the elongated bar after the loads are applied. The internal stresses produced in the bar by the axial
forces are exposed if we make an imaginary cut at section m-n in Fig 1.1b. Because this section is taken
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the bar, it is called a cross-section.

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 Chapter-I Mechanical Properties of Materials 2017
The part of the bar to the left of the cut can be isolated and treated as free body diagram, Fig 1.1 C. The tensile
load P acts at the left hand end of this free body; at the other end are forces representing the action of the
removed part of the bar upon the part that remains. These forces are continuously distributed over the cross-
section. The intensity of force (that is, the force per unit area) is called the stress and is commonly denoted by the
Greek letter σ (Sigma).

Assuming that the stress has a uniform distribution over the cross-section as shown in Fig 1.1 C, it can be seen
that its resultant is equal to the intensity σ times the cross-sectional area A of the bar. Furthermore, from the
equilibrium of the body shown in Fig. 1.1c; it is also evident that the resultant must be equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction to the applied load P. From these observations the following relation can be obtained.
P
σ =
A
When the bar is stretched by the forces P, the resulting stresses are tensile stresses; if the forces are reversed in
direction, causing the bar to be compressed, we obtain compressive stresses. In as much as the stress σ acts in a
direction perpendicular to the cut surface, it is referred to as a normal stress.
Note that it is customary to define tensile stresses as positive and compressive stresses as negative. In SI units
stress has units of newton per square meter (N/m2), or Pascal (Pa). If the equation σ = P/A is to be valid, the
stress σ must be uniformly distributed over the cross section of the bar. This condition is realized if the axial force
P acts through the centroid of the cross-sectional area. When the load P does not act at the centroid, bending of
the bar will result, and a more complicated analysis is necessary.

Normal Strain
As shown in Fig 1.1, an axially loaded bar undergoes a change in length, becoming larger when in tension and
shorter when in compression. The change in length is denoted by the Greek letter δ (delta). This elongation is the
cumulative result of the stretching of all elements of the material throughout the length L of the bar. The
deformation of different bodies subjected to a particular load is a function of size, and therefore comparisons are
made by expressing deformation as a non-dimensional quantity given by the change in dimension per unit of
original dimension. The non-dimensional expression of deformation is termed strain. Compressive strains are
negative, Tensile strains are positive.
For the prismatic bar in Fig 1.1 the strain ε is given by
δ
ε =
L

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 Chapter-I Mechanical Properties of Materials 2017

1.3. Stress-Strain relations (Diagram)

The mechanical properties of materials used in engineering are determined by tests performed on small
specimens of the material. To understand the relation between stress and strain a structural steel specimen is
installed between the two large grips of a tensile- test machine and then loaded in tension. The normal stress σ in
the test specimen is calculated by dividing the load by area of the cross-section. When the initial area of the
specimen is used in this calculation, the resulting stress is called the nominal stress (other names are
conventional stress and engineering stress).

A more exact value of the axial stress, known as the true stress, can be calculated by using the actual area of the
bar, which can become significantly less than the initial area. The average axial strain in the bar is found from the
measured elongation δ between the gage marks by dividing δ by the gage length L. If the initial gage length is
used, then the nominal strain is obtained. Of course, the distance b/n the gage marks increases as the tensile load
is applied. If the actual distance is used in calculating the strain, we obtain the true strain, or natural strain.
Compression tests of metals are customarily made on small specimens in the shape of cubes or circular cylinders.
Both the load applied by the machine and the shortening of the specimen may be measured. The shortening
should be measured over a gage length that is less than the total length of the specimen in order to eliminate end
effects.
After performing a tension or compression test and determining the stress and strain at various magnitudes of the
load, we can plot a diagram of stress versus strain. Such a stress-strain diagram is characteristic of the material
and conveys important information about the mechanical properties and type of behavior. Consider a structural
steel, also known as mild steel or low - carbon steel. A stress - strain diagram for a typical structural steel in
tension is shown below. E’
Ultimate
Stress D
Yield
Stress B C E
A Fracture
Proportional
limit

O
Linear Perfect plasticity Strain Necking
region or yielding hardening
Fig 1.2 Stress-strain diagram for a typical structural steel

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 Chapter-I Mechanical Properties of Materials 2017
Strains are plotted on the horizontal axis and stress on the vertical axis. The diagram begins with a straight line
from the origin 0 to point A, which means that the stress and strain are proportional. Beyond point A, the
proportionality between stress and strain no longer exists; hence the stress at A is called the proportional limit.
The slope of the straight line from 0 to A is called the modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus E. Because strain
is non dimensional, this slope has the same units as stress. i.e. E = σ ε . This relation is known as Hook’s law.

With an increase in the load beyond the proportional limit, the strain begins to increase more rapidly for each
increment in stress. The stress-strain curve then has a smaller and smaller slope, until, at point B, the curve
becomes horizontal. Beginning at this point, considerable elongation occurs, with no noticeable increase in the
tensile force (from B to C in Fig 1.2).This phenomenon is known as yielding of the material, and point B is called
the yield point.

The corresponding stress is known as the yield stress of the steel. In the region from B to C, the material becomes
perfectly plastic, which means that it can deform without an increase in the applied load. The elongation of a mild -
steel specimen in the perfectly plastic region is typically 10 to 15 times the elongation that occurs between the
onset of loading and the proportional limit.

After undergoing the large strains that occur during yielding in the region BC, the steel begins to strain harden.
During strain hardening, the material undergoes changes in its atomic and crystalline structure, resulting in
increased resistance of the material to further deformation. Additional elongation now requires an increase in the
tensile load, and the stress-strain diagram has a positive slope from C to D.

The load eventually reaches its maximum value, and the corresponding stress (at point D) is called the ultimate
stress. Further stretching of the bar is actually accompanied by a reduction in the load, and fracture finally occurs
at a point such as E in Fig. [Link] contraction of the specimen occurs when it is stretched, resulting in a
decrease in the cross-sectional area. The reduction in area is too small to have a noticeable effect on the
calculated value of stress up to about point C, but beyond that point the reduction begins to alter the shape of the
diagram.

As explained before, the true stress is larger than the nominal stress because it is calculated with smaller area. In
the vicinity of the ultimate stress, the reduction in area of the bar becomes clearly visible and a pronounced
necking of the bar occurs. If the actual cross-sectional area at the narrow part of the neck is used to calculate the
stress, the true stress-strain curve will follow the dashed line CE' in Fig 1.2.

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 Chapter-I Mechanical Properties of Materials 2017
The total load the bar can carry does indeed diminish after the ultimate stress is reached (Curve DE), but this
reduction is due to the decrease in the area of the bar and not to a loss in strength of the material itself. In reality,
the material withstands an increase in stress up to failure (Point E'). For most practical purposes, however, the
conventional stress-strain curve OABCDE, which is based up on the original cross-sectional area of the specimen
and is easy to calculate, provides satisfactory information for use in design.
Poisson’s Ratio
When a prismatic bar is loaded in tension, the axial elongation is accompanied by lateral contraction (normal to
the direction of the applied load), the final shape being dotted in Fig. 1.3 below.

P P

Fig 1.3 Axial elongation and lateral contraction of a bar in tension

It is found that for an elastic material the lateral strain is proportional to the longitudinal strain, and is of the
opposite type. However, in order for the lateral strains to be the same throughout the bar, additional conditions
must be met. First the material must be homogeneous, which means it has the same composition throughout the
body and hence the same elastic properties at every point. We have already assumed that the material was
homogenous in order that the stress and strain would be uniform throughout the bar.

A second condition is that the elastic properties must be the same in all directional perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis. (E is the same in both directions). When these two conditions are met, as is normally the case
with structural materials, the lateral strains in a bar subjected to uniform tension will be the same in all directions.
The ratio of the strain in the lateral direction to the strain in the axial direction is known as Poisson's ratio and is
denoted by the Greek letter ν (nu); thus
Lateral strain
ν = −
Axial strain

The value of ν fluctuates for different materials over a relatively narrow range. Generally, it is on the order of 0.25
to 0.35. In extreme cases, values as low as 0.1 (some concretes) and as high as 0.5 (rubber) occur. The latter
value is the largest possible.

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 Chapter-I Mechanical Properties of Materials 2017
Volumetric Strain
Because the dimensions of a bar in tension or compression are changed when the load is applied, the volume of
the bar changes too. The change in volume can be calculated from the axial and lateral strains. Consider a small
rectangular parallelepiped element of isotropic material cut from a bar in tension. The element has side lengths a,
b, and c in the x, y, and z directions, respectively. The dashed line in the fig below shows the shape of the element
after the load is applied.
y
a aε
c

bνε
cνε σ
σ

b O X

Z
Fig. 1.4 Change of shape of an element taken from a bar in tension.
The elongation of the element in the direction of loading is aε, where ε is the axial strain. Because the lateral
strains are - νε the lateral dimensions decrease by bνε and cνε in the y and z directions respectively. Thus, the
final dimensions of the element are a (1 + ε), b (1 - νε), and c (1 - νε), and the final volume is
Vf = abc (1 + ε) (1 - νε) (1 - νε)
Expanding this expression will give:-
Vf = abc [1 +ε- 2 νε - 2 νε 2 + v2ε2 + ν2ε3]
As ε is very small compared to unity, its square and cube are negligible in comparison to ε itself. Therefore, the
final volume of the element is.
Vf = abc (1+ε - 2 νε)
The change in volume is, ∆V = Vf - Vo
= abc (1 +ε- 2 νε) - abc
= abcε (1 - 2ν), Where the original volume, Vo = abc
Change in volume
e=
Orginal volume

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 Chapter-I Mechanical Properties of Materials 2017
The unit volume change, i.e. volumetric strain,
abcε (1 − 2ν )
⇒e= = ε ( 1 − 2ν )
abc
σ σ
ε= ⇒ e = ( 1 − 2ν )
But E E
The above equation can be used to calculate the increase in volume of a bar in tension provided the axial strain ε
(or stress σ) and poison’s ratio ν are known. This equation may also be used for compression, in which case ε is a
negative strain and the volume of the bar decreases.

From the above equation we can also see that the maximum possible value of ν for ordinary materials is 0.5,
because any larger value means that the volume decreases when the material is stretched, which seems
physically unlikely.

1.4. Shear Stress and Strain

Shear Stress
Consider the pinned connection shown in Fig 1.5. This joint consists of a clevis A, a bracket B, and a pin C. As the
force P is applied, the bracket and the clevis press against the rivet in bearing, and a non-uniform pressure
develop against the pin (Fig. 1.5b). The average value of this pressure is determined by the projected area of the
pin into the bracket (or clevis).

This is called the bearing stress. The bearing stress in the bracket then equals σb=P/(t1d). Here t1 is the thickness
of the bracket and d is the diameter of the pin. Similarity, the bearing stress in the clevis is given by σb=P/ (2td).

P
P/2td
t1
B
t t b
b c b c b c
C d V V τ
b c b c b c
b
P/t1d P/t1d
A
b
(a) (b) (c) (d)
P
Fig. 1.5 (a) A clevis-pin connection; (b) pin in bearing; (c) pin in double shear. (d) Shear stress

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The force transferred as bearing on the pin is resisted by the stress developing on sections b-b and c-c of the pin.
This stress developed on a surface created due to a force tangential or parallel to the surface (e.g. V in Fig.1.5c) is
called shear stress. Shear stress acts parallel to the surface. In this example since we have two planes resisting
shear the pin is said to be in double shear.

Since the pin as a whole is in equilibrium, any part of it is also in equilibrium. At each cut section, a shear force V
equivalent to P/2, as shown in Fig. 1.5c, must be developed. Thus the shear occurs over an area parallel to the
applied load. This condition is termed direct shear.

Unlike normal stress, the distribution of shearing stresses τ across a section cannot be taken as uniform. By
dividing the total shear force V by the cross sectional area A over which it acts, we can determine the average
shear stress in the section:
V
τ avg =
A
The figure below shows a rivet connection in which the rivet is under single shear.

P b P

P
d
V=P
P
P
t

Fig.1.6 Rivet in single shear

The loading arrangements shown in Figs. 1.5 and 1.6 above is an example of direct shear, or simple shear, in
which the forces are created by a direct action of the forces in trying to cut through the material. Shear stresses
also arise in an indirect manner when member are subjected to tension, torsion, and bending.

Consider a small element of a material in the form of a rectangular parallelepiped having sides a, b, and c in the x,
y, and z directions, respectively (Fig. 1.7).

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 Chapter-I Mechanical Properties of Materials 2017

a
y c τ τ

q γ/2 p q
p b τ
τ1
x
z
r
s r s /2+
/2- γ/2
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.7 Shear stress and strain

As is shown on the above figure the front and rear faces are assumed to be free of any stresses. Suppose a shear
stress is τ is distributed uniformly over the top face of the element. For the element to be in equilibrium in the x
direction, equal but oppositely directed shear stresses must act on the bottom face.

Therefore the shear force: On the top face, Vtop = τac

Similarly, on the bottom face, Vbottom = - τac

These two forces form a couple having a moment about the z axis of magnitude τabc, clockwise in the figure.
Equilibrium of the element requires that this moment be balanced by an equal and opposite moment resulting from
shear stresses acting on the side faces of the element.
Denoting thee stresses on the side faces as τ1:
The vertical shear forces are, V = τ1bc
The counterclockwise couple becomes, V*a = τ1abc
From moment equilibrium
Clock wise couple = Counter clock wise couple
τac =τ1ac
► τ = τ1
Hence the magnitudes of the shear stresses on the four faces of the element are equal.
Conclusions:

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 Chapter-I Mechanical Properties of Materials 2017
1. Shear stresses on opposite faces of an element are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
2. Shear stresses on perpendicular faces of an element are equal in magnitude and direction such that both
stresses point toward or both away from, the line of intersection of the faces. In Fig. 1.7, since only shear
stresses are acting on the faces of the element, it is said to be in pure shear.
The above conclusions concerning the shear stresses are valid even when normal stresses also act on the faces
of the element.

Shear Strain
Due to the shear stresses the lengths of the sides of the element do not change. Instead, the shear stresses
produce a change in the shape of the element, as shown in Fig. 1.7(b). The angles between the faces at points q
and s, which were /2 before deformation, are reduced by a small angle  to /2- (Fig. 1.7b). At the same
time, the angles at p and r are increased to /2+. The angle  is a measure of the distortion, or change in
shape, of the element and is called the shear strain. The unit of shear strain is radian. For the given coordinate
system the shearing strain is positive if the right angle between the reference lines decreases as shown in the
figure 1.7b; otherwise, the shearing strain is negative.

The properties of material in shear can be determined experimentally from direct-shear tests or torsion tests. From
the results of these tests, stress strain diagrams in shear may be plotted. These diagrams of τ versus  are similar
in shape to the tension test diagrams (σ versus ε). From the shear diagrams, we can obtain shear properties such
as the proportional limit, the yield stress, and the ultimate stress. These properties in shear are usually about half
as large as those in tension.

For many materials, the initial part of the shear stress strain diagram is a straight line, just as in tension. For this
linearly elastic region the shear stress and strain are directly proportional, and we have the following equation for
Hooke’s law shear. τ = Gγ
The constant G is termed as the modulus of rigidity, or shear modulus of elasticity of the material and is expressed
in the same SI units as E- that is Pascal’s (Pa) (N/m2). The moduli of elasticity in tension and shear (E and G) are
related by the following equation:

E
G= ν is Poisson’s ratio.
2(1 + ν )

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 Chapter-I Mechanical Properties of Materials 2017
Therefore, for an isotropic material E, G, and ν are not independent elastic properties of the material. Provided
that the constants E and ν are obtained from a tensile test for a given material, G can be calculated from the
above basic relationship. Note that G is always less than E, since ν is a positive constant.

A homogeneous solid displays identical properties throughout. If the properties are identical in all directions at a
point, the material is Isotropic. A non-isotropic, or anisotropic, material displays direction-dependent properties.
Simplest among these are those in which the material properties differ in two mutually perpendicular directions. A
material so described (for example, wood) is orthotropic.

1.5. Allowable stress and factor of Safety

In reality the exact type of load acting on a structure, the dimensions of the member, the character of the material
making up the member, etc. Cannot be exactly determined. Due to the above reasons we can't exactly determine
the load resisting capacity of the member and the exact load acting on it. To account for these uncertainties the
maximum permissible stress, or working stress which the body can with stand, and the working load are
determined from a consideration of the above factors, and the factor of safety is normally defined as;

Factor of safety with respect to ultimate stress, n =

Factor of safety with respect to yield stress, n=

Factor of safety with respect to ultimate load, n =

The factor of safety is normally much greater with respect to the ultimate stress than with respect to the yield
stress.
1.6. Thermal Stress and strain
Temperature changes cause the body to expand or contract. The amount δT, is given by

Where α is the coefficient of thermal expansion in m/m°C, L is the length in meter, and Ti and Tf are the initial and
final temperatures, respectively in °C.

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For steel, α = 11.25 × 10–6 / °C.
If temperature deformation is permitted to occur freely, no load or stress will be induced in the structure. In some
cases where temperature deformation is not permitted, an internal stress is created. The internal stress created is
termed as thermal stress.

For a homogeneous rod mounted between unyielding supports as shown, the thermal stress is computed as:

Deformation due to temperature changes;

Deformation due to equivalent axial stress;

Where σ is the thermal stress in MPa and E is the modulus of elasticity of the rod in MPa. If the wall yields a
distance of x as shown, the following calculations will be made:

Where σ represents the thermal stress. Take note that as the temperature rises above the normal, the rod will be
in compression, and if the temperature drops below the normal, the rod is in tension.

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