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Chapter 2
SOIL GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT

Soil genesis and development encompass the intricate processes by which soils form and
evolve. Understanding this topic is essential for grasping how soils acquire unique properties and
change in response to environmental factors. Soil genesis refers to the initial formation of soil from
parent materials through interactions with climate, organisms, topography, and time. This process
results in the creation of distinct soil horizons or layers, each with specific characteristics. On the
other hand, soil development involves the ongoing transformation of these soil layers, influenced by
weathering, organic matter decomposition, and human activities. By studying soil genesis and
development, we gain valuable insights into soil classification, fertility, and management, which are
crucial for agriculture.

Soil Genesis and Development

➢ the study of soil formation or the origin of soil
➢ soils are natural bodies derived from parent materials through soil-forming processes
➢ differences among soils are primarily due to environmental influences on soil formation
➢ the keynote of soil formation is the transformation of rock into soil

soil-forming processes
Parent Material Soil

This embodies two distinct phases:

1. Weathering – the disintegration and decomposition of rocks and rock minerals
2. Development – progress of soil formation by pedogenic factors and processes

Parent materials
➢ the initial soil material, the unconsolidated mass from which the solum (A, E, B horizons), or
true soil, develops.
➢ the nature of the parent material profoundly influences soil characteristics

Classification of Parent Materials

1. Residual or Sedentary - develops in place from weathering of the underlying rock or bedrock (less
common)

2. Transported - transported from the place of origin and re-deposited somewhere (more common).
Depending upon the agency/agent of transport. Transported soils may be either one
of the following:
a. Alluvium or alluvial deposit – material transported and deposited by fresh water along major stream
courses, at the bottom of slopes and mountains, and along small streams flowing out
of drainage basins.
b. Colluvium – poorly sorted materials near the base of strong slopes transported by gravity.
c. Deltas (usually fine-textured and tend to be wet) – form when rivers flow into an ocean deposit
sediment at the mouth of the river.
d. Lacustrine deposits – consist of materials that have settled out of the still/quiet water of lakes.
e. Glacial drift or till – consists of all materials picked up, mixed, disintegrated, transported, and
deposited through the action of glacial ice or water from melted glaciers.
f. Loess – silty windblown materials
g. Aeolian sand – sandy windblown materials.
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3. Organic soils – those that contain 20% or more OM; form underwater as aquatic plants die.

Organic soils/deposits fall into 2 types:

a. Muck – if the organic matter is decomposed to the extent that the source of vegetation
cannot be identified.
b. Peat– when identifiable remains of the residues are present.

4. Marine sediments– those that form or are deposited in the ocean.

5. Rocks and minerals (most common)

MINERALS
Mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic substance that has a (more or less) definite internal
structure and composition which results in fairly definite physical and chemical properties. Minerals
serve as the building blocks of rocks. Mineralogy is the study of minerals and their properties.

Based on their origin, minerals are classified as primary or secondary. Primary minerals form during
the cooling and solidification of the original molten material of the earth's crust. Secondary minerals
form from the decomposition products of primary minerals.

A. Primary/Original Minerals

The 6 groups of primary minerals are as follows:

1. Feldspars – aluminosilicates; the most abundant group of minerals in the earth’s crust;
composed of two subgroups, the orthoclase, and the plagioclase feldspars;
also found in sand and silt fractions but are more important in clay formation;
orthoclase and microline feldspars contribute large amounts of K to soils while the
plagioclase feldspars, albite and anorthite give out Na and Ca, respectively;
hardness of 6.0 (Moh’s scale); density of 2.63 g/cm 3

Orthoclase Albite Anorthite

K or potash feldspar (orthoclase or microline) - KAlSi3O8

Na-plagioclase (albite) - NaAlSi3O8
Ca-plagioclase (anorthite) - CaAl2Si2O8

2. Silica - an extremely important group that consists of:

a. Quartz (SiO2) or sand - the most abundant of the group; 2nd most abundant mineral in
the earth's crust; extremely hard minerals that resist weathering; the most
abundant mineral in many soils; makes up 50% to 90% of the coarser particles of
soils (sand and silt); colorless when pure; does not contribute to the fertility of
soils being composed almost entirely of SiO2;
hardness of 7.0; density of 2.65 g/cm3
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b. Two other silica minerals of mild importance in soils are cristobalite and chalcedony.

Quartz Cluster Cristobalite Chalcedony

3. Micas – are complex K aluminosilicates; common minerals in soils characterized by their

sheet-like structure and their almost clear appearance when present in thin sheets,
important sources of K as well as Fe and Mg; the most common mica is
muscovite=white mica; biotite=black mica (not usually found in older soils since it
weathers faster than muscovite);
hardness of 2.0 to 2.5 (very soft minerals); densities of 2.76 to 3.0 g/cm3 (muscovite)
and 2.8 to 3.4 g/cm³ (biotite)

Muscovite Biotite

• Muscovite (white mica) - H2KAl3(SiO4)3

• Biotite (black mica) - K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH,F)2

4. Amphiboles and Pyroxenes - silicates of iron, calcium, and magnesium; are easily weathered
groups of minerals that supply large amounts of Ca, Mg, Na, and some Fe to the soil;
hornblende is a common mineral in the amphibole group and augite is a common
pyroxene;
hardness of 5.0 to 6.0; with distinct cleavage; densities of 2.9 to 3.3 g/cm³
(amphiboles) and 3.2 to 3.5 g/cm³ (pyroxenes)

Hornblende Augite

• Hornblende (black colored amphibole) - Ca2Al2Mg2Fe3Si6O22(OH)2

• Augite (dull green pyroxene) - Ca2(Al,Fe)4(Mg,Fe)4Si6O24
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5. Apatite - calcium phosphate minerals; not highly abundant but an important source of
phosphorus (P); with a hardness of 5.0 and densities in the 3.1 to 3.2 g/cm³ range

Examples: Ca10CO3(PO4)6 - Carbonatoapatite

Ca10SO4(PO4)6 - Sulfatoapatite
Ca10(OH)2(PO4)6 -Hydroxyapatite
Ca10(Cl)2(PO4)6 - Chloroapatite
Ca10(F)2(PO4)6 - Flouroapatite

Apatite

6. Other primary minerals - The ff primary minerals have been extracted from their group as
they are the only ones of prime importance in soils:

a. Olivine ((Mg,Fe)2SiO4) - a group of minerals composed primarily of iron and magnesium

silicates; weathers to form secondary minerals, such as clays and
iron oxides; contributes magnesium (Mg) and iron (Fe) to the soil;
hardness of about 6.5 to 7 on the Mohs scale; density of
approximately 3.2 to 4.4 g/cm³

b. Pyrite (FeS2) – an iron mineral that provides both Fe and S in the soil; a shiny yellow
mineral and is often called “fool’s gold”;
hardness of 6 to 6.5; density ranges from 4.9 to 5.2 g/cm³

c. Zircon (ZrSiO4) – a mineral that is quite hard and weathers very slowly in the soil; has no
value as a plant nutrient but is often used as an index of soil age (old soils have a
larger relative amount of Zr compared to young soils;
hardness of 7.5; density ranges from 4.6 to 4.7 g/cm³

Pyrite Zircon

Primary minerals are often referred to as “resistant to weathering” because they tend to
remain relatively stable and unchanged during the initial stages of soil formation and weathering
processes. This resistance allows them to remain in their original state within soils for extended
periods, even as other minerals may break down or alter. They are the chief sources of the sand and
silt fractions of soil. Thus, a predominantly quartz parent material is expected to give rise to sandy
soils. However, over very long timescales, there are primary minerals that still undergo weathering
and transformation, contributing to soil formation and the development of secondary minerals.
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Some of the important nutrient elements derived from primary minerals are Ca, K, Mg, and
Fe. The Fe- and Mg-containing minerals such as biotite, hornblende, and augite are called
ferromagnesian minerals and lend dark colors to soils formed. Those of quartz and feldspar origin
are lighter in color and are called felsic minerals.

❖ Felsic minerals – are light-colored minerals, e.g., quartz and feldspars

❖ Ferromagnesian minerals – are dark-colored (mafic) minerals, e.g., biotite, augite and
hornblende

B. Secondary Minerals
The secondary minerals arise from the chemical breakdown of the least resistant
primary minerals. The more commonly occurring ones and their composition are as follows:

1. Iron oxides - oxides of Fe in several states of hydration; imparts red color to soils; largely
found in highly weathered soils; in old/infertile soils; in acidic soils;

Goethite (Fe2O3.H2O) and Limonite (2Fe2O3.3H2O) are the most prominent iron hydrous
oxides, responsible for the yellow color in soils; Hematite (Fe2O3), red color in soils, and
Magnetite (Fe3O4) in smaller quantities.

Goethite Limonite Hematite Magnetite

2. Carbonates - are easily weathered minerals that have long been weathered and leached from
many soils; in more arid desert regions, they may only partially leach and then
accumulate in certain horizons.
- the two most important carbonates are Calcite (CaCO3) and Dolomite
[CaMg(CO3)2]; hardness of 3.0–4.0; density of 2.72 – 2.85 g/cm3

Calcite Dolomite

3. Aluminum oxides – Gibbsite [Al(OH)3] is the dominant aluminum oxide, the main source
of Al found in soils; Boehmite (AlOOH or Al2O3.H2O);
hardness of Gibbsite 3-4, of Boehmite 5-6
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Gibbsite Boehmite

4. Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) - an easily weathered mineral; supplies both Ca and S to the soil; in
peanut–producing areas, which is used as land plaster (a source of Ca);
hardness of 2.0; used as retarder in cement

Gypsum

5. Clay minerals - comes from micas and feldspars; colloidal in nature; these secondary minerals
are abundant in soils; they constitute the most active ingredients in soils
concerning most of the chemical, physical, and mineralogical properties

Kaolinite - Al2Si2O5(OH)4
Montmorillonite - (Al,Mg)₂Si₄O₁₀(OH)₂
Vermiculite - (Mg,Fe,Al)₃(Al,Si)₄O₁₀(OH)₂
Illite – hydrous mica

The most important contributions of the secondary minerals are the clay fractions
which, among other properties have a high capacity to store and exchange cations. They also
release the important nutrient elements, Ca, Mg, S, P, Cl, and Fe. Montmorillonite has a very
high cation exchange capacity (CEC).

Kaolinite Montmorillonite
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6. Tourmaline – is found in small amounts but is important as it is the only source of boron (B)

Tourmaline

Summary of the contribution of some important minerals:

Mineral Contribution
Quartz None in terms of nutrient elements; sandy texture
Feldspar K, Ca; forms of clay
Muscovite
Mica Sources of Fe, K, and Mg; produce clays
Biotite
Amphiboles
Supply Fe, Ca, and Mg; produce clay minerals
Pyroxene

Identification of Minerals:

1. Petrographic Analysis – a small piece of the substance to be identified is ground with abrasives on
revolving plates until it is 0.03mm thick which is then mounted between the glass slides and
examined under a petrographic microscope.
2. Chemical Analysis – carbonates will react with HCl to form bubbles or effervescence
3. X-ray Diffractometer
4. Physical Analysis

a. Hardness – resistance to scratching and abrasion

Mohs Scale of Hardness

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b. Cleavage – split along defined planes

c. Fracture – rough surface of breakage; split irregularly
d. Color – wavelength of light absorbed by the minerals
- pigmentation (e.g., red, blue, etc.)
e. Streak – the color of powdered minerals
f. Luster – ability to reflect/absorb light
g. Tenacity – resistance to breaking or bending

Invisible characteristic of minerals:

h. Specific gravity –ratio of the density of material to the density of water.
i.e. gypsum – 2.2 g/cm3
quartz – 2.65 g/cm3
olivine – 3.3 g/cm3

ROCKS
Rock – simply a complex mineral aggregate; the source of most soils; the solid, unweathered material
of the earth’s crust; breaks into smaller particles which are the parent materials of soil; a mixture of
minerals that when broken down, supply plant nutrients; they are classified by geologists into three
broad types:

1. Igneous - Rocks formed from the cooling and solidification of molten materials (either lava or
magma) from deep in the earth.

2. Sedimentary - Formed when loose materials like mud or sand are deposited by running water,
wind, or precipitation - slowly cemented by chemicals and/or pressure. It is a
consolidated fragment of igneous and/or metamorphic rocks.

3. Metamorphic - These are igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been subjected to great heat and
pressure that alters their chemical and physical properties.

I. Igneous Rocks
- formed from molten lava or formed upon cooling of magma
- are composed of primary minerals

a. Lava is material that comes to the surface of the earth and is cooled quickly.
b. Magma (more dominant) is formed when molten materials are pushed part way to the surface of
the earth and then cool very slowly.

Classification of Igneous Rocks:

A. Based on mode of formation.

i. Volcanic or extrusive rocks

- Igneous rocks that reach the earth’s surface in a molten or partly molten state. Lava flows
from the vent and tends to cool rapidly resulting in finer grain. The resulting rock is glass-like in
appearance. The fast-cooled, expelled igneous rocks have a glassy amorphous texture and have
small crystals in the rock mass.

Ex: Basalt, Andesite, Rhyolite

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Basalt Andesite

ii. Plutonic or intrusive rocks

- Result from crystallization of magma that did not reach the earth’s surface.
Having mixed-large crystal particles.

Ex: Diorite, Granite, Gabbro

Granite Gabbro

B. Based on texture or grain size – the cooling history determines the texture and degree of
crystallization

i. Aphanitic - Fine-grained texture where crystals are too small to be seen without a
microscope. Results from the rapid cooling of magma at or near the Earth's surface.
Ex: Basalt, Rhyolite, Andesite

Basalt

ii. Phaneritic - Coarse-grained texture where crystals are large enough to be seen with the
naked eye. Forms when magma cools slowly beneath the Earth's surface or at great
depths, allowing crystals to grow to a large size.
Ex: Granite, Diorite, Gabbro
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Gabbro

iii. Porphyritic - Characterized by larger crystals (phenocrysts) embedded in a finer-grained

matrix (groundmass). Occurs when magma initially cools slowly (allowing
phenocrysts to form) and then cools rapidly, forming a fine-grained groundmass.

Ex: Porphyritic granite, porphyritic basalt.

Porphyritic granite Porphyritic basalt

iv. Glassy - Lacks a crystalline structure, having a glassy or vitreous appearance. Forms
when magma cools extremely rapidly, often due to extrusion into water or air,
preventing crystal formation. No crystals.

Ex: Obsidian

v. Vesicular - Contains numerous gas bubbles (vesicles) that were trapped in the rock as it
cooled and solidified. Results from the rapid release of gas during lava cooling,
which creates bubbles in the rock.

Ex: Pumice (lightweight and porous), Scoria (darker and denser)

Pumice Scoria
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C. Based on mineral composition and color

i. Silicic/felsic (acidic)- high silica content: >65% SiO2; light-colored
ie. Granite and Rhyolite
ii. Intermediate- silica content is 50-65% SiO2; medium gray
ie. Diorite and Andesite
iii. Mafic (basic)- relatively poor in silica; usually 45% to 50% SiO2; dark gray to black
ie. Gabbro and Basalt
iv. Ultramafic – contains relatively low amounts of silica; < 45% SiO2; dark green
ie. Peridotite

Granite Diorite

Basalt Peridotite
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The texture and nutrient-supplying capacity of the soil could be accounted for by which rock it is
developed. For example, the soil developed from igneous acidic rock is sandy in texture due to high
silica content and low nutrient-supplying capacity than soils developed from igneous basic rocks.

➢ Felsic Rocks (High Silica or >65%): Typically lead to more acidic soils.
➢ Intermediate Rocks (Moderate Silica or 50-65%): Can lead to neutral or slightly acidic soils.
➢ Mafic Rocks (Low Silica or 45-50%): Typically result in more alkaline soils.
➢ Ultramafic Rocks (Very Low Silica or 45%): Often lead to highly alkaline soils.

II. Sedimentary Rocks

- From the Latin word sedimentum, which means settling
- Formed when loose materials like mud or sand are deposited by running water, wind, or
precipitation and slowly cemented by chemicals and/or pressure.
- Undergo Lithification – the compaction or consolidation of deposited rock fragments.
- Processes involved: Fragmentation, Transportation, Deposition, Cementation
- Although they comprise only 5% of the rock volume of the outer 10 miles of the earth’s crust,
they cover 75% of the surface
- The sedimentation process is not continuous that’s why sedimentary deposits are layered or
stratified

Classification of Sedimentary Rocks based on the mode of formation:

1) Detrital/Clastic/Fragmental Rocks (mechanically formed) - Formed from the

accumulation and cementation of fragments (clasts) of pre-existing rocks or minerals.

2) Chemical Precipitates Rocks (chemically formed) – Formed from the precipitation of

minerals from solution due to evaporation or chemical processes.

3) Organic Rocks – (organically formed) - Formed from the accumulation and lithification
of organic material.

Examples:

1) Detrital or Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

i. Conglomerate - Coarse, with rounded gravel-sized clasts. Typically consists of pebbles,

cobbles and boulders cemented together (>2mm).

ii. Breccia - Coarse, with angular gravel-sized clasts. Like conglomerate, consists of pebbles,
cobbles and boulders cemented together (>2mm) but with angular clasts.
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iii. Sandstones- Medium, with sand-sized particles, cemented together (1/6 to 2mm).
Composed of mainly quartz but can include feldspar and other minerals.
Includes quartz sandstone, arkosic sandstone, and graywacke.

iv. Siltstone - Fine, with silt-sized particles. Composed mainly of silt-sized grains
(1/256 to 1/6mm). Lacks fissility.

v. Shale – Fine-grained, silt- and clay-sized grains (<1/256mm). Composed mainly of clay
minerals. Often splits into thin layers (fissile). Contributes low to medium
nutrient supply; (mud=silt+clay; thinly layered mud)

vi. Mudstone – Fine-grained, mixture of silt- and clay-sized grains like shale but is
typically, less fissile and does not split into thin layers as easily.
massive/blocky; (mud=silt+clay; no layer mud)

vii. Claystone – Very fine-grained, primarily composed of clay-sized particles; non-fissile.

Grain size less than 1/256mm (smooth).

2. Chemical Precipitates or Non-clastic Sedimentary Rocks

i. Limestone - Primarily composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃); is high in Ca and
weathers easily to soils high in Ca and Mg. A simple test for limestone parent
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materials is to dilute HCl into a rock sample.

b) Dolomites (dolostone)- Mainly composed of dolomite [CaMg(CO₃)₂]. Like limestone but
with more magnesium carbonate as part of the carbonate mixtures; harder
and denser.

c) Chert - Composed of microcrystalline quartz (SiO₂). Is formed through chemical

reactions of silica in solution replacing limestones.

3. Organic Rocks - Formed from the accumulation and lithification of organic material.
i. Coal - Mainly composed of carbon-rich materials. Is formed from the remains of ancient
organisms.

III. Metamorphic Rocks.

- are igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been subjected to great heat and pressure
- form under the action of pressure, volume, and temperature (PVT)
- are formed 1) when rocks are forced down to lower levels by tectonic processes or
2) when molten magma rising through the crust comes in contact with the
crustal rocks, or
3) when the underlying rocks are subjected to great amounts of pressure by
overlying rocks.

Metamorphism -is a process by which consolidated rocks undergo recrystallization and

reorganization of materials within the original rocks.

*Metamorphic means ‘change of form’

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Classification:
Metamorphic rocks are classified based on their texture and the processes that led to their formation.
Texture classification Process
a. Foliated or banded, reflecting the effects of Regional metamorphism - results from increases in
directional pressure and extensive temperature and pressure on an extensive regional
recrystallization scale in response to burial rocks and tectonic
forces.
Ex: Slate, Schist, Gneiss high temperature and high pressure; extensive areas
b. Non-foliated - rocks do not exhibit a Contact metamorphism - occurs when rocks are
layered or banded texture related to high- heated by nearby molten magma or lava; the high
temperature recrystallization temperatures from the igneous intrusion cause
localized changes in the rock’s mineralogy and
Ex: Marble, Quartzite texture.
high temperature, low pressure; localized impact.

Examples of metamorphic rocks:

• Gneiss- from light-colored igneous rocks to form light and dark-colored bands due to mineral
segregation and orientation; formed mostly from granite, rhyolites, andesites, and other
similar minerals.
• Schist - with fissile or foliated (appears flaky or layered) comprised of many rocks or
minerals, especially micas.
• Slate – a hardened shale or siltstone
• Quartzite - quartzitic sandstone that is recrystallized by heat and pressure; this rock is very
slow to weather
• Marble - hardened limestone or dolomite; easy to decompose

Pre-existing Rocks Metamorphic Rock Equivalent

1. Granite (light-colored igneous rock) Gneiss (light-colored)
2. Basalt (dark-colored igneous rock) Schist (dark)
3. Gabbro (dark-colored igneous rock) Gneiss (dark)
4. Rhyolite (light-colored igneous rock) Schist (light)
3. Sandstone (sedimentary rock) Quartzite
4. Limestone (sedimentary rock) Marble
5. Shale (sedimentary rock) Slate
6. Conglomerate (sedimentary rock) Meta-conglomerate
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The rock cycle describes the continuous rock formation, transformation, and recycling process
through various geological processes.

1. Igneous Rock Formation: Melting, cooling, and solidifying magma.

2. Weathering and Erosion: Breakdown and transport of rock materials into sediments.
3. Sedimentary Rock Formation: Sediment deposition, compaction, and cementation.
4. Metamorphism: Changes in rock due to heat and pressure.
5. Melting and Magma Formation: Creation of magma from melted rocks.
6. Tectonic Processes: Plate movements affecting rock formation and recycling.
7. Uplift: The rising of rocks to the surface, exposing them to weathering and erosion.

The rock cycle demonstrates the interconnected nature of geological processes and how rocks
continuously change form through various physical and chemical processes.

SOIL GENESIS
The study of soil formation or the origin of soil. This embodies two distinct phases:
1. Weathering – the disintegration and decomposition of rocks and rock minerals
2. Development – progress of soil formation by pedogenic factors and processes

Weather and plants are the major agents responsible for forming soil from rocks, hence the process is
called weathering – the disintegration and decomposition of rocks and rock minerals by physical,
chemical, and biological agents, singly or in combination.

3 Types of weathering:
1. physical weathering
2. chemical weathering
3. biological weathering
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1. Physical Weathering
Physical weathering (predominant in desert and arctic regions) involves changes in shape and
size without changes in chemical composition; it refers to the effects of such climatic factors as
temperature, water, and wind. The changes in atmospheric temperature during day and night and
its seasonal variation cause surface expansion and contraction and the breakdown of rock into
smaller fragments.

Processes:
a. Alternate freezing and thawing (frost wedging) in cold regions. A physical weathering
process where water entering rock cracks freezes and expands, causing the rock to break
apart. (Note: the freezing water in rock crevices expands with a pressure of 1,040 lb/sq. inch
or ________ kg/cm2).
b. Moving water or ice, mutual rubbing of rock fragments, and air blast of sand grains causing
rock abrasion. A physical weathering process where rocks are worn down or polished
through friction and impact with other materials.
c. Exfoliation or the peeling away of layers of rock from the surface inward is common.
d. Plant roots sometimes enter cracks and pry them apart resulting in some disintegration.
e. Burrowing animals may also help disintegrate rock.

2. Chemical weathering - changes the chemical makeup of rock and breaks it down causing the
release of soluble materials and synthesizing new minerals, some of which are resistant end
products; is enhanced by geological agents such as water and oxygen.

The principal reactions include one or more of the following:

a. Hydration is the bonding of water molecules to mineral lattices or to cations in minerals

2Fe2O3 + 3H2O 2Fe2O3.3H2O

hematite (red) limonite (yellow)

CaSO4 + 2H2O CaSO4.2H2O

anhydrite gypsum

b. Hydrolysis – the reaction of minerals with water to form new, softer compounds (clay and
soluble salts); the hydrogen often replaces a cation in the mineral structure;
the most important of the processes in chemical weathering.

KAlSi3O8 + HOH HAlSi3O8 + K+ + OH-

K-feldspar Alumino-silicic acid + potassium and hydroxyl ions
(microline)

2HAlSi3O8 + 8H2O Al2O3.3H2O + 6H2SiO3

silicic acid

2CaAl2Si2O8 + 4H2CO3 + 4H2O 2Al2Si2O5(OH)4 + 2Ca2+ + 4HCO3- + 2H2O

Ca-plagioclase + carbonic acid kaolinite + dissolved Calcium + bicarbonate

CaAl2Si2O8 + 2H2CO3 + 6H2O Ca2+ + 2HCO3- + 2Al(OH)3 + 2SiO2 + 4H2O

Ca-plagioclase + carbonic acid gibbsite
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c. Oxidation - is a weathering process particularly occurring in iron-containing minerals.

Oxidation changes the iron in the mineral from ferrous (reduced) to ferric (oxidized)
form. The reduction in size and increase in valency of Fe results in the weakening
and instability of the structure of the mineral. Oxygen is the most energetic oxidizing
agent and brings about the oxidation of elements as iron (Fe2+ to Fe3+), as shown
below:

2FeSiO3 + 3H2O + O 2Fe(OH)3+ 2SiO2

ferrosilite iron hydroxide

2FeS + 5H2O + 9O 2Fe(OH)3 +2H2SO4

Iron sulfide iron hydroxide

4FeO + O2 Fe2O3
ferrous oxide hematite

d. Reduction - takes place under anaerobic conditions. Here, Fe and other polyvalent elements
are reduced to more soluble or mobile forms and are likely lost by leaching.

Fe2O3 +6H+ + 6e- 2Fe2+ +3H2O

e. Carbonation - is the reaction of carbonic acid, H2CO3 with a mineral to produce a more
soluble product. A common example is the transformation of calcite to calcium
bicarbonate:

CO2 + H2O H2CO3 (carbonic acid)

CaCO3 + H2CO3 Ca (HCO3)2 Ca2+ + 2HCO32-

calcite Ca-bicarbonate calcium ions bicarbonate

f. Dissolution - water dissolves minerals by hydrating the cations and anions until they become
dissociated from each other and surrounded by water molecules.

CaSO4⋅2H2O Ca2+ + SO42- + 2H2O

gypsum calcium sulfate
ions ions

CaCO3 + 2H+ Ca2+ + H2O + CO2

calcium carbonate

The H+ ions in the dissolution of calcium carbonate come from various sources:
• Natural soil acidity from organic acids.
• Acid rain containing sulfuric and nitric acids.
• Acidic soil amendments and fertilizers.
• Formation of carbonic acid from dissolved carbon dioxide.
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3. Biological weathering - enhanced by biological agents, the acids produced by microbial and
plant root metabolism.

a. Complexation - occurs in the presence of organic acids (oxalic, citric, and tartaric acids, as well
as larger organic acid molecules) as products of soil biological processes.

❖ Plants and organisms also play a role in rock crumbling. Roots can exert up to 150 psi
pressure when growing into a crack in a rock.
❖ Root wedging from the pressure pries the stone apart.
❖ Lichens (plant-like organisms made up of algae and fungus) growing on bare rock form mild
acids that slowly dissolve rock. When lichen dies, its dry particles and organic matter are
added to the slowly growing mixture of mineral particles and organic matter.

❖ Roots also generate CO2 after their decay. The CO2 formed favors carbonation. This gas is
the result of soil microbial activity.

Determinants of the Susceptibility of Rocks and Minerals to Weathering:

1. particle size- finer particles are more susceptible than larger grains since finer grains have larger
surfaces which make them more susceptible to chemical attack.
2. hardness- minerals that are cemented firmly or slowly are more resistant to mechanical
weathering.
3. degree of cementation- porous rocks that result from rapid cooling such as volcanic ash or
limestone is readily broken down into smaller particles due to the larger surface area.

Chemical Characteristics and Structural Changes that Affect Weathering

1. chemical characteristics- minerals (such as gypsum) that are slightly soluble in water are
quickly removed when rain comes.
Dark-colored primary minerals are more susceptible than light-colored minerals. Less
tightness of the crystal packing helps account for minerals' susceptibility, like ferromagnesian
minerals, due to the presence of ferrous iron.
2. crystalline structure- tightly packed ions in the crystal units weather faster. The rate of
weathering was as follows:
Quartz (most resistant) > muscovite > potassium feldspar > biotite > sodium feldspar > hornblende
> augite > calcium feldspar > olivine > dolomite > calcite > gypsum
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SOIL FORMATION
In the 1880s, Dokuchaev, a renowned Russian geologist, espoused five factors of nature responsible
for soil formation then elaborated by Jenny in 1941
C- climate
LO – living organisms
R – relief/topography
P – parent material
T - time
It is important to note that these factors do not act independently. Soil thus formed is the net result of
all five working at the same time.

1. CLIMATE - the most influential of the four factors affecting the parent materials because it
determines the nature and intensity of the weathering that occurs over large
geographic areas.
Significant elements involved:
a. Temperature
➢ affects the speed of chemical reactions – the higher the temperature, the faster the
reaction. Thus, in cold areas, soils develop slowly; in warm tropical areas like the
Philippines, soils form more rapidly.
➢ another effect of temperature is its effect on vegetative growth and organic matter build-
up. Warmth promotes faster and continuous vegetative growth all year round so more
O.M. is added to the soil. But warm temperatures also speed up decay and loss of O.M.
Thus, soils of warm climates tend to be low in O.M.
b. Rainfall/Effective Precipitation
➢ affects soil development mainly by leaching.
➢ leaching moves materials deeper into the profile.
➢ leached materials include lime, clay, plant nutrients, and other chemicals
➢ high rainfall areas also tend to grow more vegetation, thus more O.M.
Effective Precipitation = Precipitation minus Evapotranspiration

2. LIVING ORGANISMS/BIOTA
❖ Plants contribute to soil formation both by helping to break down rock and by adding O.M. to
the soil.
❖ Animals, fungi, bacteria, and humans also affect soil formation. Macro-organisms and
microorganisms form burrows and pores allowing moisture and gases to move about.
❖ The properties of soils are also affected by the type of plants grown:
▪ Soils under grassland vegetation tend to have thick, dark, O.M.-rich A horizon with
organic stains and coatings into the B horizon. This is because 50% of the O.M.
produced by grasses is in the root system so when the grasses die, O.M. is left
behind.
▪ In contrast, soils developed under forest vegetation have thick O horizon, thin A1 (A),
and thick bleached A2 (E) horizon. There is seldom any O.M. staining on the B hor.
This difference is caused by trees having a root system that goes much deeper into
the soil. Also, in a forest, much of the O.M. is above ground, in the trees. Tree litter
creates a surface layer that does not mix with the deeper layers. Result? Less O.M. in
the forest soils. The type of trees also affects soil formation. Soils under softwoods
(conifers) tend to be more acid than those under hardwoods (broadleaf deciduous
trees).
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3. TOPOGRAPHY OR RELIEF
❖ The configuration of the land is described in terms of differences in slope, elevation, and
landscape position.
❖ Effects on soil formation
▪ This influences soil formation mainly by affecting water movement, soil drainage, and
erosion. Water runs off slopes, making them drier, while collecting in low areas, making
them moist.
▪ Slope effects vary according to several characteristics: e.g., steep slopes are shallow
because erosion takes place nearly as fast as soil formation, thus having poorly developed
profile (A & C horizons only).
▪ On slopes and uplands, drainage is usually enough to produce well-aerated, oxidized soils
with bright-colored B horizon and low O.M. content. In lowlands and depressions, poor soil
drainage will cause soils to have a dark gray B horizon and high O.M. in the A hor. These
gray colors and the O.M. accumulation are simply due to less oxidation caused by
waterlogging.

4. PARENT MATERIAL
❖ the initial soil material (C horizon)
❖ the unconsolidated mass from which the solum (A, E, B horizons) develops
❖ Five general categories: Residual
Transported soils
Organic deposits
Marine deposits
Rocks and minerals

5. TIME
❖ This determines the degree to which the other factors of SF express themselves, e.g., soils
forming from granite would need a very long time to form thick E (A2) and B horizons simply
because granite is very hard to break.
❖ In general, we can make the ff statements about the effects of time on soil formation:
• Older soils have deeper soil profiles and usually more horizons.
• Older soils are usually more highly weathered.
• Older soils contain thick A2 (E) and B horizons
• Older soils have usually lost their plant nutrients due to leaching
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• OM will accumulate to form a dark-colored A-horizon in a decade or two.

•Formation of B horizon would take centuries to develop.
•Accumulation of silicate clays becomes noticeable after thousands of years.
•Old soils, highly weathered deep soils would take hundreds of thousands of years.
Other related terms in soil formation:
Biosequence – a sequence of related soils that differ one from the other in certain properties primarily
due to differences in soil organisms as a soil-forming factor.
Lithosequence – a sequence ... due to differences in the parent rock ...
Climosequence – a sequence ... due to differences in climate ...
Chronosequence – a sequence ... due to differences in time ...
Toposequence or Catena – a sequence ... due to differences in topography or relief...
Lithological Discontinuity – used to describe a parent material that differs from another in a profile

Soil Forming Processes. Fundamental processes include:

1. Addition of organic and mineral matter to the soil
2. Losses of organic and mineral materials from the soil
3. Translocation of organic and mineral materials from one point in the soil profile and deposition
at another
4. Transformation of the mineral and O.M. in the soil and formation of layers or horizons

The following processes represent any one of the above fundamental processes:
1. Humification – the process of decomposition of O.M. and synthesis of new organic substances.
2. Eluviation – the mobilization and translocation of certain constituents, viz. Clay, Fe 2O3, Al2O3, SiO2,
humus, CaCO3, other salts, etc. from one horizon to another.
3. Illuviation – the immobilization and accumulation of the eluviated constituents at a depth beneath
the soil surface.
4. Calcification and gypsification – are soil-forming processes of arid and semi-arid regions and refer
to the formation and accumulation of CaCO3 and CaSO4, respectively.
5. Decalcification – the leaching of Ca down the profile which leads to the formation of calcic or
gypsic horizon below.
6. Podzolization (from Russian pod = under and zola = ash) – the process of eluviation of oxides of Fe
and Al and of humus under acid conditions (pH 4-5), removal of carbonates by organic acids and
illuviation of sesquioxides and humus in subsurface horizons. The eluviated horizon assumes a
bleached grey appearance and in a highly acid and siliceous condition. Hence the term podzol for the
grey and ashy appearance of such soils.
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7. Laterization – (in contrast to podzolization) is the process of desilication, the removal of silica, and
the accumulation of sesquioxides (Fe and Al oxides). Laterite is a highly ferruginous deposit.
8. Salinization– accumulation of soluble salts in soil; common in arid and semi-arid regions; may also
occur through the capillary rise of saline groundwater and by inundation with sea water in marine and
coastal soils; also, through irrigation or seepage in areas of impeded drainage.
9. Desalinization – is effected by the leaching of soluble salts from the soil, either with rainwater or
with irrigation water of good quality. Drainage is essential.
10. Alkalization (solonization) – the process by which soils with high exchangeable Na and pH > 8.5 are
formed = called sodic or alkali soils.
11. Dealkalization (solodization) – is effected by intensive leaching and degradation which takes place
in older soils. Here, exchangeable Na is replaced by H ions.
12. Argillation – a process that occurs simultaneously with solodization which results in the leaching of
dispersed clay particles from the upper to the lower horizons giving rise to a textural horizon, i.e., Bt.
13. Gleization (gleying) – the process of reduction, due to anaerobic conditions, of Fe in waterlogged
soils with the formation of Fe and Mn mottles and concretions.
14. Horizonation – those processes by which the soil materials are differentiated into several horizons in
a profile.
15. Pedoturbation– the process of intermixing of horizons due to external factors.

SOIL MORPHOLOGY.
❖ this is the description of the soil body – its appearance, features, and general characteristics as
expressed in the profile of the soil. This is expressed by the number, kinds, and arrangements of
the different horizons and their measurable and observable characteristics.

Soil Horizon
- a layer of soil approximately parallel to the land surface and differing from other layers in
physical, chemical, and biological properties produced by soil-forming processes
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Formation of Soil Horizons

Picture a section of bare rock that will someday become a pedon. In the process of soil
formation, the rock is changed into a layer of small, broken rock particles with some organic matter
mixed in.

schematic representation:

R → C → A → A
R C B
R C
R
rock formation of C young soil old soil

The Master Horizons and Layers

Master soil horizons - designated by uppercase letters O, A, E, B, C, and R

Subhorizons – occur within a master horizon and are designated by the capital master horizon
letters followed by a lowercase letter (e.g., Bt, Ap, Oi…)
Master Horizons:
1. O – the uppermost layer where organic materials have accumulated
- comprised of organic horizons that generally form above the mineral soil or occur in organic
soil profile
- derived from dead plant and animal residues
- generally absent in grassland regions, usually occur in forested areas, and are commonly
referred to as the forest floor

a. Oi horizon (litter or L layer)

- is an organic horizon of fibric materials —recognizable plant and animal parts
(leaves, twigs, and needles); only slightly decomposed.
b. Oe horizon (fermentation or F layer)
- consists of hemic materials—finely fragmented residues intermediately
decomposed, but still with much fiber evident when rubbed between fingers.
c. Oa horizon (humidified or H layer)
- contains sapric material—highly decomposed, smooth, amorphous residues that do
not retain much fiber or recognizable tissue structures.

2. A – a mineral horizon beneath the O where clay and nutrients have been removed by leaching and
organic stains and residues from the O have accumulated, the uppermost horizon in tilled
fields. (zone of loss)
- the topmost mineral horizon that generally contains enough partially decomposed organic
matter that gives the soil a color darker than that of the lower horizons.
- are often coarser in texture, due to the loss of some finer materials by translocation to
the lower horizons and erosion.

3. E - zone of maximum leaching or eluviation (from Latin ex or e, out, and lavere, to wash)
- eluviation of clay, iron, and aluminum oxides, which leaves a concentration of resistant
minerals, such as quartz, in the sand and silt sizes
- usually found underneath the A horizon and is generally lighter in color than both the A
horizon above it and the horizon below.
 25

4. B – form below an O, A, or E horizon and have undergone sufficient changes during soil genesis
so that the original parent material structure is no longer discernable
- in many B horizons, materials have accumulated (zone of accumulation), typically by
washing in from the horizons above, a process termed illuviation (from Latin il, in, and
lavere, to wash)
- different subhorizons in humid and arid regions; in humid areas, it is the layer of maximum
accumulation of materials such as iron and aluminum oxides and silicate clays (Bt horizon)
- in arid and semiarid regions, calcium carbonate or calcium sulfate may accumulate giving
Bk and By horizons respectively.

5. C– the unconsolidated material underlying the solum (A and B horizons)

- it may or may not be the same as the parent material from which the solum is formed
- it is below the zones of biological activity and has not been altered by soil genesis to qualify as
B horizon
- while loose enough to be dug with a shovel, the material in this horizon that retains some of the
structural features of the parent rock or geologic deposits from which it formed is termed
saprolite
- the horizon of parent materials

6. R Layer – consolidated rock with little evidence of weathering

Hypothetical mineral soil profile:

• Not all soils contain O, A, E, B, C, and R horizons. Some contain only O.M.-rich material
over parent materials (an AC profile = a young soil). Highly eroded areas and recent
floodplains may not show any horizonation.
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• Young soils- have A and C horizons

• Mature soil- has well-developed A, B, and C horizons
• Old Soil/ Senile soil- has A, B, and C horizons, only that B and C horizons are very deep

Related Terms and the Soil Body:

• Soil profile - a vertical slice of the earth’s crust showing all the horizons
• Solum (pl: sola) – the upper and most weathered part of the soil profile; the A, E, and B
horizons
• Regolith – All the loose earth materials (horizons ABC) above the solid rock
• Monolith – a block of soil from each horizon pasted or mounted on a hard board.
• Ped – the naturally-formed aggregate; the smallest volume that can be considered a soil body.
• Pedon – the smallest volume (by some experts), a 3-dimensional body representing soil;
captures what a soil profile misses (irregularities in horizon thickness or intermittent
horizons.
• Polypedons – a collection of similar pedons.
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Topsoil vs Subsoil

Topsoil or surface layer (A Horizon)

➢ it is the major zone of root development

➢ it carries much of the nutrients available to plants, and it supplies a large share of the water
used by crops
➢ it is the layer subject to manipulation and management such as by plowing and cultivation
➢ its physical condition can be modified by adding organic residues, fertilization, liming, and
drainage.
➢ the focus of many soil investigations and research
➢ in practical terms, the furrow-slice

Subsoil (B Horizon)

➢ part of the soil below the plow layer

➢ the subject of little field alteration except by drainage
➢ its permeability and its chemical nature still may favorably or unfavorably influence the
surface soil as a medium for plant growth

Soil series – the basic unit of soil classification, a subdivision of a family that consists of soils that are
essentially alike in all major profile characteristics. When the landscape changes so that the pedons no
longer fit within the prescribed ranges, they are placed into another grouping or another soil series.

Compiled by:
Analiza C. Ouano
Mindanao State University Main Campus
Marawi City, Lanao del Sur
2025