Set – Notes

1. 📘 A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects written inside curly brackets.

2. ✍️Sets can be represented either by listing elements or by stating a common property.
3. 🔑 Important types of sets are empty set, universal set, finite set, infinite set and equal
sets.
4. 📂 If every element of one set is present in another, then it is called a subset, and the
collection of all subsets is called the power set.
5. ➕ The main operations on sets are union, intersection, difference and complement.

Example:
Let A = {1,2,3} and B = {2,3,4}.

 2∈A,4∉A

A⊆A∪B
 A ∩ B = {2,3}


Representation of Set – Notes

1. 📝 Statement Method
o A set is written in simple words.
o No symbols are used for representation.
o Easy to understand in theory.
Example: A = {x | x is a vowel in English alphabet}

2. 📘 Roster (Tabular) Form

o Elements of the set are listed inside curly brackets.
o Repetition of elements is not allowed.
o Order of elements does not matter.
Example: A = {a, e, i, o, u}

3. ✍️Set-Builder Form
o A property describes all elements of the set.

o Uses symbols like ∈ and | (such that).

o Compact and useful for large sets.

Example: A = {x ∈ N | x ≤ 5} = {1,2,3,4,5}

4. 🎨 Venn Diagram Method

o Sets are represented graphically as circles.
o Rectangle represents the universal set U.
 o Shows relationship between different sets.
Example: A = {1,2,3} inside U = {1,2,3,4,5}

Types of Sets – Notes

1. 🌍 Universal Set
o A universal set contains all the elements under consideration in a particular
discussion.
o It is denoted by U.
o Every set related to the discussion is a subset of U.

Example: U = {1,2,3,4,5}, A = {2,4} → A ⊆ U

o Its definition depends on the context of the problem.

2. 🔹 Singleton Set
o A singleton set is a set that contains only one element.
o The cardinality of such a set is always one.
o It is a special type of finite set.
o Singleton sets are often used to represent unique values.
Example: A = {7}

3. 🔢 Finite Set
o A finite set is a set which has a limited and countable number of elements.
o Its cardinality is always a non-negative integer.
o Such sets can be completely written in roster form.
o Finite sets are common in real-life examples.
Example: A = {1,2,3,4,5}

4. ♾️Infinite Set
o An infinite set contains an endless number of elements.
o Its cardinality is not finite.
o It cannot be fully listed using roster form.

Example: A = {x ∈ N | x > 0} = {1,2,3,…}

o Usually represented using set-builder notation.

5. ❌ Null Set (Empty Set)

o It is denoted by ∅ or { }.
o A null set is a set with no elements in it.

o The cardinality of a null set is always zero.

 Example: A = {x ∈ N | x < 0} = ∅
o An empty set is a subset of every set.

6. 📂 Subset

o It is denoted as A ⊆ B.
o A set A is a subset of B if every element of A is also present in B.

o The empty set is a subset of every set.

Example: A = {1,2}, B = {1,2,3,4} → A ⊆ B

o Subset relation is a key concept in set theory.

7. 📦 Power Set
o The power set of a set A is the collection of all subsets of A.
o It is denoted by P(A).

o Power set always includes ∅ and the set itself.

o If A has n elements, then P(A) has 2ⁿ elements.

Example: A = {1,2} → P(A) = {∅, {1}, {2}, {1,2}}

8. 🔝 Superset

o It is denoted by B ⊇ A.
o A set B is a superset of A if B contains all elements of A.

o Every set is a superset of the empty set.

Example: B = {1,2,3,4}, A = {2,3} → B ⊇ A

o The universal set is a superset of all sets under consideration.

9. ❌ Empty Set (Null Set)

It is always denoted by ∅ or { }.
 An empty set is a set which has no elements in it.

 The number of elements in an empty set is zero.

Example: A = {x ∈ N | x < 0} = ∅
 Every empty set is considered a subset of any other set.

1. 🚫 Disjoint Set

 Two sets are disjoint if they have no common elements.

 Their intersection is always a null set.

Denoted as A ∩ B = ∅.
 Disjoint sets are completely separate.

Ex: A = {1,2}, B = {3,4} → A ∩ B = ∅


 2. ⚖️Equal Set

 Two sets are equal if they contain exactly the same elements.
 Order of elements does not matter.
 Equal sets always have the same cardinality.
 Denoted as A = B.
Ex: A = {1,2,3}, B = {3,2,1} → A = B

3. 🔗 Equivalent Set

 Two sets are equivalent if they have the same number of elements.
 Elements may be different, but cardinality is equal.
 Equal sets are always equivalent, but not vice versa.
 Denoted as n(A) = n(B).
Ex: A = {1,2,3}, B = {a,b,c} → A ≡ B

4. 🔄 Overlapping Set

 Two sets are overlapping if they have at least one common element.
 Their intersection is not null.

Denoted as A ∩ B ≠ ∅.
 Overlapping sets are neither disjoint nor equal.

Ex: A = {1,2,3}, B = {3,4,5} → A ∩ B = {3}

Cardinality of a Set – Notes

1. Cardinality of a set means the number of distinct elements present in that set.
2. It is denoted by n(A), where A is the set.
3. If A is a finite set, then n(A) is a non-negative integer.
4. If A is an infinite set, then n(A) is said to be infinite.
5. The empty set has cardinality zero, i.e., n(∅) = 0.
6. Cardinality is useful in combinatorics, probability, and set operations.

Example:
Let A = {2,4,6,8}. Then n(A) = 4 because there are 4 distinct elements.

Set Operations – Notes

1. 🔵 Union of Sets (A ∪ B)
 Union means combining all elements of both sets.
 Common elements are written only once.

Denoted as A ∪ B.
 Order of elements does not matter in union.

Example: A = {1,2,3}, B = {3,4,5} → A ∪ B = {1,2,3,4,5}



2. 🟢 Intersection of Sets (A ∩ B)

If no elements are common, the result is ∅.

 Intersection means taking only the common elements of both sets.

 Intersection is always a subset of both sets.
 Denoted as A ∩ B.
Example: A = {1,2,3}, B = {3,4,5} → A ∩ B = {3}

3. 🔴 Difference of Sets (A – B)

 Difference means elements of A which are not in B.

 It is not commutative (A – B ≠ B – A).
 Result is always a subset of the first set.
 Denoted as A – B.
Example: A = {1,2,3}, B = {3,4,5} → A – B = {1,2}

4. ⚫ Complement of a Set (A′)

 Complement means elements of universal set U not in A.

A ∪ A′ = U and A ∩ A′ = ∅.
 It depends on the choice of universal set.

 Denoted as A′.
Example: U = {1,2,3,4,5}, A = {2,3} → A′ = {1,4,5}

5. 🔺 Symmetric Difference (A Δ B)

Formula: A Δ B = (A – B) ∪ (B – A).
 Symmetric difference means elements which are in A or in B but not in both.

 It is commutative, i.e., A Δ B = B Δ A.
 Denoted as A Δ B.
Example: A = {1,2,3}, B = {3,4,5} → A Δ B = {1,2,4,5}

6. ✨ Cartesian Product (A × B)
  Cartesian product means the set of all ordered pairs (a,b).
 The first element comes from A, the second from B.
 If A has m elements and B has n elements, then A × B has m×n elements.
 Denoted as A × B.
Example: A = {1,2}, B = {x,y} → A × B = {(1,x),(1,y),(2,x),(2,y)}

Multiset – Notes

1. 🔄 A multiset is a collection of elements where repetition of elements is allowed.

2. 🔢 Unlike normal sets, the multiplicity of elements (how many times they appear) is
important.
3. 🟰 Order of elements does not matter, but frequency of each element does.
4. 📘 Every ordinary set can be treated as a multiset with all multiplicities = 1.
5. 📊 Multisets are useful in statistics, probability, and computer science applications.
6. 🧮 Operations like union, intersection, and difference can also be defined on multisets.
7. 📝 Multisets are usually written using curly brackets but with repetitions included.
8. 📂 In a multiset, the total size is the sum of multiplicities of all elements.

Multiset Example

Let:
M₁ = {a, a, b, c, c}
M₂ = {a, b, b, c}

👉 Step 1 – Multiplicity check

 In M₁: a → 2, b → 1, c → 2
 In M₂: a → 1, b → 2, c → 1

👉 Step 2 – Operations

1. 🔵 Union (M₁ ∪ M₂) → Take maximum multiplicity of each element.

o a → max(2,1) = 2, b → max(1,2) = 2, c → max(2,1) = 2
o Result: {a,a, b,b, c,c}
2. 🟢 Intersection (M₁ ∩ M₂) → Take minimum multiplicity of each element.
o a → min(2,1) = 1, b → min(1,2) = 1, c → min(2,1) = 1
o Result: {a, b, c}
3. 🔴 Difference (M₁ – M₂) → Subtract multiplicities (if negative, take 0).
o a → 2–1 = 1, b → 1–2 = 0, c → 2–1 = 1
o Result: {a, c}

Partition of a Set – Notes

1. 🧩 A partition of a set is a way of dividing it into non-empty, disjoint subsets.

2. 🚫 These subsets do not overlap; that is, no element belongs to more than one subset.
 3. 📂 The union of all the subsets in a partition is equal to the original set.
4. 🔢 Each element of the set must appear in exactly one of the subsets.
5. 📘 A partition must contain at least one subset, and none of them can be empty.
6. 🟰 Different partitions of the same set are possible depending on how subsets are
chosen.

Example:
Let A = {1,2,3,4}.
One possible partition is {{1,2}, {3,4}}.

Logic – Notes

1. 📘 Logic is the study of principles of valid reasoning and inference.

2. 🔹 In mathematics, logic is used to analyze and represent statements and arguments.
3. 🟰 Statements (propositions) are sentences that are either true (T) or false (F) but not

4. 🔄 Logical connectives (¬, ∧, ∨, →, ↔) are used to build compound statements.

both.

5. 📊 Logic is divided into Propositional Logic and Predicate Logic.

6. ✅ Logic is the foundation of proofs, algorithms, and computer science.

Truth Tables of Logical Connectives

1. ❌ Negation (¬p)

p ¬p

T F

F T

2. 🔗 Conjunction (p ∧ q) – “AND”

p q p∧q

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F F
3. ➕ Disjunction (p ∨ q) – “OR”

p q p∨q

T T T

T F T

F T T

F F F

4. 👉 Implication (p → q) – “If p then q”

p q p→q

T T T

T F F

F T T

F F T

5. ↔️Biconditional (p ↔ q) – “p if and only if q”

p q p↔q

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F T

Propositional Logic – Notes

1. 📘 A proposition (or statement) is a declarative sentence that is either True (T) or

False (F), but not both.
2. 🔹 Examples of propositions:
o “2 + 2 = 4” (True)
o “Mumbai is the capital of India” (False)
3. 🟢 Non-propositions: Questions, commands, or vague sentences (e.g., “What time is
it?”, “Close the door”).

connectives (¬, ∧, ∨, →, ↔).

4. 🔗 Propositional logic studies how simple propositions combine using logical
 5. 📊 The truth value of compound statements is determined by truth tables of
connectives.
6. ✅ Propositional logic is the foundation for reasoning, proofs, digital circuits, and
programming.

Example:

Let p = “It is raining”, q = “I will take an umbrella”

👉 Statement: “If it is raining, then I will take an umbrella.”
Symbolically: p → q

Predicate Logic – Notes

1. 📘 In predicate logic, a predicate is a statement involving variables whose truth

depends on the values of those variables.
2. 🔹 A predicate becomes a proposition when specific values are substituted for its
variables.
3. 🟢 Predicate logic extends propositional logic by including quantifiers (symbols to

4. ∀ (Universal Quantifier) means "for all elements" in a domain.

talk about "all" or "some").

o Example: ∀x P(x) → “P(x) is true for every x.”

5. ∃ (Existential Quantifier) means "there exists at least one element" in a domain.
o Example: ∃x P(x) → “There exists at least one x such that P(x) is true.”
6. ✅ Predicate logic is more powerful than propositional logic and is used in
mathematical proofs, algorithms, and computer science (databases, AI, etc.).

Example:

Domain: Natural numbers (N)

Predicate: P(x) = “x is even”

∀x P(x): “Every natural number is even.” (❌ False)

∃x P(x): “There exists a natural number that is even.” (✅ True, e.g., 2).



Quantifiers – Notes

1. 📘 Quantifiers are symbols in predicate logic used to express the extent to which a
predicate is true.

o ∀ (Universal Quantifier) → “for all”

2. 🔹 The two main quantifiers are:

o ∃ (Existential Quantifier) → “there exists”

3. 🟢 Universal Quantifier (∀) → ∀x P(x) means “P(x) is true for every x in the
domain.”
 4. 🔴 Existential Quantifier (∃) → ∃x P(x) means “There exists at least one x in the
domain such that P(x) is true.”

o ¬(∀x P(x)) ≡ ∃x (¬P(x))

5. 🔗 Negation rules:

o ¬(∃x P(x)) ≡ ∀x (¬P(x))

6. ✅ Quantifiers make logic more expressive and are widely used in mathematics,
computer science, and AI.

Examples:

o ∀x P(x): “All natural numbers are even” → ❌ False

1. Domain: Natural numbers (N), P(x): “x is even”

o ∃x P(x): “There exists a natural number that is even” → ✅ True (e.g., 2).

o ∀x Q(x): “Every student studies DSGT.”

2. Domain: Students in class, Q(x): “x studies DSGT”

o ∃x Q(x): “There exists at least one student who studies DSGT.”

1. Tautology

1. 📘 A compound proposition that is always true, regardless of truth values of its

variables.

3. Symbolically: ⊨ P (P is valid).
2. Truth table result is T in all rows.

4. Used to prove logical equivalence and theorems.

5. Example of tautology is the law of excluded middle.

p ∨ ¬p (either p is true, or not p is true) → always true. ✅

Example:

2. Contradiction

1. ❌ A compound proposition that is always false, regardless of truth values of its

variables.

3. Symbolically: ⊨ ¬P (negation of tautology).

2. Truth table result is F in all rows.

5. Example of contradiction is p ∧ ¬p.

4. Used to show impossibility or inconsistency in logic.

p ∧ ¬p (p and not p together) → always false. 🚫

Example:
3. Contingency

1. 🔄 A compound proposition that is sometimes true, sometimes false.

2. Truth table result has mix of T and F rows.
3. Neither a tautology nor a contradiction.
4. Represents real-life statements where truth depends on conditions.
5. Useful in logical analysis and probability.

p∧q
Example:

👉 True only when both p and q are true, false otherwise → contingency.

Logical Operators – Full List

🔗 AND (p ∧ q) → Conjunction
1. ❌ NOT (¬p) → Negation

➕ OR (p ∨ q) → Disjunction (Inclusive OR)

2.

⚖️BUT (p ∧ q) → Same as AND (English emphasis only)

3.

✖️XOR (p ⊕ q) → Exclusive OR (exactly one true)

4.
5.
6. 👉 IF…THEN (p → q) → Implication / Conditional
7. ↔️IF AND ONLY IF (p ↔ q) → Biconditional / Equivalenc