1.
Executive Summary
This report presents a detailed analysis of a Pulsating Heat Pipe (PHP)-based cooling system designed and tested for avionics
thermal management in aerospace vehicles. The study demonstrates that PHP technology offers a lightweight, passive, and highly
efficient solution for managing high heat loads (up to 400 W) in compact and geometrically complex avionics systems.
Key findings:
- PHPs reduce temperature differences by >70% compared to traditional aluminium wall conduction.
- Effective thermal conductivity is significantly enhanced, enabling long-distance heat transfer (up to 37.0 cm).
- Performance depends on filling ratio, working fluid, heat input, and orientation.
- Temperature fluctuations at the evaporator are manageable and decrease with increasing heat load.
- PHPs are viable for aerospace applications due to their robustness, scalability, and partial gravity independence.
The system was tested under realistic conditions, validating its potential for integration into next-generation aircraft and
spacecraft electronics cooling architectures.
2. Introduction
Modern avionics systems generate increasing amounts of waste heat due to higher power densities and miniaturization.
Conventional cooling methods—such as conduction through metal chassis walls or forced air convection—are often insufficient
for high-power modules.
The Pulsating Heat Pipe (PHP), first invented by Akachi in 1990, offers a promising alternative. It is a passive, wickless heat transfer
device that uses thermally driven oscillations of liquid slugs and vapor bubbles in a serpentine capillary tube to transport heat
efficiently.
This report summarizes the experimental investigation conducted by Cai et al. (2007) on a PHP-based cooling system tailored for
aerospace avionics, focusing on:
- Thermal performance enhancement
- Effect of orientation (gravity influence)
- Impact of input heat load and filling ratio
- Temperature stability and oscillation behavior
The work was sponsored by The Boeing Company, highlighting its relevance to real-world aerospace applications.
3. Operating Principle of Pulsating Heat Pipe (PHP)
A PHP consists of a closed-loop or unlooped serpentine capillary tube partially filled with a working fluid (e.g., water, ethanol,
acetone). After evacuation and charging, the internal environment reaches equilibrium between saturated liquid and vapor slugs.
Working Mechanism:
1. Heat Application (Evaporator Section):
- Heat is applied to one end (evaporator), causing localized vaporization.
- Increased pressure pushes liquid slugs toward the condenser.
2. Condensation (Condenser Section):
- Vapor releases heat and condenses, reducing pressure.
- Pressure gradient pulls liquid back.
3. Oscillation:
- Continuous expansion and contraction of vapor bubbles create self-sustained oscillations.
- Both latent heat (phase change) and sensible heat (fluid motion) contribute to heat transfer.
Unlike conventional heat pipes, PHPs do not require a wick structure, making them simpler and more adaptable to complex
geometries.
4. System Design and Prototypes
The study focused on integrating PHPs into two critical areas of an avionics chassis:
4.1 PHP for Chassis Wall Cooling
- Purpose: Enhance heat conduction along the aluminum chassis wall over long distances.
- Geometry:
- Serpentine copper tube embedded in grooves on a 3 mm aluminum wall.
- 12 turns, total heat transfer distance: 37.0 cm (longer than most published applications).
- Tube dimensions: 3.18 mm OD, 1.65 mm ID.
- Sections:
- Evaporator: Horizontal section (24.5 cm) receiving heat from card guides or power modules.
- Condenser: Vertical section (12.5 cm) with an attached aluminum heat sink.
- Max Design Load: 400 W (250 W + 60% safety margin).
4.2 PHP for PCB Cooling
- Purpose: Transfer heat from printed circuit boards (PCBs) to the chassis wall.
- Geometry:
- 8 turns of same copper tubing.
- Sandwiched between two 2.0 mm aluminum plates mounted opposite electronic devices.
- Max Design Load: 165 W.
- Acts as a thermal bridge between PCB and chassis.
4.3 Working Fluids and Filling Ratios
| Fluid | Use Case | Reason |
|-------------|---------------------------|-----------------------------------------|
| Water | High heat load | High latent heat, suitable for >100°C |
| Ethanol | Freezing environments | Lower freezing point |
| Acetone | Low-temperature startup | Good performance at low power |
Three filling ratios were tested:
- 40%, 55%, and 70% (by volume)
- Optimal performance observed at 40–55%.
5. Experimental Setup
5.1 Test Bed Configuration
As shown in the paper, the experimental setup includes:
- Heaters:
- For chassis wall: Four electrical heaters (1.3 cm × 25 cm) spaced 4 cm apart.
- For PCB: Two flat flexible heaters simulate uniform heat generation.
- Thermal Insulation:
- Silica fiber blankets (4.0 cm thick) cover exposed evaporator sections to minimize losses.
- Condenser Cooling:
- Air-cooled heat sinks with a 12-V fan.
- Data Acquisition:
- 10 E-type thermocouples placed from evaporator to condenser.
- Data logger, power meter, and computer for real-time monitoring.
5.2 Measurement Accuracy
- Natural convection losses < 5% of total input power at maximum load.
- Steady-state readings taken after temperature stabilization.
6. Experimental Results and Analysis
6.1 PHP Chassis Wall Cooling Performance
Traditional Cooling (Baseline):
- Using only aluminum wall conduction:
- At 100 W, ΔT > 100°C
- At 300 W, ΔT ≈ 275°C
- Linear increase indicates poor scalability for high heat loads.
With PHP Integration:
- Water-filled PHP with various filling ratios:
- ΔT reduced to 30–50°C across all loads (up to 400 W).
- Nearly constant ΔT despite increasing power → excellent thermal regulation.
- Best performance at 40% filling ratio.
- Improvement: >70% reduction in temperature difference.
With Ethanol and Acetone:
- Performance degrades compared to water due to lower latent heat and higher viscosity.
- Still functional, but less efficient than water.
6.2 PHP-PCB Cooling Performance
- At 165 W input, aluminum sheet alone shows ΔT ≈ 120°C.
- With PHP:
- Water PHP: ΔT ≈ 40°C
- Ethanol PHP: ΔT ≈ 50°C
- Acetone PHP: Performs better at low power due to earlier startup.
6.3 Orientation Effects
- At 400 W, both upward and downward orientations show ΔT ≈ 8–10°C.
- Higher filling ratio (55%) minimizes orientation sensitivity.
- PHPs can operate in multiple orientations, especially at high heat loads.
6.4 Evaporator Temperature Fluctuations
- Due to oscillating flow, the evaporator undergoes cyclic wet and dry states.
- Fluctuations:
- ~10°C at 100 W
- ~2–3°C at 400 W
- Higher heat input stabilizes operation and reduces fluctuations.
6.5 Effective Thermal Conductivity
Using:
k_eff = (Q × L) / (A × ΔT)
- For 40% water-filled PHP, k_eff exceeds 1000 W/m·K at 400 W — far surpassing copper (~400 W/m·K).
7. Design Guidelines and Recommendations
| Parameter | Recommendation | Reason |
|---------------------|----------------------------------|---------------------------------------------|
| Working Fluid | Water (high temp), Ethanol/Acetone (cold) | High h_fg, low viscosity |
| Filling Ratio | 40–55% | Optimal slug-bubble distribution |
| Tube Diameter | 1.65–2.0 mm ID | Capillary dominance, stable oscillation |
| Number of Turns | ≥8–12 | Ensures sufficient phase interaction |
| Orientation | Prefer evaporator-down | Gravity-assisted return |
| Minimum Heat Load | >50 W | Ensures startup and sustained oscillation |
| Interface | Use thermal grease | Minimize contact resistance |
8. Advantages for Aerospace Applications
- Passive operation (no moving parts)
- Lightweight and compact
- High heat flux handling
- Long-distance heat transfer
- Scalable and modular
9. Challenges and Limitations
- Startup delay at low power
- Orientation sensitivity at low heat loads
- Temperature fluctuations
- Risk of non-condensable gases
- Freezing in cold environments
10. Conclusion
The experimental investigation conclusively demonstrates that Pulsating Heat Pipes (PHPs) are a highly effective solution for
thermal management in aerospace avionics systems.
Key Conclusions:
1. PHP integration reduces temperature differences by over 70% compared to traditional conduction cooling.
2. Water-filled PHPs achieve excellent performance (ΔT ≈ 30–50°C at 400 W) with effective thermal conductivity exceeding 1000
W/m·K.
3. PHPs can operate in various orientations, with performance improving at higher heat loads.
4. Evaporator temperature fluctuations are manageable and decrease with increasing power.
5. The system is scalable, reliable, and suitable for integration into existing avionics architectures.
Appendix A: Nomenclature
| Symbol | Meaning | Units |
|--------|----------------------------------|-----------|
|Q | Heat input |W |
|L | PHP length |m |
|A | Cross-sectional area | m² |
| ΔT | Temperature difference | °C or K |
| h_fg | Latent heat of vaporization | J/kg |
|μ | Dynamic viscosity | Pa·s |
|D | Tube inner diameter |m |
| k_eff | Effective thermal conductivity | W/m·K |
