PHY 756 – Non-Ionizing Radiation: 3 Units

1. Electromagnetic Waves: Maxwell's Equation, Velocity of light, Electromagnetic

Spectrum
2. Visible Light: Lasing Actions, Laser operations, Radiometric Units Lasers

3. Biological effects of Lasers: Skin damage, Eye damage, Protection Guides and
Standards, Maximum Permissible Exposure (MPE), Safety, Measurements, power and
energy, Beam divergence

4. Microwave Measurements, Survey meters, Protection Guides and Standards,

Maximum Permissible Exposure (MPE), Safety.

5. Radiofrequency (RF) and Microwave: Communications, antennas and antenna

gain, Penetration depth. GSM hand-sets and base stations, Biological Effects, Thermal
and Non Thermal Effects, temperature-humidity index.
Radiofrequency
• Radiofrequency (RF) is defined as part of the non -ionizing
electromagnetic spectrum (3 kHz -300 GHz). This means that RF
produces electromagnetic radiation has less energy than infrared and
more energy than that of power lines.
• If not monitored or handled properly, some health effects of
prolonged exposure to RF include: burns, increased body temperature,
and cancer.
• Types of RF equipment that may be encountered include: radio
antennas, microwaves, and telecommunication towers.
 Radio waves are electromagnetic radiations in the radio band (3 kHz – 3000 GHz)
used in radio and television broadcasting and in other communication systems such
as GSM, WiFi and Bluetooth. All RF waves have characteristics (wavelengths,
frequency, amplitude and phase) that are used to define each band. Some RF bands
are shown below:
Frequency (c/λ) Wavelength (λ) Designation
3 – 30 kHz 100 – 10 km Very low Frequecy (VLF)
30 – 300 kHz 10 – 1 km Low Frequency (LF)
300 kHz – 3 MHz 1 km – 100 m Medium Frequency (MF)
3 MHz – 30 MHz 100 m – 10 m High Frequency (HF)
30 – 300 MHz 10 m – 1 m Very High Frequency (VHF)
300 MHz – 3 GHz 1 m – 10 cm Ultra High Frequency (UHF)
3 – 30 GHz 10 – 1 cm Super High Frequency (SHF)
30 – 300 GHz 1 cm – 1 mm Extremely High Frequency (EHF)
300 – 3000 GHz 1 mm – 0.1 mm Tremendously High Frequency (THF)
Microwaves (300 MHz – 300 GHz) is a subset of RF which implies small wavelength
compared to waves used in typical radio communication. Radiofrequency RF bands are
utilized in many modern appliances, especially in wireless communication systems. These
include;
Radio Broadcasting (AM) - 30 – 300 kHz
Radio Broadcasting (FM) - 87.5 – 108 MHz
TV broadcasting - 54 – 216 MHz
GSM Communication - 900 and 1800 MHz
CDMA Communication - 1900 MHz
Navigation Satellite Systems - 1.2 - 1.6 GHz.
Heating/Power Application - 2.45 GHz
WiFi (Wireless LAN) - 2.4 – 5.9 GHz
Satellite links - 3 – 30 GHz
Remote Sensing - 30 – 300 GHz
Interaction of Microwave with Matter
• When electromagnetic waves encounter a medium, the waves can be
* Reflected
* Absorbed,
* Transmitted or
* Any combination of these three interactions.
• Reflection by the Medium:
• Different surfaces reflect microwaves to differing degrees. Bulk metals are
good reflectors and hence, are opaque to microwaves.

i. RADAR system: Radio Direction And Ranging, which is a system for

locating objects by reflected micro waves from such objects.

ii. A metal in a microwave oven will only reflect the waves back to the
source, which may damage the oven.

iii. Powdered metal are much better absorbers of microwaves than bulk
metals.
• 2. Transmission through the Medium
• This is accompanied with little energy loss to the transmitting
medium. Glass is good transmitting medium to microwave. Other
media are paper and wood.

• 3.Absorption (Heating) of the absorber

• Microwave may be absorbed to raise the temperature of the
absorbing medium. Water, human tissue, food materials etc are good
absorbers of MW.
• There are many mechanisms responsible for the microwaves-matter
interactions. They can be generalized as
• dielectric losses
• conductive losses,
• magnetic losses
• etc.
• These mechanisms are responsible for the commonly known forms of heating
such as
* Joule heating
* dielectric heating
* Induction heating
• All these forms of heating are dependent on the electromagnetic field
characteristics and the material’s properties
Electromagnetic field has two components: Electric field and Magnetic field.
The two components will interact with materials according to different mechanisms.

1. Joule Heating
This is due to ionic current induced by the em fields set up by the radiation within
the absorbing medium. That is:

ü There is a force F = qE on any charge q present in the medium.

ü The induced force leads to current and consequently joule heating of the material.

ü This is heating as a result of the accelerated charge colliding with a lattice site and
losing its KE to the lattice point.

ü Joule heating is possible when ions are present as we have in a biological material
which contains ions of undissolved electrolytes.

ü Joule heating is an important mechanism of heating in a biological medium.

• 2. Dielectric Heating (Interaction with Polar Molecules)
• The electric field component of microwaves is responsible for the dielectric
heating.
• In the frequency range of microwaves, the dielectric heating is achieved
tthrough two main mechanisms: dipolar polarization and ionic conduction.
• polarization mechanism
• Polarization is th
• There are three main types of polarization: (i) Electronic, (ii) Orientational and
(iii) Ionic polarizations.
• In insulating materials, called dielectrics, electrons are tightly bound to the
nucleus. They are not mobile, but if an electric field is applied, the negative
cloud of electrons can be slightly displaced from the positive nucleus.
ü The material is then said to have an electronic polarization (see figure below).
ü For polar molecules that do not share their electrons symmetrically so that the
net positive and negative charges are separated, an applied electric field exerts a
torque on the molecule that tends to align it with the field. This alignment which
makes an asymmetric polar molecule to line up with an applied electric field is
what is referred to as orientational polarization(see figure below).
ü In the orientational polarization, if the ions in a molecule also undergo slight
relative displacements then there is ionic polarization.
ü The result of any of these polarizations is the production of dipoles
(i.e. a net positive charge and net negative charge with a small
displacement “d” between them)
ü Hence, there is an induced dipole whose dipole moment p = qd,
which is proportional to the external field.
ü An atom or molecule for which the dipole disappears as soon as the
external field is removed is called a non-polar molecule.
 Polar Molecules
ü Molecules which carry permanent dipole moment.
ü Notable examples of such are H2O and HCl molecules.
ü In the absence of an external electric field, the dipoles are so randomly distributed that
the net effect per unit volume is zero.

In the absence of an electric field In the presence of an electric field

ü When an external field is applied, the individual permanent dipoles experience a torque
τ = p x E.
ü This tends to rotate the molecules so that their dipoles are parallel with electric field.

ü When the direction of the field changes, the orientation of the dipoles changes.
 Dielectric Heating.

ü When the polar molecules are inside a microwave beam, the alternating field causes them to
oscillate back and forth in an attempt to maintain proper alignment with the electric field.
ü The dipoles do not have sufficient time to respond to the oscillating field, as a result of this
phase lag, they collide with eachother when they attempt to follow the field and power is
dissipated to generate heat in the material. The process is called dielectric heating.

ü In a microwave oven, materials which contain water (polar molecules) are heated at a faster
rate than those that do not.

ü The microwave energy is absorbed by only the food item, which is heated directly to a depth of
1-2cm below the surface.

ü The rest of the volume is heated by conduction from the outer layer.

ü A combination of efficient energy utilization and deep heating leads to rapid cooking of the
food item
• Ionic conduction
• In this mechanism, any mobile charge carriers (electrons, ions, etc.)
move back and forth through the material under the influence of the
microwave E-field, creating an electric current.
• These induced currents will cause heating in the sample due to any
electrical resistance caused by the collisions of charged species with
neighboring molecules or atoms.
MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS
• Maxwell's equations are the universal tool that can be used to analyze any system
regardless of its dimensions in terms of its electromagnetic fields.d
• The general form of the time-varying Maxwell’s equations can be written in differential
form as:
��
• � × � = �� + �� (1)
��

��
• � × � =− (2)
��

�
• � ∙ � =− (3)
�
• �∙�=0 (4)
• J = current density, B = Magnetic field intensity, E = Electric field intensity, � = medium
dielectric permittivity constant and � = magnetic permeability constant.
• Other fundamental relations include:
• � = ��
��
• � ∙ � =−
��
• � = ��
• � = ��
1
• = � � ��
�2
• � = �� ��
• � = �� ��
• �� ��� �� are the permittivity and permeability constants in free space.
• �� ��� �� are the relative permittivity and permeability constants in the
medium.
• To obtain equation describing the propagation of electric field in a
given medium, take the curl of equation (2)
��
•�× �×� =�× −
��
�
• � × � × � =− �×�
��
• Eliminate � × � using equation (1)
� ��
• � × � × � =− �� + ��
�� ��
• Substitute � = ��
� ��
• � × � × � =− ��� + ��
�� ��
 �� �2 �
• � × � × � =− �� − ��
�� ��2
• Recall that � × � × � = � � ∙ � − �2 �, hence
2 �� �2 �
• � � ∙ � − � � =− �� − ��
�� ��2
• Consider that the wave is interacting with a medium with zero net
charge i.e. � = 0, therefore from equation (3) � ∙ � = 0. Hence the
above equation reduces to
2 �� �2 �
• − � � =− �� − ��
�� ��2
�� �2 �
• �2 � − �� − �� =0
�� ��2
• The solution to this differential equation is a product of two solutions (space dependent solution,
E(r) and time dependent solution E(t)) i.e.
• � = � � � � = � � ����
• Substituting this into the differential equation yields
• �2 � − �� ��� − �� �� 2 � = 0
• �2 � − ����� + ���2 � = 0
�
• �2 � − ���2 � �� − 1 � = 0,
�
• This is actually three equations [Let �2 = ���2 � �� − 1 ]. This is because � = ��� + ��� +
��� ����
�2 �� �2 �� �2 ��
• + + − �2 �� = 0
��2 ��2 ��2
�2 �� �2 �� �2 ��
• + + − �2 �� = 0
��2 ��2 ��2
�2 �� �2 �� �2 ��
• + + − �2 �� = 0
��2 ��2 ��2
• The solution for Ex, Ey and Ez will be similar.
• Take one of the components, for example Ez.
�2 �� �2 �� �2 ��
• + + − � 2 �� = 0
��2 ��2 ��2
• The solution, using separation of variables, is of the form
• �� = � � � � ℎ �
• Substituting this into the differential equation yields
• �’’ � � � ℎ � + � � �’’ � ℎ � + � � � � ℎ’’ � − �2 � � � � ℎ � = 0
• Divide through by � � � � ℎ � yields
�’’ � �’’ � ℎ’’ �
• + + − �2 = 0
� � � � ℎ �
• This yields three ODEs
�’’ � �2 �
• − �2� =0→ − �2� � = 0
� � ��2

�’’ � �2 �
• − �2� =0→ − �2� � = 0
� � ��2

ℎ’’ � �2 ℎ
• − �2� =0→ − �2� ℎ = 0
ℎ � ��2

• where �2 = �2� + �2� + �2�

• The solutions to the ODEs are
• � � = �� �−���
• � � = �� �−���
• ℎ � = �� �−���
 −�� � −�� � −�� �
• Therefore,
−�∙�
� � = � � � � ℎ � = � � � ∙ � � � ∙ � � � =
�� �
• where Ao=AxAyAz , � = ��� + ��� + ��� and � = �� + �� + ��.
• Following the same procedure
• �� = �� �−�∙�
• �� = �� �−�∙�
• Hence
• � = ��� + ��� + ��� ���� = ��� �−�∙� + ��� �−�∙� +
��� �−�∙� ���� = �� �−�∙� ����
• where �� = ��� + ��� + ���
• Therefore the propagation of the electric field in the medium is
obtained to be
• � = �� �−�∙� ����
2 2 �
• � is obtained from � = ��� � − 1
��
�
•�= ���2 � − 1 ≡ � + ��
��
• Squaring both sides and equating real part to real part and also
imaginary part to imaginary part yields
• Real parts: �2 − �2 =− ���2 (5)
���
• Imaginary parts: �� = (6)
2
• Squaring equation (6) and then substitute equation (5) into the result yields
2 2 2 �2 �2 �2
• � � + ��� =
4
�2 �2 �2
• �4 + ���2 �2 − =0
4
• This is a quadratic equation in �2 . The solution is
�2
−���2 ∓ �2 �2 �4 + �2 �2 �2 −���2 ∓���2 1+ 2 2 ���2 �2
2
• � = = � �
= −1 + 1 + �2 �2
.
2 2 2

• Therefore
1
2
�� �2
• �=� 2
1+
�2 �2
−1 7
• Substituting this into equation (5) yields
1
2
�� �2
•�=� 1+ +1 8
2 �2 �2

• � is referred to as the absorption coefficient (attenuation factor) of

the wave in the medium.
2�
• � is referred to as the wave number of the wave in the medium.
�
� is the wavelenght of the wave in the medium.
• As an electromagnetic wave (including RF) propagates through a material,
there is energy loss to the material.
ü A material that absorbs energy from an electromagnetic radiation passing
through it is called a lossy material.
ü For a wave propagating through a medium, the wavelength of the wave in the
medium (�) is obtained from equation (8):
1
2
2� �� �2
ü�= =� 1+ +1
� 2 �2 �2
1
2
2�� 2� 2�� �� �2
ü Recall that � = 2�� =
λ�
, then �
=
�� 2
1+
�2 �2
+1

ü �� is the wavelenght of the wave in free space.

This yields
1
−
2
�� 1 1 �2
λ= + 1+ 2 2
�� �� 2 2 � �
To obtain this the substitutions were made:
1
2 = �� ��
�
� = �� ��
� = �� ��
 � 2
The quantity ���2 �= is called Loss tangent, which is a measure of energy
��
absorption in the medium.

ü For a lossless medium, σ = 0 and hence, tan2δ = 0 so that the above eqn becomes

��
�= .
�� ��

ü Free space and for all practical purposes, air are not considered lossy materials.

ü All biological materials are lossy materials.

ü For most biological materials, �� ~ 1 so that the general equation becomes:

1
−
2
�� 1 1 �2
�= + 1+ 2 2
�� 2 2 � �
Example
The dielectric coefficient for brain tissue is �� = 82 and the resistivity is ρ = 1.88
ohm-meters at 100 MHz. What is the wavelength of this radiation in the brain?
�� = 8.854 × 10−12 �−3 ��−1 �4 �2
� 3 × 108
λ� = = =3�
� 100 × 106

2
2
1
� 2 � 1.88
= = = 1.36
�� ��� �� 2� × 100 × 10 × 82 × 8.854 × 10−12
6

1
−
2
�� 1 1 �2
�= + 1+ 2 2
�� 2 2 � �
1 Home Work:
−
1 1 3 2 Repeat calculations for GSM
�= + 1 + 1.36 = 0.3 � 900 and 1800 MHz.
82 2 2
• The interaction between electromagnetic waves and matter is quantified by
two complex physical quantities – the dielectric permittivity,ε , and the
magnetic permeability, μ.
• The electric components of electromagnetic waves can induce currents of free
charges (electric conduction that can be of electronic or ionic origin).
• The electric components can also induce local reorganization of linked charges
(dipolar moments).
• The magnetic component can induce structure in magnetic moments.
• When EMW interact with matter, the storage of electromagnetic energy
within the irradiated medium and their thermal conversion can be expressed
by the complex formulation of the dielectric permittivity
• ���� = � − ��’
• The storage of electromagnetic energy is expressed by the real part whereas
the thermal conversion is proportional to the imaginary part.
• The complex dielectric can be derived from
�� ��
• � × � = � + � = � + ��
�� ��
���
• Using � = � � � , the equation becomes
• � × � = ���� + ��
• Therefore in a lossless medium (�=0), � × � = ����
�
• In a lossy medium, � × � = ���� + �� = �� � − � �.
�
• Compare this equation to the one for lossless mediumm, it �means a lossy
medium has a complex permitivity ���� = � − ��’ = � − �
� �
’
• This means � =
�
• LOSS MECHANISMS
• For non- magnetic materials, the two main loss mechanisms are dielectric (dipolar) losses and
conduction losses.
• Conduction losses dominate in metallic, high conductivity materials while dipolar losses dominate
in dielectric insulators.
• For magnetic materials, there is conduction losses. In addition there is magnetic losses hysteresis,
domain wall resonance and electron spin resonance
• Dielectric loss
• The torque exercised by the electric field induces rotation of polar molecules, but they cannot
always orient at this rate. The motion of the particles will not be sufficiently rapid to build up a
time-dependent polarization that is in equilibrium with the electric field at any moment. This
delay between electromagnetic stimulation and molecular response is the physical origin of the
dielectric loss.
• Hence � will be in phase with the excitation whereas �’ has a phase lag with the excitation. The
phase lag is the origin of the thermal conversion of electromagnetic energy within the irradiated
dielectric.
�’ �
• Dielectric loss tangent, ����� = =
� ��
� �
• Slightly loss medium implies << 1, highly lossy medium implies >> 1
�� ��
• Magnetic loss
• Chemical reagents are primarily dielectric liquids or solids. Magnetic losses are, however,
observed for microwave-irradiated metal oxides.
• Similar to dielectrics, a complex magnetic permeability is defined
• ���� = � − ��’
• The real part is the magnetic permeability whereas the imaginary part is the magnetic loss.
�’
Magnetic loss tangent, ����� =
�
• Power of wave in a medium
• The power of a wave (P) in a medium is given by
• � = � ∙ �’ ∙ �� ∙ �2 ∙ �
• V is the volume of the medium.
• Recall, �2 is th product of E and its complex conjugate. Given that �
= �� �−�.� �� ��−�∙� , Its complex conjugate is � = �� �−�.� �−� ��−�∙� .
Therefore
• �2 = �� �−�.� �� ��−�∙� . �� �−�.� �−� ��−�∙� = �2� �−2�.�
• Hence
• � = � ∙ �’ ∙ �� ∙ �2 ∙ � = � ∙ �’ ∙ �� ∙ �2� �−2�.� ∙ � = �� �−2�.�
• Where �� = � ∙ �’ ∙ �� ∙ �2� ∙ �
• Penetration Depth (d)
• This is a measure of the depth of microwave penetration in a material. It is
defined as the distance from the surface to the place at which the magnitude
of the field strength drops to e-1 (=0.368) of its value at the surface (i.e. where
��
�= )
�
• It is a useful parameter to quantify the heating efficiency and uniformity of a
sample by microwaves.
��
• Using � = in � = �� �−�.� �� ��−�∙� = �� �−�.� yields
�
�� −�.�
• = �� �
�
• This gives the equation of penetration depth to be
1
• �=
�
• Power penetration depth (Dp)
• This is the distance at which the traveling wave power density reduces to e-1 of its value
�
at the surface (i.e. where � = �)
�
��
• Using � = in � = �� �−2�.� yields
�
��
• = �� �−2�.�
�
• This gives the equation of power penetration depth to be
1
• �� =
2�
• This shows that �� is half the value of the field penetration depth, d.
• �� = 0.5 × �
Example:
Calculate the absorption coefficient of muscle tissue for 2,450 MHz radiation,
given that σ = 2.2 and relative dielectric coefficient is 47. At what depth will 95%
of the radiation be absorbed?

� = �� �� = 47 x 8.85 x 10-12, ω = 2πf, µo = 4π x 10-7N/A2.

From where we get that α= 59.87 m-1 or 0.6 cm-1

At the depth where 95% of the energy has been absorbed, only 5% of the initial power
�
density will remain (i.e. = 5%).
��

�
From the penetration equation: � = �� �−��� we have = �. �� = �−�×�.��
��

That is, �� 0.5 =− 2 × 0.6� and hence, t = 2.5 cm.

• The penetration depth is
1 1
•�= = = 1.67 cm
� 0.6
• Power penetration depth is
• �� = 0.5 × � = 0.5 × 1.67 = 0.84 cm
• Heat generation
• The rate at which heat is generated in the absorber (R) is inversely
proportional to the square of d or the product R d2 is constant. For
two absorbers (A and B) exposed to the same radiation,
• �� �2� = �� �2�
• For example, If the penetration depths for the muscle and fat are 1.67
and 8.1cm, respectively, then
• ������� �2������ = ���� �2���
2 2
• ������� 1.67 = ���� 8.1
�������
• = 23.5
����

• This means the rate of heat generation in the muscle is about 23.5
times more than that in fat for the same irradiation.
Biological Effects of Microwave
Organs and tissues in a biological system are composed of a structural matrix
immersed in biological fluids.

ü The structural matrix is made of fixed molecules that are often electrically
polarized, while the biological fluids contain ions of dissolved electrolytes
and macromolecules.
ü In all cases of RF irradiation of living materials, both Joule heating and
heating by vibration of polar molecules occur simultaneously.

1. Thermal Effects are associated with exposures > 10 mW/cm2

2. Non thermal effects are being investigated at exposures < 10 mW/cm2

There can be lethal consequences if body temp is raised 5oC beyond the body’s
homeostatic or thermal regulation capabilities.
Homeostatic Process
1. This is the process by which the body regulates its temperature.
2. For a living body, the heat S stored or retained in the body is given by:
S=M±R±C–E
where
M = metabolic heat rate (75W – 300W),
R = Radiative heat gain/loss
C = conductive and convective heat gain/loss and
E = Heat loss due to evaporative cooling.
3. The values of R, C and E are determined by the temperature and humidity of
the environment.
4. If they are too high, dissipation of metabolic heat M will reduce/increase and
body temperature will increase/decrease
 Temperature – Humidity Index (THI)
1. Additional heat load from say microwave energy or any source is dissipated in the
same way.
2. An unacceptable heat stress result when increase in body temperature is more
than 1oC.

3. The comfort range is measured by Temperature – Humidity Index (THI) which is:
THI = 1.44Td + 0.1RH + 30.6
Td - dry bulb temp (shielded from radiation and from moisture)
RH - Relative Humidity.

4. Comfortable range THI = 65 – 80.

5. In this range, RF exposure of the order of 1 – 10 mW/cm 2 can be easily

dissipated without undue thermal stress.
Three Groups of Biological Effects of RF

1. Electro-stimulatory effects (3 kHz–5 MHz)—At high intensity levels at

this low Frequency, an electric field can generate painful nerve impulses.

2. Thermal effects (100 kHz–3 GHz) – Temperature rise, either whole body
or localized, when the body absorbs energy faster than its thermoregulatory
system.

3. Skin heating effects (3–300 GHz) – At high frequencies greater than 3 GHz,
RF energy is absorbed mainly in the skin, and the microwave radiation behaves
in a fashion similar to that of infrared radiation.

Generally, an increase in skin temperature to about 45◦C will cause sufficient pain
for the person to leave the exposure area, which is a natural aversion reaction.
 Effects of Prolonged RF Exposure
Documented harmful effects in man from prolonged RF exposure are attributed to
ü Hyperthermia, also known simply as overheating, is a condition where an
individual's body temperature is elevated beyond normal due to failed
thermoregulation.

ü Two organs, the eyes and testicles, both of which are ischemic (low or no
blood supply) are the most vulnerable because they are unable to dissipate heat
energy absorption > 10 – 15 mW.
1. For the Eye: prolonged exposure can lead to cataracts.
2. For the Testicles: temperature is always about 2oC less than the body temp of
37oC. Elevation of testicular temperature to about 37oC by any means, can lead
to depressed spermatogenesis. Prolonged exposure to microwave power
density > 10 mW/cm2 can cause testicular damage.
ü At lower exposures than 10 mW/cm2 effects are not well documented
RF in communication systems
Central to the use of a radiation in communication systems is the Antenna.

ü An antenna is a device that provides a transition between guided electromagnetic

waves in wires and electromagnetic waves in space.

ü Antennas can usually handle the transition in both directions ( i.e transmitting and
receiving EM waves). This property is called reciprocity.

Transmitting Antenna (Tx) Receiving Antenna Rx

 Antenna Gain

The EM radiation emerges in the direction which the aperture of the antenna
(reflector) is facing.
ü Theoretically, the wave is then reflected in a parallel beam, but in reality, it
spreads by an amount which is inversely proportional to the size of the
reflector.
ü The ability of an antenna to concentrate the radiated e/m energy into a beam is
described by the antenna gain.

ü Technically, Antenna Gain is the product of directivity and efficiency. That is:
Antenna gain = Directivity x Efficiency
ü Directivity is the measure of the concentration of an antenna’s radiation
pattern in a particular direction
ü Efficiency accounts for the losses of the antenna due to manufacturing faults,
surface coating irregularities, dielectric, resistance, or any other factor.
ü It is calculated as the ratio of the intensity of the radiated signal in the far-field to
the intensity of the radiated signal if the same amount of transmitted power were
radiated isotropically.
����� ���� ������� �� � ����� �
�� = =
����� ���� �� ��������� �������� �� �ℎ� ���� ����� ��

Antenna gain is also given in dB as:

�2
�� = 10��� ��
�1
where P1 = reference power density and P2 is the density of interest.

Example
An antenna which operates in the 1.7 – 2.6 GHz range has a gain of 16.3 with reference to an
isotropic radiator. To what power ratio does this gain correspond?
�2 �2 −1
16.3
16.3 = 10��� �� = ��� = 44.7 ��
�1 �1 10
It can be shown that for an RF of wavelength λ and an antenna of aperture area A,
���
�� = �
�

Example: A 16 in. (0.41 m) diameter parabolic dish antenna for a WiFi application
operates at a frequency of 2.5 GHz. What is the antenna gain in dB?
 Radiation Fields around an Antenna

When a signal from a transmitter is applied to an antenna, it sends out electromagnetic

waves in to free space.
ü The EM field characteristics vary as a function of distance from the antenna.
ü They are broadly divided into two regions,
i. the near-field region,
ii. the far field region.
 Near Field Region
The is the region right next to the antenna. It is further divided into two parts:

1. Reactive Near Field: This is the region that is adjacent to the antenna.
Generally, to radiate or propagate the E and B fields need to be perpendicular
and in phase with each other. In this region however, the E-Field and B-Field
are 90 degrees out of phase with each other and are therefore Reactive. That
is, not all the e/m energy around the antenna is radiated by the antenna.

ü The stored energy during one oscillation or burst can be recovered and
retransmitted during successive oscillations.

ü The stored energy during one oscillation is called reactive energy

ü The fields are unpredictable and therefore no meaningful measurements

are made in near-field.
2. Radiative Near Field: This region is also known as the Fresnel Region. It is the
region
ü between the reactive near field and the far field.
ü the EM fields start to transition from reactive to radiating fields.
ü However, since they have not completely transitioned, the shape of the radiation
pattern still varies with distance.

Far Field
It the region, also called the Fraunhoffer region within which B and E are
perpendicular and all electromagnetic laws are obeyed and hence, this is the region
where meaningful measurements can be made.
 �� ��� ��� ��� �
< �. �� < > =
� � � �

where D is the longest linear dimension of the antenna aperture, λ = wavelength

and f = frequency
 Example:
At about what distance from a 1 m antenna diameter for transmitting 1800 MHz GSM
radiation can we expect to find the far-field?
� 3 × 108 1
�= = 8 = = 0.167 �
� 18 × 10 6
2 × 12
��� = = 11.97�
0.167

Radiated Power

The radiated power is the quantity of interest at different distances from the antenna
The average power density Wo at a uniformly illuminated aperture is
�
�� =
�
where P = power output and A = aperture area.

ü Because of phase differences, there are both alternating minima and maxima in
radiation intensity in the NF and the intermediate region.

ü In the near field, the maxima are four times greater than the average power density.
4�
��� = 4�� =
�
ü For safety assessment purposes, the power density throughout the NF is
considered to be 4Wo. This power density is assumed to extend over a distance:
�2
��� =
5.66�
Also, the distance from the antenna to the start of the far-field is always taken as

�2
��� =
2.83�
Within the Fresnel Zone (intermediate zone), the power level is assumed to decrease
linearly from 4Wo to 2 Wo at the end of the zone.

That is, at any distance R from the antenna, the power density within the zone is
calculated as:
4�� ���
��� =
2
�
�
For � < , the power density falls off inversely with the square of the distance so
2.83�
that at any distance R,
��� 2
��� = 2��
�
Example:
To estimate the hazards from a dipole antenna that radiates 1000W of 3,000 MHz microwave
from a circular parabolic reflector of 0.75 m in diameter, calculate:
i. The mean power density at the aperture
ii. The maximum power density in the NF
iii. The distance to the far-field
iv. The power density at a distance of 250 m
v. The distance at which the power density will be 10 mW/cm2

Solution
� 100 ��
�� = = 0.75 2
= 226.3
� � ��2
2
��
i. ��� = 4�� = 905 ��2
�2 0.75 2
ii. ��� = 2.83�
�ℎ��� � = 0.01 �. That is, ��� =
2.83×0.01
= 20 �

��� 2 ��
iii. Power density at R = 250m, �250 = 2�� = 2.9
� ��2

2�� ���
iv. Distance at which Wff = 10 mW/cm2,�10 = = 135�
�
Home Work
A rectangular horn antenna 17 x 24 cm operating at a frequency of 2,400 Hz
has an effective area of 200 cm2. If the radiated power is 100 W, calculate
i. Mean power density at the aperture
ii. Distance to Fresnel zone
iii. Distance to the far-field
iv. Power density at 1 m
v. Distance at which power density is down to 1 mW/cm2
Antenna Radiation Pattern
This is variation of the strength of waves in different directions from the antenna as
shown graphically below:
ü Each lobe represents the relative amount of energy radiated in each direction.
ü Measurement of power density on the ground is therefore in alternate
arrangement of low and high signals.
ü The maximum power density representing worst-case scenario is always used in
health effect assessment.
 Measurements of RF
Measurements of RF are carried by the measurement of either E or B (or
both), and calculating the power density from the measured values of E and B.

ü The field is probed by an antenna. In the case of a dipole antenna, a voltage

is induced across the antenna,

�����
ü The voltage is proportional to the electric field intensity: � = where l
�
is a constant of proportionality called effective length of the antenna, Emax is
the maximum electric field strength.
 �2
For far-field conditions, the power density is � = where Z is the impudence of the
�
material of the antenna which can be shown to be given by:

E2
�=
�
so that � =
�2 �2
�� P  377 H 2
� 2� 377

where 377 (Ω) is the characteristics impedance of free space.

That is, P is proportional to E2 also to H2.

This is called the power square law. Radiation survey meters are always calibrated to
read directly in the unit of power density.
RF Power Density Measuring Instruments

There are two types of RF survey instruments

1. Broadband Meters: They integrate the intensities of all frequencies within a

specified range of frequencies.

2. Spectral Analyzers: They identify each frequency, measure its intensity and
display the relative intensities of all the different frequency components in a
range of frequencies.
An RF power measuring instrument consists of the following four elements:

1. A calibrated Rx antenna to receive the RF power with a gain defined by

�
�� = ����� � (dB)
��
The common reference antenna is the isotropic antenna (i.e. P1 = Pi).
For reference to isotropic antenna, Ga is expressed in dBi.

2. An attenuator: There may be deviation from the square law if the Rx antenna
output is fed directly to the detector. There is the need for an attenuator. This is
a device used between the Rx antenna and the detector to lower the intensity
received by the detector such that the detector’s response follows the square
law. The degree of attenuation is given in decibel dB and defined by:

dB = log Pi/Po ,
where Pi = power input and Po = Power output
 Example
For a 20 dB – attenuator, the attenuation factor is
20 = 10 log Pi/Po or Pi/Po = log-1(2) = 100

For 30 dB – attenuator
30 = 10log Pi /Po, Pi /Po = log -1 (3) = 1000

3. The detector (Transducer): This is the sensor that converts the microwave energy
to voltage or current. This may be a photo or thermal sensitive probe whose output is
proportional to microwave power received.

4. The meter: This is a micro-ammeter or milli-voltmeter for measuring the current or

voltage produced due to absorption of microwave energy by the detector.
 These components are combined into a single direct reading instrument that gives
power density (W/cm2 or W/m2). The power density measured S is related to the
absorbed power and characteristics of the above components by

���
�=� �
� ��

where S = power density, P = absorbed power, α = actual attenuation factor, not decibels,
λ = wavelength. Ga= antenna gain, absolute power gain, not decibels,
 Example
A 200-ohm thermistor whose sensitivity is 25 ohms/mW is used with an antenna whose gain is 16 dB at
10,000 MHz and a 30-dB attenuator to measure the power density in a 10,000-MHz field. From the resistance
change, the absorbed power is found to be 0.4 mW. What is the power density in the microwave field?
Factors to be considered in the design of mw/rf detector.
1. The probe should be as small as possible in order to minimize the distortion of
the field by measuring instrument.

2. Polarization effect which can cause error must be considered. For instance, a
dipole antenna perpendicular to the plane of the polarization of electric field will
have no voltage induced and no MW will be detected. The plane of dipole antenna
should be parallel the plane of elm polarization. To account for polarization, a
probe consisting of three mutually perpendicular dipoles (along x,y,z axes) is used.

3. The frequency response of the antenna should be matched with frequency of the
field being measured as most detectors are freq. dependent.

4. The upper limit of the power density which the probe can measure must not be
exceeded in order to avoid burning out the probe.
 Mobile Phones
The Global System of Mobile Communication (GSM) is a digital mobile phone
service and it consists of Transceiving Base Station (TBS) antennas which
communicate with the mobile phone (hand-sets) via radio frequency
transmission (at around 900 MHz and 1800 mHz).
ü The mobile phone contains a low-powered radio transmitter and receiver
with a range of not more than 10 km.

ü The TBS is at the centre of a small cell, with a network of such cells (e.g Airtel,
MTN etc.) covering a country.
 Transceiving Base Station (TBS)
Antennas are used to focus the RF waves to targeted subscribers within a cell. The
factors that determine the size of cells in a network in a locality include:
ü The expected number of users,
ü the geography of the area and structures (buildings and hills) are.

Ø Every TBS is connected directly to the cellular exchange where there are computer
based systems to handle frequency allocation to each mobile phone switched on at a
time in the network.

Ø The cellular exchange connects a phone to the TBS with the strongest signal.

Ø During use, a connection is made from one mobile phone P1 to its TBS1, to the Cellular
Exchange (CE) to the other TBS2 and finally to the other mobile phone P2.

Ø There are local and international gateways to link networks in a country and to
networks in another country.
ü Each antenna has a horizontal beam width of 1200 such that a total of 6 antennas (3Rx and
3Tx) are necessary to guarantee azimuth coverage.

ü The radiation from these antennas is slightly tilted downward which causes maximum
exposure to occur at about 150 m from the base of each antenna.

ü The power output depends on the expected number of users at a given time.

ü A typical antenna operates at about 60W and can be as low as 10 W.

ü The number of frequencies and hence, the number of calls that a TBS can handle at a time is
limited.
 Human Exposure due to GSM
ü In a typical neighborhood today, there are other transmitters of RF signals. These
include TV, FM, AM, WiFi, Bluetooth etc.

ü In recent times GSM radiation accounts for over 80% in most environments.

ü The human exposure at a point is specified in terms of the power density (energy
per unit time per unit area) received at the point.

ü It is denoted by S and expressed in unit of W/m2 , mW/m2 or µW/m2 It is related

to the electric and magnetic fields by the expression.
��
�= = �����
���
where E is electric field strength (in V/m) and H is magnetic field strength (in A/m ).

ü Assessments of personal exposure levels are most accurately achieved through

onsite field measurements.
 Mobile Phone or Hand-Set
ü Radiofrequency signals (900 MHz or
1800 MHz) transmission and
reception between the TBS and the
Hand set

ü The mobile phone uses one

frequency to transmit and another
frequency to receive (around 900
or 1800 MHz) from the TBS in
order to allow the caller to talk and
listen at the same time.

ü The handset only transmits power

when it is turned on
 The Mobile Station (Handset)
The mobile phone set receives signals from the TBS in much the same way that a
radio set receives signals from a radio station antenna.

ü It also transmits signals (≈ 25 mW) to the TBS. It operates with peak powers in
the range of 0.1 to 2 watts.

ü While other members of the public receive energy only from the TBS antennas
within a locality, the caller receives energy from both the TBS and the mobile
transmitter for the duration of the call.

ü Since the TBS is usually many meters or kilometers away, the energy received
from it is much smaller than that from the hand-set which is just a few
millimeters from the head.
 Specific Absorption Rate (SAR)

ü Since the transmitted signals are at 900 MHz or 1800MHz (λ < 30 cm), the user’s
head is always within 1 wavelength from the transmitter, that is, within the near
field of the Tx antenna.

ü The power (and hence the exposure to a user) falls off rapidly with increasing
distance from the handset.

ü There are disturbances from the hand and the head, which complicate
measurement and calculation of absorption of RF energy and power around the
handset.

ü The absorption of energy by the tissue is given in terms of SAR which is defined
as the energy absorbed per unit time per unit mass.
Specific Absorption Rate (SAR)

ü It can be calculated from the electric field strength Emax, the conductivity σ and
the mass density ρm of the tissue from:

������
��� =
��

SAR is expressed in the unit of W/kg , mW/kg or µW/kg

Exercise: Show that SAR has a unit equivalent to Power per unit mass.
Guidelines on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection: ICNIRP
Heating effects of RF is well known.
ü Apart from the military, broadcasters also showed concerns over RF radiation.

ü The first general RF exposure standard was issued by the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) in 1966 (10 W/cm² from 10 MHz to 100 GHz).

ü An independent body, the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection

(ICNIRP) was established in 1993.

ü Membership consists of scientists working in the fields of epidemiology, biology and medicine,
physics and dosimetry and optical radiation.

ü Research on the subject of GSM and health has been very rigorous and elaborate in last 2
decades.

ü For now, guidelines are based only on short-term, immediate health effect which is: Elevation
of tissue temperatures which results from absorption of energy during exposure to EMF.
Guidelines Based on Power Density:

The frequency of EM radiation determines the energy of the radiation and also,
the way the radiation interacts with matter as it passes through.

ü Each set of guidelines therefore specifies the frequency range over which such
guidelines or limits are valid.

ü Other factors include the response (e.g electrical and thermal properties) of
each tissue to the absorbed EM radiation energy and the thermo-regulating
ability of body under heat stress.

ü The following are guidelines relevant to the GSM frequency band.

 General Public (400 – 2,000 MHz)
E-field strength (V m-1) H-field strength (A m-1) B-field (mT) Power Density Seq (Wm-2)
1.375f 1/2 0.0037f 1/2 0.0046f 1/2 f/200

Occupational Workers
E-field strength (V m-1) H-field strength (A m-1) B-field (mT) Power Density Seq (Wm-2)
3 f 1/2 0.008f 1/2 0.01f 1/2 f/40

Where f is in MHz

Guidelines Based on SAR

There are experimental evidences that exposure of resting humans for approximately 30
minutes to RF producing a whole-body SAR of between 1 – 4 W/kg results in a body
temperature increase of less than 10C (which is within homeostatic thermoregulation).

SAR > 4W/kg wholebody can overwhelm the thermo regulatory capacity of the body.
These data and others form the basis of the current ICNIR maximum exposure limit:

Whole-body (Average SAR, W/kg) Localized SAR (Head, W/kg)

Occupational Exposure: 0.40 10

General Public 0.08 2

ü They are adopted by the different countries for implementation and enforcement.

ü T h e N i g e r i a n C o m mu n i c a t i o n C o m m i s s i o n ( N C C ) i s i n c h a r g e o f t h e i r
implementation and enforcement in Nigeria.

ü Monitoring is carried out through regular measurements of RF intensities in the

different environments.