Endocrine System

A. Endocrine System
•helps control body responses
•generally slower acting than the nervous system (except adrenaline)
•glands are scattered throughout the body - connected by the bloodstream
•chemical messengers are called hormones
•endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream - they
go throughout the entire body to target cells that respond to the hormone.
•exocrine glands secrete into ducts which go directly to where they are needed
•tear, sweat glands, salivary glands, mammary glands, pancreatic fluid

•Neurosecretory cells are a second type of hormone-secreting cells that not only
conduct nerve signals but also make and secrete hormones.
B. Hormones
◻ protein molecules manufactured by our bodies
◻ come into contact with many cells but only
affect certain target cells
◻ target cells can detect the hormone and respond
◻ produced in minute amounts
◻ released in response to signals from nervous
system, other glands, or presence of some
substance in the blood

◻ the presence of a given hormone in the blood

stream inhibits its own release.
◻ hormone levels are always changing (dynamic,
not static)

Endocrine System
◻ the major glands are
◻ Pituitary Gland
◻ Thyroid Gland
◻ Parathyroid Gland
◻ Pancreas
◻ Adrenal Glands
◻ Gonads
 C. Pituitary Gland

◻ found at the base of the brain

◻ about the size of a pea
◻ previously called the ‘master gland’ because its secretions activate other glands
◻ 2 parts; - posterior pituitary
-Anterior pituitary

-Posterior Pituitary
◻ stores ADH - raises blood water levels
◻ tells nephron to become more permeable to water
◻ stores oxytocin - causes uterus contractions
during birth
◻ causes secretion of milk from mammary
glands after childbirth

ADH – Antidiuretic hormone

 Stimulates reabsorption of water by the
kidneys.

Oxytocin –
 Causes uterine contractions during birth
and secretion of milk from the mammary
glands after birth.
Anterior Pituitary
◻ produces many hormones

1. HGH – Human Growth Hormone

◻ target organ is the liver
◻ it promotes bone and muscle growth
◻ insufficient production at birth causes
dwarfism
◻ high production at birth causes giantism
◻ high production in adults causes
acromegaly- coarse features etc

2. FSH – Follicle Stimulating Hormone

◻ target organs are the testes or the ovaries
◻ stimulates development of follicle (egg)
in females and sperm in males

3. TSH – Thyroid Stimulating Hormone

◻ target organ is the thyroid gland
◻ causes it to release thyroxin (increases cell
metabolism)

4. LH – Leutinizing Hormone
◻ target organs are the testes or the ovaries
◻ causes ovulation in females and
testosterone production in males

5. ACTH – Adrenocorticotropic Hormone

◻ target organ is the adrenal cortex
◻ signals it to release its hormones (Cortisol and Aldosterone)

6. Prolactin
◻ target organ is the mammary glands
◻ stimulates milk production
D. Thyroid Gland
◻ found at the base of the neck
◻ produces 2 hormones

1. thyroxine
◻ target organ is most body cells
◻ thyroxine gives a general increase in the metabolic rate of the body
◻ essential to proper development
◻ TSH from the pituitary tells the thyroid when to release thyroxine
◻ feedback loop

Disorders:
◻ Goiter - caused by a lack of iodine in the diet
◻ iodine is needed to make thyroxine
◻ increased TSH makes the thyroid work harder but to no avail
◻ thyroid starts to swell and causes a large lump on the neck
◻ cured by addition of iodine to diet(iodized salt)

◻ hypothyroidism - not enough thyroxine being produced

◻ in adults it causes puffiness, weight gain, slower mental & physical reactions
◻ it may be reversed with thyroxine injections
◻ in infants it causes cretinism - severe mental & physical handicap

◻ hyperthyroidism - too much thyroxine produced (aka Graves’disease)

◻ causes increased blood pressure, nervousness, irritability, perspiration, release of heat
◻ may be cured by the removal of part of the gland

2. Calcitonin - produced by the thyroid

◻ lowers blood calcium levels
◻ target organ is the bones
◻ causes Ca+ to be stored in the bones
◻ too little means a weaker bone structure
E. Parathyroid Glands

◻ 4 glands found on the surface of the thyroid

◻ releases PTH - parathyroid hormone
◻ increases blood calcium levels
◻ 3 target organs
– tells the bones to release Ca2+
– tells the intestines to absorb Ca2+
– tells the kidneys to reabsorb Ca2+
◻ insufficient production causes continuous muscle contraction - Tetany
◻ release is controlled by the blood Ca2+ levels
◻ Calcitonin owers the calcium level in the blood, whereas PTH (parathyroid
hormone) raises it.
◻ said to be antagonistic because they have opposite effects.
F. Pancreas

1. Insulin - lowers blood sugar

 works in two different ways
– causes the liver & muscles to convert glucose to glycogen and store it
– causes the body cells to absorb more sugar in order to metabolize it
 Produced by the alpha cells in the islets of Langerhans.
 Release of insulin by the pancreas increases the permeability of muscle cells to
glucose – lowers blood sugar levels.
Banting and Best

2. Glucagon - causes the liver to convert glycogen to glucose

 results in increased blood sugar
 Produced by the beta cells in the islets of Langerhans.
 Release of glucagon by the pancreas stimulates the conversion of
glycogen (stored form of glucose) to glucose – increases blood sugar
levels.
G. Diabetes Mellitus - (sugar diabetes)

◻ not enough insulin is produced

◻ mild diabetes may be controlled with diet
◻ severe diabetes is controlled with insulin injections
◻ symptoms
– sugar in urine
• -heavy urination
• -weight loss
• -fatigue
• -infections on the skin
◻ blood sugar is extremely high, but cells cannot use it without insulin
◻ the body cells are starving
◻ the body starts to convert stored fat and protein into sugar
◻ the kidneys excrete the sugar and water follows along by osmosis

A diabetic is in a constant state of flux between hyperglycemia and hypoglycemia.

They need to try to stabilize their sugar levels as much as possible or serious
complications may arise.

Gestational Diabetes – sometimes during pregnancy a woman can develop diabetes.

Usually it goes away once the baby is born, but the baby and mom have to learn to
stabilize (regulate) their blood sugar levels. This is dangerous as it often leads to very
large babies being developed in a high sugar environment.

I. Adrenal Glands

◻ found on top of the kidneys

◻ two parts: cortex and medulla
1) Medulla (adrenal medulla)
◻ produces adrenaline(epinephrine) and noradrenaline(norepinephrine)
◻ linked to the hypothalamus and the sympathetic nervous system
◻ excitement or stress causes the release of adrenaline
◻ it prepares the body to meet some emergency
◻ effects: increases heart rate, relaxes bronchi, dilates pupils, dilates blood vessels,
contracts skin muscles, converts glycogen to glucose, contracts sphincter muscles
◻ Adrenaline is secreted in response to low blood levels of glucose as well as
exercise and stress;
– it causes the breakdown of the storage product glycogen to the sugar glucose in
the liver,
– facilitates the release of fatty acids from adipose (fat) tissue,
– causes dilation (widening) of the small arteries within muscle
– increases the output of the heart.
◻ Noradrenaline is a neurohormone, a neurotransmitter, for of most of the so-
called sympathetic nervous system.

2) Cortex (adrenal cortex)

◻ produces cortisol - causes liver to convert amino acids to glucose
◻ used during prolonged stress (ie - pregnancy, illness)
◻ helps relieve arthritic pain (antinflammatory)
◻ produces aldosterone - increased Na and water retention by the kidneys.

J. Gonads

1. Testes - the interstitial cells produce testosterone

◻ testosterone is activated at puberty by LH
◻ causes the secondary sexual characteristics in males
◻ deepening of voice
◻ hair on body
◻ hair on face
◻ muscle development and inhibition of fat deposits

2. Ovaries - produces two hormones

◻ estrogen - produced when FSH tells the follicle to develop
◻ at puberty initiates secondary sexual characteristics
◻ breast development
◻ body hair
◻ widening of hips
◻ increases fat deposits
◻ its role on a monthly basis is the development of the endometrium
◻ progesterone - produces by the corpus luteum in the ovary
◻ prepares the uterus for possible implantation

K. Other Glands:
◻ Thymus - located beneath sternum:
– helps build immunities
– disappears in adults
◻ Pineal - located above cerebellum
-It secretes a hormone called melatonin also known as sleep hormone.
◻ Kidney - secretes renin -constricts arterioles
– secretes erythropoietin - increases RBC
◻ Stomach -produces gastrin -HCl production
◻ Duodenum - produces secretin - release of bile and sodium bicarbonate.
 Endocrine
Hormone secreted Effects of hormone on target tissues/organs
gland
hypothalamus hypothalamic regulates anterior pituitary hormones
releasing- and
inhibiting-hormone
anterior human growth stimulates cell division, bone and muscle growth, and metabolic
pituitary hormone (hGH) functions
thyroid-stimulating stimulates the thyroid gland
hormone (TSH)
adrenocorticotropic stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids
hormone (ACTH)
follicle-stimulating stimulates production of ova and sperm from the ovaries and testes
hormone (FSH)
luteinizing hormone stimulates sex hormone production from the ovaries and testes
(LH)
prolactin (PRL) stimulates milk production from the mammary glands
posterior antidiuretic hormone promotes the retention of water by the kidneys
pituitary (ADH)
oxytocin (OCT) stimulates uterine muscle contractions and release of milk by the
mammary glands
thyroid thyroxine (T4) affects all tissues
increases metabolic rate and regulates growth and development
calcitonin targets bones and kidneys to lower blood calcium from bone and
reabsorption of calcium by kidneys
parathyroid parathyroid hormone raises blood calcium levels by stimulating the bone cells to release
(PTH) calcium, the intestine to absorb calcium from food, and the kidneys
to reabsorb calcium
adrenal cortex glucocorticoids (e.g., stimulate tissues to raise blood glucose and break down protein
cortisol)
mineralocorticoids promote reabsorption of sodium and water by the kidneys
(e.g., aldosterone)
gonadocorticoids promote secondary sexual characteristics
adrenal medulla epinephrine and fight-or-flight hormones
norepinephrine raise blood glucose levels
pancreas insulin lowers blood glucose levels and promotes the formation of
glycogen in the liver
glucagon raises blood glucose levels
ovaries estrogen stimulates uterine lining growth and promotes development of the
female secondary sexual characteristics
progesterone promotes growth of the uterine lining and prevents uterine muscle
contractions
testes testosterone promotes sperm formation and development of the male secondary
sexual characteristics